What is Role of Memory in Behaviorism?

Memory is the hardwiring of repeated experiences, where reward and punishment are most influential
in Behaviorism.

What is teacher talk?

“Everything that a teacher says in a classroom”. - The language used by the teacher for instruction in the
classroom is known as teacher talk. - Longman dictionary of language teaching and applied linguistics
defines it as “that variety of language sometimes used by teachers when they are in the process of
teaching”. - Teacher talk is used in class when teachers are conducting instructions, cultivating their
intellectual ability and managing classroom activities. - Teacher talk is a kind of communication-based or
instruction-based talk.

What are Open questions?

Open questions prompt longer answers. - They usually begin with what, why, how. - An open question
asks the respondent for his or her knowledge, opinion or feelings. - Tell me and describe can also be
used as an open question. Examples: Tell me what happened next. o Describe the circumstances in more
detail. Usage Developing an open conversation: what did you learn?

What is Differentiation?

A teacher’s response to learner’s needs. • The recognition of students varying background knowledge
and preferences. • Instruction that accommodates students’ differences. • Whenever a teacher reaches
out to an individual or small group to vary his or her teaching in order to create the best learning
experience possible, that teacher is differentiating instruction.

What is Evaluation?

Evaluation is about the ability to judge the value of material (statement, novel, poem, research report
for a given purpose). - The learner makes decisions based on in-depth reflection, criticism and
assessment.

What is Forgetting?

Gradual cessation of a response as a result of passage of time with no repetition of the behavior during
this time.

What is law of Effect?

Responses which occur just prior to a satisfying state of affairs are more likely to be repeated, and
responses just prior to an annoying state of affairs are more likely NOT to be repeated.

What is law of exercise?

The idea that bonds between stimulus and response are strengthened by recency, frequency, and
contiguity.
What is negative reinforce?

A stimulus which when taken away from a situation increases the probability of a response occuring.
(note that both positive and negative reinforcement increase the probability of a response or behavior
occuring)

What is reinforcement?

The notion that learning takes place because of the consequences of a behavior. This could be a
pleasant consequence, removal of something unpleasant, or both.

What is schema?

An element of a cognitive structure. Schema refers to a general potential to perform a class of

behaviors, and content describes the conditions that prevail during any particular example of that
potential being activated.

What is stimulus?

Sensory input from the environment that may cause some response or behavior in a subject.

What is behaviorism?

Term to describe theories of learing which emphasize observalbe componenets of behavior

What are conditioned response?

A response elicited by a conditioned stimulus as a result of classical condition .salivation in pavlovs dog

What is Hawthorne effect?

“an increase in worker productivity produced by the psychological stimulus of being singled out and
made to feel important”5) (for example for the fact that one is being studied)"

What is theory?

One or more ideas that explain how or why something happens the set of general principles that a
particular subject is based on

What is paradigm?

A set of ideas that are used for understanding or explaining something, especially in a particular subject
A typical example or model of something

What is Learning?

Acquisition of knowledge and skill through study and experience is called learning.
What is cognition?

Cognition is related to mental abilities.

What is active learning?

A process of learning new ideas, skills and attitudes through what we do at work or in other behavioral
situations. It is about learning from doing, performing, and taking action. The action can be either
mental (e.g. reflection) or physical (e.g. case study). It uses such devices as games, simulations,
introspection, role playing,

What is affective domain?

A classification of objectives that focus on the development of attitudes, beliefs, and values. Affective
learning is about gaining new perceptions (e.g., self-confidence, responsibility, respect, dependability,
and personal relations). Receiving: Aware of, passively attending to certain stimuli. Responding:
Complies to given expectations by reacting to stimuli. Valuing: Displays behavior consistent with single
belief or attitude in situations where not forced to obey. Organizing: Committed to a set of values as
displayed by behavior. Characterizing: Total behavior consistent with internalized values.

What is attitude?

A persisting feeling or emotion of a person that influences choice of action and response to stimulus.
Defined as a disposition or tendency to respond positively or negatively towards a certain thing (idea,
object, person, situation). Attitudes encompass, or are closely related to, opinions and beliefs and are
based upon our experiences. Training that produces tangible results starts by changing behavior that
ultimately changes attitudes. The term attitude is also known as the affective domain.

What is Bloom's Taxonomy?

Benjamin Bloom and colleagues developed a hierarchical domain model of educational activities:
Cognitive, Affective, and Psychomotor.

What is competency?

(1) Areas of personal capability that enable people to perform successfully in their jobs by completing
task effectively. A competency can be knowledge, attitudes, skills, values, or personal values.
Competency can be acquired through talent, experience, or training. (2) Competency comprises the
specification of knowledge and skill and the application of that knowledge and skill to the standard of
performance required in employment.

What are the Piaget's stages?

Piaget gave his cognitive learning theory. It has four stages: 1. Sensorimotor stage 2. Preoperational
stage 3. Concrete operational stage 5. Formal operational stage

Who was Vygotsky?

Vygotsky was a Russian Psychologist and he gave the social cognitive theory.
What are the domains of learning?

There are three domains of learning: Cognitive Psychomotor Affective.

What is Classical conditioning?

A learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired.

What is operant conditioning?

Operant conditioning, sometimes referred to as instrumental learning, is a method of learning that

occurs through rewards and punishments for behaviour.

What is social constructivism?

Social constructivism is a sociological theory of knowledge that applies the general philosophical
constructivism into social settings, wherein groups construct knowledge for one another, collaboratively
creating a small culture of shared artifacts with shared meanings.

Lecture One –

Learning is commonly defined as: A process that brings together.

Cognitive (mental, intellectual, reasoning) •

Emotional, and

Environmental influences and experiences

Learning is commonly defined as: For acquiring, enhancing or making changes in one’s

• Knowledge • Skills • Values, and • Worldwide views

Learning as a quantitative increase in knowledge: Knowing a lot

. Learning as acquiring facts, skills and methods to retain and use

Learning can be retained by different methods and skills/retention is important as the mind is a black
box

Leaning as product focus on the outcome – this approach highlights on outcome of products

Learning as process : what happens when learning takes place and its factor
Topic 18: Watson and Little albert’s Case Study

John B. Watson: ( 1920) An American psychologist who is considered the founder of behaviorism, which
emphasizes observable behavior over internal mental states.

Little Albert: The pseudonym given to a 9-month-old infant named Albert B. who was the subject of the
experiment.

Findings

 Conditioned Fear Response: The study successfully showed that emotional responses could be
conditioned, supporting the behaviorist view that behavior can be learned through conditioning.

 Stimulus Generalization: Little Albert's fear extended beyond the white rat to other similar
stimuli, illustrating the concept of generalization in classical conditioning.

Lesson no 4

There are two types of possible conditioning o Classical o Operan

Classical Conditioning

Operant Conditioning

Classical Conditioning Learning by association –

A natural reflex that occurs in response to a stimulus. - A naturally occurring stimulus is placed with a
neutral stimulus allowing the neutral stimulus to, in time, evoke a natural reflex. - Our response is
involuntary. - Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) discovered Classical Conditioning - In his digestive research,
Pavlov noticed that dogs salivated in absence of food and smell. - This led him to another very important
study.

Topic 17: Pavlov Study

Ivan Pavlov was a Russian scientist known for his research on classical conditioning, a concept that
shows how we can learn to associate one thing with another. His most famous experiment involved
dogs, and here’s a simple breakdown of what he did and what he found.

Topic 19: Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning (or instrumental conditioning) is a type of learning
in which an individual's behavior is modified by its antecedents and consequence

Operant Conditioning in Simple Words

Operant conditioning is a way of learning that focuses on how we can change our behavior based on
rewards and punishments. Here's a simple breakdown of how it works:

B.F. Skinner was an American psychologist known for his work in behaviorism, particularly for
developing the concept of operant conditioning. One of his most famous experiments involved a device
known as the Skinner Box (or operant conditioning chamber), which he used to study how animals learn
through reinforcement and punishment.

he studies conducted by John B. Watson with Little Albert, Ivan Pavlov with his classical conditioning
experiments, and B.F. Skinner with the Skinner Box all contributed significantly to the field of
psychology, particularly in understanding learning and behavior. However, they focus on different
aspects of conditioning and learning. Here’s a comparison of the three:

1. Focus of the Study

 Watson and Little Albert:

o Focus: Classical Conditioning of Emotions

o Watson aimed to demonstrate that emotional responses could be conditioned,

specifically fear. Little Albert was conditioned to fear a white rat by pairing it with a
loud, frightening noise.

 Pavlov's Study:

o Focus: Classical Conditioning of Reflexive Behaviors

o Pavlov’s research focused on the physiological responses of dogs. He demonstrated that

dogs could learn to associate a neutral stimulus (the sound of a bell) with an
unconditioned stimulus (food), resulting in a conditioned response (salivation).

 B.F. Skinner and the Skinner Box:

o Focus: Operant Conditioning

o Skinner focused on how behaviors can be shaped through reinforcement and

punishment. The Skinner Box was used to study how animals (usually rats or pigeons)
learned to perform behaviors (like pressing a lever) to receive rewards or avoid
punishments.

Type of Conditioning

 Watson and Little Albert:

o Type: Classical Conditioning

o Little Albert learned to associate the rat (neutral stimulus) with fear (conditioned
response) due to the loud noise (unconditioned stimulus).
  Pavlov's Study:

o Type: Classical Conditioning

o Pavlov's dogs learned to associate the bell (neutral stimulus) with food (unconditioned
stimulus), leading to salivation (conditioned response).

 B.F. Skinner and the Skinner Box:

o Type: Operant Conditioning

o Skinner's experiments involved learning behaviors through consequences. Pressing the

lever (behavior) resulted in a reward (positive reinforcement) or a punishment (negative
reinforcement).

While all three studies significantly advanced our understanding of learning and behavior, they differ in
their focus, mechanisms, and implications. Watson and Pavlov focused on classical conditioning, while
Skinner emphasized operant conditioning. Each contributed to the development of behavioral
psychology and laid the groundwork for various therapeutic and educational practices.

Edward Thorndike and the Law of Effect

Edward Thorndike was an American psychologist best known for his work on the learning process in
animals and humans. One of his significant contributions to psychology is the Law of Effect, which lays
the foundation for understanding how behaviors are shaped by their consequences.

Comparison Summary

Feature Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning

Associative learning between Learning based on consequences of

Nature of Learning
stimuli behavior

Involuntary, reflexive (emotional Voluntary behavior (actions we

Type of Response
responses) choose)

Key Figure Ivan Pavlov B.F. Skinner

Pavlov's dogs salivating at the

Example A rat learning to press a lever for food
sound of a bell

Relationship between behavior and

Focus Relationship between stimuli
consequences

Reinforcement/Punishment Not applicable Central concepts in shaping behavior

Topic 34: Allan Paivio Dual Coding Theory He proposed that presenting information both visually and
verbally enhances recognition and recall. We have two keys of processing information:
1. Visual Channel

2. Verbal Channel - When both visual and verbal representations are used, people both process and
remember the information more effectively. –

Paivio’s work has implications in many areas including human factors, interface design as well as the
development of educational material

Lesson 07 Constructivism Third Major Domin

Topic 37 : Constructivism Paradigm Introduction

The constructivist paradigm transforms the educational landscape by emphasizing the learner's active
role in constructing knowledge. This approach fosters critical thinking, problem-solving, and
collaboration, preparing students for the complexities of the real world. By creating engaging, relevant,
and supportive learning environments, educators can help students develop a deeper understanding of
concepts and a lifelong love of learning.

Topic 38 Core Idea

The core idea of constructivism is that learners actively construct their own understanding and
knowledge of the world through experiences and reflection. Rather than simply receiving information
from teachers or texts, students engage with material, relate it to their prior knowledge, and build new
understandings based on their interactions with their environment and peers.

Topic 39: Evolution of Constructivism

The evolution of constructivism as an educational philosophy and theory has been shaped by various
thinkers and movements over time. Here’s an overview of its development:

1. Early Influences (Late 19th – Early 20th Century)

 John Dewey: Often considered a precursor to constructivism, Dewey emphasized experiential

learning and the importance of education in fostering democratic citizenship. He argued that
education should be grounded in real-life experiences and that students learn best when
actively engaged.

 Jean Piaget: A key figure in developmental psychology, Piaget proposed that children construct
knowledge through stages of cognitive development. His work focused on how children interact
with their environment and the processes of assimilation and accommodation that lead to
knowledge construction.

2. Social Constructivism (Mid 20th Century)

 Lev Vygotsky: Vygotsky introduced the idea of social constructivism, highlighting the role
of social interaction and cultural context in learning. His concepts of the Zone of Proximal
Development (ZPD) and scaffolding emphasized that learners can achieve higher
levels of understanding with support from more knowledgeable others (teachers, peers).
  Jerome Bruner: Bruner contributed to constructivist thought by advocating for discovery
learning, where students learn through exploration and problem-solving. He emphasized the
importance of understanding the structure of knowledge and making learning relevant to
students’ lives.

 The concept of constructivism has roots in classical antiquity. - Goes back to Socrates’s dialogue
– asked his followers directed questions that led students to realize for themselves the
weaknesses in their thinking

3. Cognitive Revolution (1970s)

 The cognitive revolution shifted focus to how people think and learn, supporting constructivist
ideas about the active role of learners in knowledge construction. Researchers explored how
cognitive processes, such as memory and problem-solving, influence learning.

Topic 40: Theoretical Framework – Social ConstructivisM

Two schools of thought fall within the Constructivist view: -

Social Constructivism –

Cognitive constructivism –

Lev Vygotsky discovered how meanings and understandings grow out of social encounters. - Zone of
Proximal development: ZPD children, working on their own rarely do as well, as when they work in
collaboration with an adult. - The process of engagement with the adult enables them to refine their
thinking or their performance (the more knowledgeable other MKO) - Social interaction precedes
development

Topic 41: Cognitive Constructivism

Jean Piaget discovered how the individual learner understands things, in terms of developmental stages
and learning styles. There are two components:

1. Ages and stages: predicts what children can and cannot understand at different ages.

2. Theory of development:

 Humans cannot be given information, which they immediately understand and use. –
 Learners must construct their own knowledge, they build their knowledge through experience.
 Experiences enable them to create schemas – metal models of the world

The theory of development encompasses a wide range of perspectives that explore how individuals
grow and change throughout their lives. Understanding these theories is crucial for educators, parents,
and practitioners, as they inform approaches to teaching, learning, and supporting individual growth in
various contexts. Each theory offers valuable insights into the complex processes of human
development, highlighting the interplay of cognitive, social, emotional, and environmental factors.
Topic 42 Assimilation and Accomodation

Assimilation and accommodation are key concepts in Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development,
describing how individuals integrate new information and experiences into their existing cognitive
frameworks. Here's a breakdown of each concept:

1. Assimilation

Definition: Assimilation is the process of incorporating new information into existing schemas (mental
frameworks). When individuals encounter new experiences, they interpret them based on what they
already know.

Example: If a child who knows about dogs sees a cat for the first time and calls it a "dog," they are using
assimilation. They are fitting the new information (the cat) into their existing schema (the idea of a dog)
without changing that schema.

2. Accommodation

 Definition: Accommodation occurs when individuals modify their existing schemas or create
new ones in response to new information that doesn't fit their current understanding. This
process is essential for adapting to new experiences.

 Example: Continuing from the previous example, when the child learns that a cat is not a dog
and recognizes its distinct features (like purring and meowing), they adjust their existing schema
for pets. They create a new category or modify their understanding to include "cat" as a
different type of animal.

Topic 43: John Dewey John Dewey’s Philosophy:

 Education starts with the needs and interests of the child. –

 Employs project method or group learning. –
 Depends heavily on experiential learning
 Ideas are not separate from social conditions. –
 Children are active, organic begins… needing both freedom and responsibility. –
 Allow the child to participate in planning her course of study.
Dewey’s Role for Teacher
 : - Not the authoritarian but the facilitator. –
 Encourages, offers suggestions, questions and helps plan and implement courses of study.
 - Has command of several disciplines