Dynamics of Human Behaviour

Behavior: Definition and meaning

 Behavior refers to any observable and measurable action, reaction, or response displayed
by an individual or an organism in response to internal or external stimuli.
 Any manifestation of life is activity says Wood Worth and behavior is a collective name
for these activities. Therefore, behavior includes all.
a. Motor or conative activities
b. Cognitive (thought)
c. Affective (mental affection)
 It not only includes conscious behavior and activities of the human mind but even
conscious and unconscious mind.
 Hence, it covers overt behavior as well as inner mental processes.
 Behavior is not limited to human behavior.
 The behavior of an animal, insects, birds, and even plants, in other words, the behavior of
all living organisms in all walks of life.
 The behavior refers to the entire life activities and experiences of all living organisms.
 Behavior is continuous and not static.
 Every moment we respond and react to the environment.
 We understand behavior when we know what caused or made the person do it.
 We evaluate behavior when we approve or disapprove it.
 Behavior is always the product of two things:
a. The nature of the individual or organism that behaves.
b. The nature of the situation in which the individual finds oneself.
 human behavior refers to the actions, reactions, and responses displayed by individuals
in different situations and environments.
 It includes both observable behaviors such as gestures and language, as well as internal
processes like thoughts and emotions.
 Behavior is any activity which can be:
o Observed
o Recorded
 o Measured
 Individuals behave within an environment.
 It is human nature to respond to stimulus situations created by the internal and external
environment.
 All societies, organizations, and community groups are composed of individuals with
different personalities, and attitudes.
 Advancements in technology have altered human behavior in various ways such as
communication.
 Human behavior is dynamic and changes due to different factors that influence the
individual.
A. Biological/psychological factors
o Genetic
o Sex differences
o Life span stage
o Nutrition
o Illness and psychological activity
B. Psychological factors
o Cognition
o Perception
o Emotion
o Attitudes
o Memory
o Lack of psychological needs
C. Social cultural factors
o Social norms/values
o Family structure
o Religious beliefs
o Education
 Understanding human behavior allows us to gain insights into our actions, motivations,
and interactions with others.
  By exploring the factors that influence human behavior we can develop a deeper
appreciation for the diversity and adaptability of human conduct.
Conclusion
 all behavior has meaning and people express and fulfill their needs through behavior.
 Behavior helps in understanding the psychological background of many social problems.
 Therefore, it's important to understand the Behavior.

Social Environment
 Refers to the immediate physical and social setting in which people live and in which
something happens or develops.
 It includes people and institutions with whom they interact and the culture in which the
individual is educated and lives.
 An individual is constantly interacting with his social environment and striving to fulfill
one's needs.
 Hence one's behavior is influenced by interaction with social environment.
 Our interaction with the social environment influences our ability to get along.
 Person in the environment- includes all systems with which the person interacts along
with the transaction with the people and systems.
 People and their environment are seen as a unified whole in which various parts are
interdependent.
 People are influenced by the environment and people too influence the environment by
their actions.
 By understanding Human Behavior and social environment one seeks to understand the
feelings, thoughts, and actions of people, the human systems in the environment, and the
transactions between them.
 When the interaction between these two systems is balanced both benefit-inter
interrelationships are formed and a certain level of interdependence exists.
 Change in one part of the system influences the other part of the system.
 When interaction and transaction are out of balance, then an imbalance exists between the
needs of the person and the resources available to meet these needs.
 This leads to a need for social work intervention.

Social Environment & Behavior

  Social environment- family, peers, community, school, workplace, culture, societal
norms, life events, media, and technology that surround an individual.
 Social interactions, relationships, and cultural values, profoundly influence how
individuals behave and perceive the world around them.

Family Environment & Behavior

 Family- influences values, attitudes, and behaviors from an early age.
 Home environment (favorable/unfavorable)
 Care, concern, and expectation from family.

School Environment & Behavior

 School environment-favorable/unfavorable
 Teachers- relations, treatment, acceptance, rejection
 Peers- relations, treatment, acceptance, rejection

Peer Influence & Behavior

 Peer plays a significant role during adolescence and beyond. As individuals seek
acceptance and belonging within their social group.

Workplace
 Authorities
 Subordinates
 Colleagues
 Work environment-demands, works, pressure, facilities, salary- favorable/unfavorable

Cultural Impact on Behavior

 Cultural norms, customs, traditions, religious beliefs, and practices.
 Values, attitudes, prejudices, opinions.
 All shape individuals' behaviors and perceptions of acceptable conduct.
Social Norms & Socialization
 Social norms are unwritten rules that govern acceptable behavior within a society or
group. E.G., gender stereotype behaviors

Social Determinants of Health

 Determinants Factors like income, education, and access to healthcare influence
individual well-being and behavior.

Socio-economic Status & Behavior

 Affects: opportunities, and life choices, impacting access to education, healthcare, and
job opportunities.

Media & Technology Influence

 Shaping opinions
 Consumer choices
 Social interactions

Individual Choices
 Lifestyles
 Habits
 Lifestyles Practiced due to interaction with the social environment determines behavior.

Life Events & Behavior

 Disasters, accidents, loss, failure, riots, war, conflict/terrorism.
 The ability to respond effectively to the demands of life is known as adaptation.
 Social work unlike many other human service professions sees 'social adaptation as one
of its primary areas of expertise'.
 The ability to respond effectively to the demands of life is known as adaptation.
  Social work unlike many other human service professions sees social adaptations as one
of its primary areas of expertise.
 In social life or social environment, people must adapt to many occurrences and
situations.
 Personal relationships
 Change in work schedules
 Living habits
 Major events (conflict, war, poor economy, disaster)
 All require good coping skills from everyone.
 Adaptation can be enhanced by
A. Expanding space in a person's environment.
B. Increasing the person's behavioral competence in adapting to environmental factors.
 Understanding the process of adaptation to the social environment is vital to the social
work profession.

Conclusion
 Human behavior is significantly influenced by the social environment.
 Understanding this dynamic relationship and recognizing the influence of the social
environment on human behavior, is essential for social workers.
 Hence, we can plan initiatives and interventions that promote the well-being of
individuals and groups.

Social Functioning
Introduction
 Social functioning includes the activities related to the variety of social experiences of
daily living.
 Interaction among individuals, groups, and social systems is a continuous process.
 An individual functions in a socially acceptable way when his or her activities result in
satisfying experiences in daily living.
 Any obstacle to role performance creates problems in social functioning.
Definition
  Social Functioning involves addressing common Human needs that must be adequately
met to enable individuals to achieve a reasonable degree of fulfillment and to function as
productive and contributing members of Society (Hepworth and Larsen, 1993)
 In the Social Work View (Barker 1999) Social Functioning relates to - fulfilling one's
role in society in general, to those in the immediate Environment, and oneself.
 These functions include meeting one's own basic needs and those of one's dependents and
making positive contributions to Society.
 Human Needs: include Physical aspects (food shelter, health care & protection)
 Need for Personal Fulfillment Education. recreation, values, aesthetics, religion, and
accomplishment
 Emotional needs Sense of belongingness, mutual caring, and companionship. An
adequate Self-concept (self-confidence, self-esteem, and Identity)
 For Individuals SF involves
o Striving towards meeting basic needs
o Establishing Positive relationships
o Achieving personal Growth and Adjustment
Many individuals seek supportive assistance from social service delivery systems to enhance
social Functioning.
 For another Human systems SF Involves
(Groups, Organizations, and communities) enhance their capacity for Social Functioning by
o Developing resources
o Promoting harmony among members
o Creating dynamic opportunities for growth and change
For all Human systems, the source of improvement of social systems may be
 "Within the system itself
 lies in creating changes in other social structures
Types of Social Functioning
1. Prosocial Social Functioning:
Prosocial behavior involves actions that benefit others and contribute to the well-being
of the community.
2. Empathy and Emotional Regulation
 Empathy is the ability to understand and share the feelings of others, while emotional regulation
is the capacity to manage one's emotions appropriately.
3. Occupational or Work Functioning:
Occupational functioning refers to an individual's ability to perform job-related tasks and
responsibilities effectively.
4. Family and Interpersonal Functioning
Family and interpersonal functioning involve healthy relationships with family members,
friends, and peers.
5. Community Involvement and Civic Engagement
Active participation in community activities, while civic engagement involves contributing to
societal improvement.
6. Social Skills and Communication
Social skills and effective communication are essential for successful social functioning.
7. Adaptive Coping and Resilience
Adaptive coping strategies and resilience help individuals navigate life's challenges and maintain
their social functioning during difficult times.
SF results in Three Types of Behavioral outcomes:
 Effective SF
 At Risk SF
 Difficulties in SF

 Effective SF
Individuals/groups use personal, interpersonal, and institutional resources available and
accessible to deal with their problems/issues and needs.
They recognize their problems and take the necessary steps to resolve them
They can cope, adapt, and make adjustments in their immediate environment
 At Risk SF
Individuals or groups are at risk of difficulties in social functioning. i.e. they are vulnerable to
specific problems, though some problems have yet to surface.
Identifiable conditions exist that could harm Social Functioning
 Unemployment, Alcohol & Drug Use, and Illness make children and young people at risk for
abuse and neglect. Elderly and Children from dysfunctional families are vulnerable to problems
Through case finding, social service delivery network attempts can identify individuals, and
groups in the population that are at risk and offer services to them before the onset of actual
problems
Prevention activities are usually supportive, informational & Educational
Social work efforts may be directed toward systems that face 'At Risk' conditions.
 Difficulties in SF
In some systems, problems become so acute(bad)that the ability to cope is diminished or the
system is immobilized and is unable to initiate a change process.
Here Behaviour of an Individual or Group is dysfunctional.
E.g. Depression, Marital conflict/separation, Addiction, High level of worker stress in Industry,
etc.
Factors that influence Social Functioning
 Internal Pressures
 Environmental Forces
Environmental stressors
o Poverty
o poor health care
o Inadequate education(illiteracy)
o Unemployment
o discrimination, suppression of civil rights,
o lack of quality education,
o Abuse etc
All these press on Individuals & create barriers that lead to problems in functioning
Enrichments
 Resources that Individuals can use to improve their SF and enhance their well-being.
 Enrichments such as access to
 Health care
 securing civil rights
  civil liberties
 creating job opportunities
 appropriate legal provisions
 adequate housing etc
Conclusion
 We should alleviate Environmental stress and bring about Enrichment.
 The pressure of Environmental conditions affects the competence of individuals & their
levels of social functioning
 Social workplaces' Primary attention is on man's relationships with other human beings.
 It focuses on how & with what effectiveness the person performs various 'Social roles'.
 By understanding the relationship between human behavior and social functioning, we
can promote positive social interactions, resilience, and overall social well-being in
individuals and communities.

Human Behavior
 • The mission of the Social Work Profession as well as statements of goals & Objectives
implicitly concern 'Human Needs' and 'Human Strengths'.
 • Human Needs are the substance of the social work profession-the impetus for social
work activities
 • Human Strengths are the building blocks of social work A source of energy for
developing solutions.
 • Study of HB helps us to understand Human Needs and how to
enhance Human strengths
 Goals of Social Work
 • Enhancing People's capacities to resolve problems, cope, and function effectively
 • Linking clients with needed resources
 • Improve Social service delivery network
 • Promoting Social Justice through the development of Social Policy
 • HB helps in understanding the psychological background of many social problems and
why one behaves in a particular way.
 • HB helps to reduce problems in Human relationships and improve social functioning.
 Social work is based on 3 aspects
 a) Person is important
 b) That person has a personal, family, and community problem
 c) That something can be done to alleviate these problems and enrich individual's living.

 • HB helps us to understand why and what can be done. e.g school dropout
 • Social work focuses on the 'wholeness and totality of person' i.e. encompassing the
person, his/her Environment, and Behaviour.
 • Therefore, the study of HB helps us to understand this totality of a person.
 • Client's behavior includes- problems in functioning, coping patterns, faulty adjustments,
etc.
 • HB helps to understand problems in functioning, coping patterns and faulty
adjustments i.e. helps to understand the strengths and weaknesses of persons.
 • Study of HB helps to understand the functioning of the mind
 • HB helps to understand Human growth and development to address problems at
different developmental stages.
 HB helps to understand attitude, thinking, and feelings. perception etc. of a client
 HB helps us to study group Behaviour/functioning - opinion, prejudices, beliefs,
propaganda, attitude, etc. which helps in working with groups.
 • HB knowledge helps social workers to understand clients better.
 • HB helps to understand the client and his social functioning.
 • Social workers confront problems like child abuse, alcoholism, substance abuse,
conflict with the law, child neglect, disability, family problems, and Elderly. health
problems, domestic violence, etc. hence knowledge of HB is essential.
 • HB is essential in Industry to select the right person for the right job
 • HB Helps to understand the causes of problems of individuals of different population
groups, areas, and situations.
 • HB helps in the rehabilitation of addicts, Victims of Violence, Disasters, and trauma.
 • HB helps to understand problems of labor
 - absenteeism and poor performance
 • HB knowledge enables Social Workers to address emotional and interpersonal
problems.
 • Knowledge of HB helps to effectively conduct Preventive, curative, and
Promotive services
 • In Social work Practice we need to study, assess, and diagnose clients /
Groups/Organizations and problem situations- knowledge of HB will help us with it.
 • Knowledge of HB will help in the effective practice of methods of social work.
(Direct methods)
 • Social work is a response to a concern or Need
 • Human situations and Human Needs are complex
 • Social Worker requires a frame of reference to understand the reasons behind behaviors
& Environmental factors that influence behavior.
 • Study of HB helps us to achieve this.
 Conclusion
 • The ultimate goal/aim of a social worker is to empower Individual group or community
 • To achieve it Knowledge of Human Behaviour is essential.

Heredity And Environment

HEREDITY - MEANING
 Heredity is a Biological Mechanism through which a child obtains something in terms of
specific species or ancestral characteristics by which he can trace his individuality from his
ancestral stock through his parents.
 Heredity is obtaining something in the form of inheritance.
 Just as we inherit land, money, and other assets from parents
 Heredity is an inborn genetic Endowment that people receive from parents/ancestors.
 According to Genetics this transmission occurs at the time of conception of a child in the
womb of a mother.
 The science of Genetics is concerned with the way certain characteristics are transmitted
through the species and a family to an individual or organism
 Conception / Fertilization Union of female cell (Ovum) and male cell (sperm).
 At birth in females - 4,00,000 immature ova exist in the 2 ovaries.
 Ovulation begins from menstruation till menopause.
 Ovum -largest cell in the human body.
 Sperm -Smallest cell in the Human body.
 Sperms are produced in the testes or reproductive glands of a mature male (several
hundred million)
 Technically fertilized Egg cell is called a 'Zygote'.
 Zygote multiplies itself again and again into millions of cells. Each cell carries 23 pairs of
chromosomes.
 The nucleus of the Zygote contains chromosomes that always exist in pairs.
 Human Zygote has 23 pairs (46) Chromosomes
 22 pairs are Autosomes & 23 chromosomes are sex chromosomes Male - XY Female - XX

 Each Chromosome consists of a string of bead-like particles or threadlike structures called

genes.
 Genes are the true carriers of 'Heredity'.
 They determine the inherited characteristics i.e. Physical & Psychological traits of an
individual e.g. color of skin & eyes, height. skin texture, intelligence, temperament, etc.
 The most important constituent of Genes is DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)
 DNA carries the program that tells each cell in the body what specific functions it will
perform and how it will perform them.
 RNA - is formed from DNA used to generate protein (assists DNA in carrying out genetic
message from parent to offspring)
 Human beings have more than 1,00,000 genes distributed among 46 chromosomes.
 Meiosis
ROLE OF GENES
 Gregor Mendel discovered the role of genes through his experiments on Garden Peas & Fruit
flies.
 He discovered that some genes are Dominant and some are Recessive
 Like chromosomes genes also occur in pairs
 Each one of the parents
An offspring may develop gene pair in the following forms:
a) A dominant gene from one parent and recessive gene from another (Aa)
b) Dominant Gene from both parents (AA)
c) Recessive Gene from both parents (aa)
Common Heredity Traits

Characters Dominant T Recessive T

Eye color Black/brown Blue

Tongue Rolling Non-Rolling

Hand Right Handedness Left

Handedness

Rh Blood Group Positive Negative

Color vision Normal Color Blind

Ear Lobe Free Attached

Lips Thick thin

CHROMOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES OR GENETIC DISORDERS

 Down's Syndrome (Mongolism)
 XYY syndrome
 Klinefelter's Syndrome (XXY)
 Turner's Syndrome (XO)
ENVIRONMENT
 Environment refers to factors in and around the individual that stimulate and bring physical
and psychological changes.
 According to Woodworth Environment covers all the outside factors that have acted on the
individual since he began life.
 Heredity is what happens at the time of conception and what happens later is the
game of environment.
TYPES OF ENVIRONMENTS
 Internal Envi: from conception till birth
 The embryo receives nutrition through the mother's bloodstream
 Physical & mental health of the mother including habits, attitudes, and interests constitute
inner Envi. It affects the growth & development of the child including future Behavior.
Malnutrition of mother- such as
 vitamin deficiency, "excessive alcohol intake,
 excessive smoking, "use of drugs, *prolonged stress, diseases like
 diabetes, "cancer, "T.B., "Rubella, "Veneral diseases, etc of the mother affects fetal growth.
 This child to be born will develop Physical or Mental handicap or both i.e Mental retardation,
Cleft pallet, Blindness, etc.,
 Hypo or Hyperactivity of Endocrine functioning (hormonal imbalance) results in
deformities/disabilities.
 Chemical characteristics of Blood (PKU- Phenylketonuria, Schizophrenia, Mood Disorders)
 Intracellular environment where Cells press upon each other & influence their neighboring
cells 'chemically' and 'electrically' can also affect fetal growth
EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT
 Physical: Physical stimuli that act upon the individual and bring about changes in an
individual.
 Social: Socio-cultural stimuli that act upon individuals and bring about changes
NATURE VS NURTURE
Heredity or Environment which is more Powerful?
It differs for different traits
Some characteristics like eye color, and blood type are inherited.
 More complex traits like Health, intelligence & personality are subject to the interplay of
both H&E forces.
 How genetic influence shows itself depends largely on our specific Environment.
 Genes have a strong effect on weight and height, but the actual body size is determined by
What a person does.
 A genetic tendency for fatness does not make a person eat a lot, but someone who does take
in more calories than his/her body requires will be fatter than another person (with the same
genetic tendency) who eats less than what his/her body requires.
 In societies where the Nutrition level is high, an entire generation of people may tower over
their parents.
 Genetically even if one is fit to be healthy & fit, Environmental conditions like diseases &
Malnutrition may stunt the growth of an individual.
 A strong tendency towards aggressiveness may have a genetic base but an individual's
hatred/hostility towards skin color, caste/religion, etc is determined by
Environmental factors.
 Developmental milestones are programmed by Genes i.e. crawling, sitting, walking, and
running develop in that order at approximate time.
 Yet Environmental forces can affect this hereditary timetable, particularly if there is long-
term deprivation. But maturation will take place though at a slower pace.
 Balance between Nature and Nurture is more complex in the development of Intellect and
Personality e.g. Language.
 Genetic timetable dictates that before children can talk, they have to reach a certain level of
neurological & muscular maturation. Yet Environment plays a great role in language
development (early Vocalizing)
 Physical and Physiological traits
 Obesity
 Intelligence
 Personality
 Disorders influenced by H&E: Alcoholism, Schizophrenia, depression
INTERPLAY OF HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT
 In human beings, Hereditary factors are predominantly accountable for Behaviour &
characteristics like Reflex and Instinctive Behaviour, Blood type, fingerprints, eye color,
color and texture of skin and hair, defective genes, and Chromosomal abnormalities.
 Similarly, Environmental factors are predominantly accountable for the interests, attitudes,
habits, etiquette and manners, and social & cultural norms.
 For most characteristics including Somatic Structure & Physical, mental, social & Emotional
makeup it is the interaction between an Individual's genetic characteristics and
Environmental factors.
 The role of H & E can be compared to a tree Maximum & minimum growth of the tree is
determined by its genes; how tall & healthy it will grow is determined by
Environmental factors.
 Heredity provides us with the native capital to start the journey in life.
 How successful we will become depends on the potential value of our native capital
(Heredity) and opportunities & circumstances in our Environment for reaching maximum out of
our native capital.
CONCLUSION
• Heredity draws the blueprint for development, Environment affects the pace at which
construction proceeds and even the specific form of structure.
• Heredity provides a predisposition for behavior and the Environment determines whether these
will be realized or remain latent.

Freudian Understanding of Human Behaviour & PD

 The first & most famous person to develop a comprehensive theory of personality was
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
 His theory helps us understand the complex phenomenon i.e. Personality.
 Freud explains Human Behaviour based on two primary Instincts
a) Instincts for Food and Sexual Pleasure-Freud referred to them as 'Eros'. (life and love Instinct)
b) Instincts for Aggression - Freud referred to them as 'Thanatos' - those instincts leading to self-
destructive Behaviour (death Instinct).
 When Life instinct is less in comparison with death instinct, the person gets involved in
destructive behavior.
 When the Life Instinct is powerful than the death instinct person is inclined to do
constructive work.
 Freud says that when death instinct is more powerful than the Life Instinct then an
Individual becomes maladjusted and may be affected by mental disorder.
Mind
 Freud was the first one to give a systematic application of different aspects of the mind.
 According to Freud 'Mind' is the name of the activities of the brain and body
 It is abstract, cannot see /touch it, yet we can know the different aspects of the mind.
The mind consists of Two aspects
1) Structural or Topographical
2) Functional or Dynamic
Structural or Topographical
 According to Freud Human mind is composed of Three Layers
a) Conscious
b) Pre-conscious
c) Unconscious
Conscious
 Tip of the Iceberg
 1/10th portion of total mental life
 Awareness of reality
 When the conscious level of the mind is active there is a thinking process, including sorting
of various stimuli that enter the mind through the senses, together with awareness
of surroundings.
Preconscious
 Immediate provisional storehouse for the materials that are relegated from the conscious
mind.
 These materials can be recalled with Introspection including thoughts, feelings & Images of
past events that can be brought to a conscious level by an effort or will.
Unconscious
 It is the largest part of mind
 Stronger force underlying Behavior is the unconscious

Consists of two types of desires

a) Those who were in the conscious but later went unconscious.
b) Those types of desires that are weak enough to come to the conscious level(repressed).
 An individual cannot express according to his will thoughts & desires of the unconscious.
 The nature of these desires is infantile or primitive
 The unconscious is dynamic in Nature
 This hidden treasure is responsible for most of one's behavior.
 The Key Solution to psychological or behavioral problems is to bring to conscious the
unconscious conflicts
The place where repressed materials are kept is the unconscious - The lumber room of
your personality.
Functional or Dynamic
The mind consists of three parts
i. Id
ii. Ego
iii. Superego
ID
 The most primitive part of the personality that we share with animals
 Originates since birth in a child & constitutes all innate & hereditary traits
 Follows one & only one rule to obtain immediate gratification (pleasure principle) i.e. if
hungry eat, if the anger strikes.
 Seeks instant gratification of needs without consideration of time, place & person.
 Id is the mother of all desires & seat of instincts
 The root of all psychological powers
 Craves for pleasure and seeks a favorable opportunity
 Believes in results immediately without considering time, place, whether right, wrong real
& unreal.
 Resides in the unconscious mind & lacks consciousness.
 Never allows for logical judgments of activities as it only Inclines to seek pleasure.
 It does not care for Sociability, adaptability, or morality.
EGO
 According to Freud, the Ego is Self-Conscious Intelligence.
 It follows the reality principle and satisfies Id desires in such a manner that the person has
less danger in the future & has knowledge of time & place.
 It controls behavior & maintains the balance between Id and the reality.
 Before activation it analyses all actions & so there are no logical Errors.
 It cares for Id desires & allows to seek them at appropriate times and situations.
Ego functions
1) Impulse Control
2) Tolerance of Frustration & postponement of gratification of needs
3) Tension Management
4) Reality testing
5) Object relations
6) Integration & Synthesis
 Thinking, remembering. judging and all the higher faculties of mind like conceptualization,
analysis, and computing are in the domain of the Ego at the service of personality Growth,
development, and survival.
 Ego functions are geared towards adaptation to the Environment without which survival &
growth is not possible.
 It involves the change of Self or Environment.
Superego
 The individual's moral aspect is represented by the super Ego.
 Develops after the formation of Id & Ego.
 It is idealistic, perfection is its goal.
 Development of the Superego varies from Individual to individual depending on the values
of Society and Parenting.
 The child stores good and bad concepts attained from parenting, which later takes the form of
a Superego.
 On one hand, it controls the impulses & aggressiveness of Id and on the other hand Id urges
'do it now', superego counters the 'don't do it if it is morally wrong'.
 Super ego aims at the moral functioning of the Ego
 It is conscious & has full knowledge of reality
 Strong super ego implies the person is guided by certain principles and standards of
behavior.
 It generates guilt feelings in Individual
 In a healthy Superego- Ego duo, guilt generated is handled effectively by Ego.
 But when the superego is rigid & punitive - the super ego-ego duo becomes ill-matched
resulting in guilty feelings that affect personality as a whole.
 Sometimes it leads to suicide.
 Ego functions develop through the process of Socialization at home.
 Over-protection by parents prevents the progressive development of Ego functions.
 When everything is going fine, there is very little scope for the operation of ego functions.
 An environment of love, understanding, responsiveness to needs, supervision, and guidance
is therefore required for the healthy Behaviour & Personality development of a child.
 A well-adjusted person is governed by his 'Ego', an anxious neurotic is governed by guilt
stemming from his 'superego', and a psychopath is governed by his 'Id'.
 Psychoanalysis aims to restore the balance.
Criticisms
 Freud did not conduct any research to gain support for his theory other than working with
clients
It is not based on Empirical Research
 Freud's theory is Retrospective (dealing with past events). His theory does not permit
prediction.
 When and under what circumstances a particular behavior will be invoked?
 The goal of Psychology is to understand actions before they occur.
 Freud's theory was developed at a time when very few had explored the realm of Human
Behavior to the depth & breadth that Freud did.
 His ideas affected how many early 20th-century scholars viewed humanity.
 Therefore, Freud's work played an important role in the History of Psychology.

Erickson's Theory of Psychological Development

Introduction
 Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development outlines eight stages of human
development from infancy to adulthood.
 He believes that Human development proceeds according to a biologically determined
agenda which has two components.
 According to Erickson how these conflicts are resolved determines the nature of
development.
 The resolution of these conflicts is development says Erickson.
 If conflict is resolved positively outcome is positive, if Conflict is resolved negatively
outcome, is an unhealthy development.
 The resolution of one conflict sets the stage for how the next conflict is handled.
 Erickson believes that Human Development bridges the entire life Span and involves Eight
conflicts or stages:
a) Psychosocial development in childhood
b) Psychosocial development in Adolescence
c) Psychosocial development in Adulthood
Psychosocial development in childhood
According to Erickson childhood is accompanied by 4 stages(conflicts)
1) Trust vs Mistrust (Infancy: 0-1.5 years)
 Involves how care is provided to the child
 If a child is cared for lovingly & all its needs (Food, clothing, warmth) are met, it develops
trust in its caregivers.
 If these needs go unsatisfied 'trust' does not develop.
 According to Erickson trust is the key factor in determining our attitude towards
others and life.
 Conflict: The infant must develop a sense of trust when caregivers provide reliable care and
affection. A lack of this will lead to mistrust.
 Example: If a baby's needs are consistently met by their caregiver they will develop trust in
their environment.
 Application:
2) Autonomy vs Shame or Early (Childhood: 1.5-3 yrs)
 As children begin exploring their world & learn to do things, they either develop confidence
in their abilities or develop shame or doubt.
 If parents encourage children to do things if they are rewarded for their success, they will
develop confidence in themselves.
 If a child is not permitted to do things oneself if he is rushed into doing things that he cannot
do or if he is scolded for failures, it will develop shame or doubt.
 Conflict: Success leads to autonomy, failure results in shame and doubt.
 Example: Allowing a toddler to choose their clothes or toilet training successfully fosters a
sense of autonomy.
 Application: In preschool environments,
3)Initiative vs guilt :(Preschool: 3-5.5 years)
 In this stage, children are usually capable of formulating questions and ideas about their
immediate environment as well as exerting their independence.
 If parents encourage the child's curiosity about the World, then it will develop a sense of
initiative.
 If it is punished for curiosity or questions are ignored, guilt may develop leading to low self-
esteem.
 Conflict: Children need to assert control and power over their environment. Success in this
stage leads to a sense of initiative, while failure results in guilt.
 Example: Encouraging a child to initiate play activities or take the lead in simple tasks helps
them develop initiative.
 Application: In a classroom, teachers can encourage students to participate in group
activities or lead small projects.
4)Competence vs Inferiority: (School Age: 5.5-12 years)
 By now children have learned to read, write, solve simple arithmetic problems& interact
socially with others outside their immediate Environment.
 These skills are generally valued by others and so mastering them leaves children a sense of
competence, productiveness, and industry.
 If children fail to master these skills or are compared unfavorably with other children who
are more competent, they will develop a sense of failure and inferiority.
 Conflict: Children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads to a
sense of competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority.
 Example: A child who is praised for their academic performance or participation in
extracurricular activities develops a sense of industry.
 Application: Schools should provide opportunities for students to achieve and be recognized,
such as through academic awards or sports achievements.
 Implications
 Erickson highlights how Parenting plays a critical role in early development.
 His theory points out that parents who provide a supportive environment for their children
are likely to have children who have qualities of trust and are independent and caring.
 Parents who are less supportive or react negatively toward their children's strivings and
accomplishments are likely to have children who mistrust others, are dependent, have
inferiority feelings, and have Low self-esteem.
5)Identity vs Role confusion:(Adolescence: 12-18 years)
 Adolescents face the important task of deciding on what to do with their lives.
 Decisions about their career and personal lifestyle including Sexual, Moral & Political issues
are important during this stage of life which leads to identity vs role confusion.
 Conflict: If a teenager develops a personal identity and sense of self, leads to identity
formation, while failure leads to role confusion.
 Example: Adolescents experimenting with different roles, such as joining various
associations & favorable peer groups, help them form their identity.
  Application: High schools can support identity formation by offering diverse
extracurricular activities and encouraging self-expression
What is 'Ego Identity'
 It is one's sense of personal identity or feelings of self-importance.
 It helps you to identify your 'uniqueness' to stand up for yourself and to put plans into action.
 If Adolescents can develop a plan for accomplishing career and personal goals, and decide to
which social and cultural group they belong, then personal identity is established.
 Failure to form an Identity leaves teenagers confused about his or her role in life.
Psycho-Social Development in Adulthood
6)Intimacy vs Isolation: (Young Adulthood: 18-40 years)
 Acquiring an Identity prepares teenagers to deal with Psychosocial conflicts that occur in
adulthood.
 Here Individual is faced with either
 developing deep & meaningful relationships with others or becoming a loner (Isolate).
 Developing intimate relationships depends on one's ability to make and keep commitments to
others, be it friends or partners.
 Some persons for whom identity was never formed during adolescence are unable to make
or keep commitments and & hence become Isolated and unhappy.
 Conflict: Forming intimate, loving relationships with other people, leads to strong
relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation.
 Example: A young adult who forms close mature friendships with peers or partners is
successfully resolving this stage.
 Application: Universities and workplaces can facilitate social interactions through group
projects, social events, and team-building exercises.
7) Generativity vs Stagnation: (Middle Adulthood: 40-65 years)
 Conflicts Middle adults face is whether they will become productive people capable of
giving their time & talents to others or be absorbed in their own lives satisfying their own
needs without regard to others.
 If adults can find meaning in their work & family & are able & willing to share their talents
with others, then they have resolved the conflict positively (generativity). If they are unable
to, they become stagnant.
 Conflict: Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in
stagnation (shallow involvement in the world).
 Example: A middle-aged adult who mentors younger colleagues or volunteers in the
community is exhibiting generativity.
 Application. Workplaces can support this by offering leadership roles, mentoring
opportunities, and community engagement projects.
8)Integrity vs Despair (above 60 yrs)
 If an individual looks back & can see meaning in his or her existence then the individual is
filled with a sense of worth & Integrity.
 If an Individual looks back and sees goals not accomplished and personal promises not kept,
he or she is left with a feeling of failure & despair.
 Conflict: Success leads to feelings of worthiness, while failure results in regret, bitterness,
and despair.
 Example: An elderly person who feels proud of their life's achievements and contributions
experiences integrity.
 Application: Institutional Day care activities for the elderly, self-help groups of the elderly,
etc. help the elderly find meaning in their past
 How conflicts were resolved in earlier stages of development plays a crucial role in the
development of later stages.
 Erickson's theory focuses on different conflicts that arise during one's life.
 According to Erickson, an individual develops into either a psychologically healthy happy,
or productive person or a Psychologically unhealthy, unhappy & unproductive person
depending on how conflicts are resolved.
Application to Specific Environments
 Education:
 Schools and educational institutions can use Erikson's stages to create age-appropriate
curricula and activities that support the psychosocial development of students.
 Teachers can encourage autonomy, initiative, and industry by providing a supportive
environment that allows for exploration and recognition of achievements.
 Parenting:
o Parents can foster trust, autonomy, and initiative in their children by being responsive,
allowing independence, and encouraging exploration.
o Understanding these stages can help parents set realistic expectations for their children's
behavior at different ages.
 Workplace:
o Employers can create an environment that supports generativity by providing
opportunities for mentoring, leadership, and community engagement.
o Young adults in the workplace can be encouraged to form meaningful connections
through team-building activities, which help in resolving the intimacy vs. isolation stage
 Healthcare:
o Healthcare providers can use Erikson's stages to guide their interactions with patients,
ensuring they address the psychosocial needs appropriate to the patient's stage of life.
o For elderly patients, facilitating life review and reflection can help them achieve a
sense of integrity.

 Erikson's theory is useful for social workers to understand children's behaviors at
different stages and to strengthen parent-child relationships.
  Because of Erickson's work most psychologists view development as an ongoing process
that is halted only by death.
 Understanding Erikson's theory allows educators, parents, employers, and healthcare
providers to better support individuals' psychological development throughout their lives.

Mindfulness & Behaviour change

Mindfulness- definition
 Mindfulness is the practice of bringing one’s attention to the present moment without
judgment, cultivating awareness of one’s thoughts, feelings, bodily sensations, and the
surrounding environment.
 Rooted in ancient Eastern traditions, particularly Buddhism, mindfulness has gained
popularity in modern psychology and wellness practices.
 Key concepts of mindfulness
1. Present-moment-Awareness
 Mindfulness involves focusing on the current experience, rather than dwelling on the past or
worrying about the future.
 Example: paying close attention to the sensations of your breath as you inhale and exhale,
noticing the rise and fall of your abdomen.
2. Non-Judgmental Observation
 Mindfulness encourages observing thoughts, emotions, and sensations without labelling them
them as good or bad.
 Example: Acknowledging the thought “I’m feeling stressed” without criticizing or trying to
change the feeling.
3. Acceptance
 Mindfulness emphasizes embracing things as they are, without resistance or avoidance.
 Example: Accepting the discomfort of a program failure instead of trying to justify.
4. Detachment from Identification
 Mindfulness helps in realizing thoughts and emotions are temporary experiences, not
defining aspects of one’s identity.
 Example: Recognizing that the thoughts “I’m a failure” is just a passing mental event, not an
inherent truth about oneself.

 Habits & Behavior
 Habits are behaviors that become automatic because they have been performed frequently
in the past.
 This repetition or automatically creates a mental association between a situation and
action or behavior.
 Habits cycle
 Habits are formed and strengthened as we journey through a continuous cycle, seeking to
satisfy our urges.
 Habit cycle have a simple a consistent formula:
 1. A trigger
2. An accompanying behavior
3. A result or reward
 Online shopping, habituated to smoking cigarette or Instagram etc.
 How does a habit form?
 Our brain takes in data through our five senses or a thought.
 Based on similar experiences- our brain interprets this as pleasant or unpleasant.
 If pleasant, our brain gets an itch or an urge.
 We do something to make the good stay around, or to make the bad go away.
 If our behavior was successful, our brain lays down a memory so it will remember to do
that again in the future.
 This memory feeds back to inform how we view the world.
 Habits of wanting
 Habits of wanting, craving, or addiction have an energy and feeling tone of moving
toward something we desire.
 The body and mind focus in on the object, be it a drink, substances, food, cigarettes, sex,
or any other object of desire, and our sense of well-being and happiness becomes tied to
getting what we crave.
 Habits of Distraction
 Here one’s attention has moved into an unhealthy habit of distraction, such as spacing out
watching TV or surfing the Internet etc.
 Habits of resistance
 Habits of resisting, which manifest as frustration, annoyance, impatience, anger,
judgment, and similar emotions and mind states.
 We feel as if we’re defending ourselves, resisting a threat, or protecting ourselves from
something that will harm us. We feel tense, agitated, fight/flight sensations.
 The accompanying thoughts or beliefs in our mind may urge us to act in a way that will
change this unpleasant situation or experience.
 Habits of doing
 The feeling that we’re always on our way somewhere, feeling that something bad will
happen if we don’t keep moving and getting things done.
 “I need to get this done or things will fall apart.”
 How mindfulness works to change habits
 We develop patterns and habits that take us away from our present experience into
rumination, worry, and fear, which, in turn, lead to stress and suffering.
 We may overeat or over-drink or practice other unhealthy behaviors without awareness,
which gives momentary relief but separates us from our deepest intentions.
 Much of the stress, anxiety, and suffering in our lives comes from not bringing wise
attention to our thoughts and beliefs, and treating them as true.
 Our habit patterns play an important role in perpetuating thoughts and beliefs that lead to
suffering.
 When we experience loss or feel lonely or anxious, we comfort ourselves by eating,
having a glass of wine, or watching the TV for a few hours etc.
  When one, obsessively repeats the mindless behavior in response to the same difficult
emotion, a habit of responding in this way develop.
 Your mind associates the temporary release from unpleasant feelings with the new
behavior and your thinking reinforces the behavior.
 With attention, thoughts can observe and met with wisdom rather than being acted out in
habitual ways.
 Bring to awareness the habit that you want to change.
 When you feel an urge, work with the trigger or craving to act in a habitual way.
 Make a conscious choice to remain aware of your direct experience.
 Mindfulness helps to:
 Achieve Self-control, objectivity
 Increased tolerance, enhances flexibility
 Improves concentration and mental clarity,
 Improves emotional intelligence and the ability to relate to others and one’s self with
kindness, acceptance and compassion.
 Reduces rumination
 Stress reduction
 Enhances working memory
 Keeps you focused
 Less emotional reactivity
 When mindfulness is present, we can see our thoughts, feelings, motivations, reactions,
and response for the moment we are in.
 Breaking Habits
 Mindfulness creates space between triggers and automatic reactions, aiding in
overcoming harmful habits.
 Example: a smoker becomes aware of the urge to smoke triggered by stress, and through
mindfulness, learns to choose healthier coping strategies.
 Enhancing Self-Awareness
 Mindfulness fosters understanding of one’s thought patterns and behavior, facilitating
positive change.
 Example: Recognizing the tendency to procrastinate and using mindfulness techniques to
stay focused on tasks.
 Empathy & Improved Relationships
 Mindfulness encourages being fully present with others, deepening understanding and
empathy.
 Example: Listening attentively to a friend’s concerns without interrupting or making
judgements
 Conclusion
 Mindfulness involves being fully present in the moment, observing experiences without
judgment, and accepting them as they are.
 Its practice can lead to behavior change by improving emotional regulation, reducing
stress, breaking harmful habits, enhancing self-awareness, and fostering better
relationships.
  Integrating mindfulness into daily life can contribute to overall well-being and personal
growth.

Social Learning Theory: Albert Bandura

Learning - Introduction
Learning occupies an important place in our lives
• Most of what we do is influenced by learning
• It provides structure to our personality and behavior
Experiences (direct or indirect) play a significant role in shaping behavior
• Learning is a process, not a product.
• It prepares an individual for adjustment and adaptation.
• All Learning is purposeful and goal-directed
Learning is Universal and continuous
• Thus, Learning is a process that brings relatively permanent changes in the behavior of a
learner through experience and practice.
• Theories of learning
Social learning theory
• Social Learning theory evolved out of Behaviorism.
• It refers to learning that takes place when responses do not occur naturally.
• Albert Bandura propounded this theory
• Bandura's experiments involved observing the behaviors of children
• Bandura recognizes that children acquire many skills through Modelling.
• Bandura emphasized Modelling as Imitation or observational learning as a powerful source of
development & learning e.g.....
• Bandura's work stresses the importance of Cognition and thinking
• He has shown that children's ability to listen, remember & abstract general rules from complex
sets of observed behaviors affects their imitation and learning.
• Bandura believes that important behaviors are learned by internalizing the behavior of others.
• Bandura's social learning theory states that individuals develop who they are through
environmental factors, namely the imitation of role models.
Key Principles of Social Learning Theory:
 Bandura believed that through observational learning, children model their behavior by
watching others.
 According to Bandura, this occurs through four stages of learning:
1)Attention
2)Retention
3)Production
4)Motivation
 Child paying attention to the person they wish to imitate the behavior of. (someone they look
up to or are close to).
 They then retain the behavior that they have paid attention to. This includes remembering the
actions that they have displayed and the responses they have received.
 Bandura stressed that observational learning could be used to explain why young children
imitate positive and undesirable behavior, as seen in Bandura's Bobo doll study where
children copied the aggressive behavior an adult model inflicted on a Bobo doll.
Bandura's revision of theory (1991,2001)
• Places strong emphasis on how children think about themselves and other
people and hence he revised the theory as "Social Cognitive" theory • According to him Children
gradually become selective in what they imitate.
• Watching others engage in self-praise & self-blame & through feedback about the worth of
their actions, children develop personal standards for behavior & a sense of Self-efficacy.
• These cognitions guide responses in particular situations.
• Bandura's important concept - 'Self-efficacy'
• Efficacy beliefs influence how people feel, think, motivate themselves & behave
• The stronger the efficacy higher the goals people set for themselves & the stronger their
commitment to achieve them.
• Cognitive processes shape most courses of action.
• If they doubt themselves people view failure scenarios & dwell on things that go wrong.
Bandura identified 2 other kinds of reinforcement
1) Vicarious reinforcement
2) Self-reinforcement
Implications of Social Learning Theory
1) Children and adolescents are exposed to a lot of social behaviors through mass media, social
media & real-life interactions with parents, peers, teachers & significant persons (they listen to
interactions) these exposures result in observational learning...
2) Learning may not take place if there is inadequate attending, retention, motor reproduction, or
insufficient motivation to learn.
3)Adequate attending requires the learner to be aroused to be able to take it through the senses, to
perceive it, and to have experience of reinforcement for similar attention.
4)SLT helps to explain why young people may succumb to peer pressure and carry out risk-
taking behavior such as having unprotected sex or drinking alcohol.
5)If young people feel they do not fit in and are lonely, they may start to imitate the behavior of
individuals who appear to be popular and liked by others to be accepted by their peer group.
limitations of social learning theory
• It considers only environmental factors that are involved in learning behavior.
• Social learning theory ignores the influence of biological factors on behavior & development,
such as the role of hormones and genetics.
Conclusion
• Bandura believes that the person, the behavior, and the environment, all interact with each
other.
• Each affects the other in one's action and reaction.
• The person shapes the environment & behavior, the behavior shapes the person & environment,
and the environment shapes the person and behavior.

Aggression
Meaning
Aggression is a range of behaviors that can result in harm to oneself, others, or objects in the
environment. It can be physical, verbal, or emotional. Aggression can be Impulse and reactive (in
response to a perceived threat or frustration) or premeditated and instrumental (used as a
means to an end).
Forms of Aggression
a) Physical Aggression:
Involves harm or threat of harm to others through physical actions.
Hitting, kicking, biting, or pushing others.
c) Relational Aggression:
Involves harming someone's social relationships or reputation e.g. spreading rumors, excluding
others from a group, or manipulating friendship
d) Reactive Aggression:
An impulsive, angry response to a perceived threat or frustration
e.g. A child hitting a peer immediately after being teased.
e) Proactive (Instrumental) Aggression:
A deliberate, goal-oriented behavior is used to achieve a specific outcome.
Ex. A teenager pushing someone aside to take their place in line.

Signs of Aggression in Children and Adolescents

1) Physical Signs:
 Frequent fighting or physical altercations.
e.g. Damage to property, toys, or other objects.
2)Behavioral Signs:
 Outbursts of anger or irritability.
 Difficulty following rules and directions.
 Arguing or defying authority figures.
3) Social Signs:
 Difficulty maintaining friendships.
 Engaging in bullying behavior or being bullied.
 Isolation from peer groups or social activities.
4) Emotional Signs:
 Frequent frustration or feelings of being overwhelmed.
 Expressing feelings of hostility or resentment.
 Difficulty managing emotions or calming down after being upset.

Therapeutic Interventions for Aggression

1) Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT):
Helps children and adolescents identify and change negative thought patterns that lead to
aggressive behavior.
 Therapist works with a child to recognize triggers for their aggression and develop healthier
ways to respond.
2) Social Skills Training:
 Teaches children how to interact positively with others and manage conflicts without
resorting to aggression.
Example: Role-playing where the child practices using assertive communication rather than
aggressive responses.
3)Parent-Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT):
 Focuses on improving the parent-child relationship quality and teaching effective discipline
techniques.
 Parents learn to set clear, consistent limits while providing positive reinforcement for
appropriate behaviors.
4) Anger Management Techniques:
 Provides strategies for recognizing the signs of anger and managing it healthily.
Example: Teach a teenager deep breathing exercises or the "count to ten" technique when they
start to feel angry.
5) Medication:
 In some cases, medication may be prescribed to manage underlying conditions such as
ADHD or mood disorders that contribute to aggressive behavior.
 stimulant or non-stimulant medications to help improve focus and impulse control.
6) Family Therapy:
 Involves working with the entire family to improve communication, resolve conflicts, and
create a supportive home environment.
7) School-Based Interventions:
 Interventions that take place in the school setting to address and reduce aggressive behavior.
Example: Implementing a peer mediation program (life skills) where students are trained to help
resolve conflicts among their peers.
Conclusion
Each form of aggression and intervention strategy is specific to the needs and context of the child
or adolescent involved, and a combination of approaches is often most effective.

Life Span Perspective & Prenatal Period

• Human Development is a cycle of changes that each of us experiences during our lives
• Psychologists believe that developmental processes do not stop with childhood.
• Growing older involves growing & changing personally, intellectually, socially,
psychologically and emotionally.
• Development is 'inevitable'.
• The essence of life is development and change
• The overall process of development is the same for each one of us.
• However Individual life experiences affect our development and contribute to different patterns
of thinking and behavior, forming our personalities and Behaviour.

Stages of Life Span

• Prenatal Period - Conception to birth
• Infancy Period - Birth to end of second week
• Babyhood - End of 2nd week to end 2nd year
• Early Childhood - 2 - 6yrs
• Late childhood 6-12 yrs
• Adolescence - 13 to 19 years
• Early Adulthood - 20-40 yrs
• Middle Age 40-60 yrs
• Old age - 60 yrs and above

Prenatal Period
• Conception to birth (266 days or 38 weeks)
• The Prenatal Period is divided into
1) Period of Zygote
2) Period of Embryo
3) Period of Foetus

Period of Zygote
• Size is that of a Pinhead
• Remains unchanged because of no outside nourishment
• Kept alive by yolk in ovum
• Passes down the fallopian tube, divides many times & separates into outer and inner layers.
• The outer layer develops into the Placenta, amniotic Sac and Umbilical cord.
• The inner layer develops into a new human being.
• End of first week Zygote contains about 100 cells
• Ten days later after fertilization zygote gets planted in the uterine wall.

Hazards of the Zygote period

• Starvation
• Lack of uterine preparation
• Implantation in the wrong place

Period of Embryo (2wk - 8wks)

• Embryo develops into a miniature human being
• Growth and development occur at an incredible rate (major body systems &organs develop)
• In just one month the heart has begun to beat, the brain starts functioning & major body
structures begin to form.
• By the end of this stage hands, shoulders, head, eyes, fingers are discernable.

Hazards of Embryo period

• Miscarriages: Falls, emotional shocks, malnutrition. glandular imbalances, vitamin deficiency
and serious diseases.
• Developmental Irregularities: Maternal malnutrition, vitamin & glandular deficiencies.
excessive use of drugs (alcohol, tobacco, etc.) & diseases such as diabetes, and German measles.

Period of Foetus (3rd - 9th month)

• Changes occurs in actual & relative parts already formed
• End of the third month some internal organs are well developed and begin to function.
• Foetal heartbeat can be detected by the 15th week
• Fifth month internal organs function nearly like an adult's body.
• Nerve cells increase rapidly in number
• Foetal movements appear between 18 to 22 weeks
• End of 7th month, the foetus is well developed to survive if born prematurely
• End of the 8th month, the foetal body is completely formed smaller than a normal full-
term baby.
Hazards of Foetal period
• Miscarriage
• Prematurity
• Complications of delivery
• Developmental Irregularities
• Maternal Malnutrition
• Excessive use of alcohol, tobacco, drugs
• Maternal ageing
• Mother's attitude
• Workplace hazards
• Multiple foetuses