Introduction to

UNIT 2 EASTERN AND WESTERN Positive Psychology

PERSPECTIVES ON POSITIVE
PSYCHOLOGY*
Structure
2.1 Learning Objectives
2.2 Introduction
2.3 Distinction between Western and Indian Psychological Perspectives
2.4 Positive Psychology and Indian Psychological Perspectives
2.5 Religious and Spiritual Practices for Enhancing Well-Being
2.6 Let Us Sum Up
2.7 Key Words
2.8 Answers to Self Assessment Questions
2.9 Unit End Questions
2.10 References
2.11 Suggested Readings

2.1 LEARING OBJECTIVES

After studying this Unit you will be able to,
• know about the eastern and western perspectives on positive psychology;
• distinguish between the western and Indian psychological perspectives;
• identify major contributions of Indian psychological perspectives to positive
psychology; and
• appreciate the religious and spiritual practices for enhancing well-being.

2.2 INTRODUCTION
When you read a newspaper, watch news on the television or read popular
magazines, one common thing that you may notice is that there are greater
incidents in which people are indulging in conflict, violence, corruption, crime,
and other kinds of deviations from moral and ethical norms. In contrast,
there are very few reports of cooperation, altruistic behavior, charity, and
compassion. Either this may indicate that people are not happy and suffer from
various kinds of problems; or stories of hope, values, strengths, and resilience
do not excite people as much as stories of conflicts, violence, and negativity.
In other words, stories and news of what’s wrong in people generate more
attention and excitement than stories of positivity. Further, we also find that
people in general want to attain peace of mind, happiness, and well-being.
Indeed, attaining an enduring state of happiness has been chosen as a goal
worth pursuing by individuals and societies across the globe and this has been 33
*
Prof. Girishwar Misra, Former Head & Professor of Psychology, University of Delhi, Delhi
Positive Psychology: there since antiquity. It has become a matter of concern in the modern era with
An Introduction the dominance of market forces, state of cut-throat competition, the ideology
of materialism and a strong belief in individualism. Such a situation frequently
causes frustration, conflict, and aggression. The net outcome is that well-being
is frequently compromised.
The response of psychology to the challenges in human lives to pursue the
goals of well-being, productivity, and mental health has traditionally been
rooted in a deficit model (except the work of Maslow (1971) and some other
humanistic psychologists which focused on human goodness). Towards the end
of the twentieth century, however, a strong academic movement started with a
focus on building human strengths. As you have studied in Unit 1, Martin E.P.
Seligman in his presidential address to the American Psychological Association
(APA) in 1998, reminded that psychology is not just the study of weakness and
damage, it is also the study of strength and virtue which led to the emergence
of the field of positive psychology. It emerged as a protest against the deficit
model prevalent in the practice of psychology and committed itself to bring in
positive changes in individual and organizational lives of the people.
It can be noted here that positive psychology retains the perspective of
mainstream psychological science and expands its agenda by incorporating
the theme of human strengths and positivity. The pursuit of individual’s self
interest continues as a prime concern. However, the developments in cross-
cultural psychology, cultural psychology, and indigenous psychology have
increasingly drawn attention to the limitations of mainstream approach and
advocated for alternative approaches to the study of psychological phenomena
which emphasize on the key role of culture (Misra, 2003; Misra & Gergen,
1993; Gergen, et.al. 1996; D. Sinha, 1997).
The stream of Indian Psychology (IP) rooted in the vast intellectual resources
available in the indigenous thought systems offers comprehensive and integral
approaches to reality encompassing physical, social, psychological, and
spiritual layers of existence. Its strategy is to maintain harmony with nature
from a symbiotic perspective. Thus it goes beyond the pursuit of self interest
and offers maintaining balance (Samya) as a central concern.
Similarly the ideas from other Eastern perspectives such as Confucianism,
Taoism, Buddhism, and Islam also contribute to the understanding of the
issues of well-being, good life and virtues. However, the Western and Eastern
perspectives including Indian perspectives do share the need to develop certain
human strengths and advance strategies for the same. This unit will help you
familiarize and understand some of the main themes, concepts, and practices
of positive psychology from Western and Eastern perspectives. In view of the
relevance to your socio-cultural context, the key ideas from Indian perspectives
to pursue health, happiness, and well-being have been presented in greater
detail. You will learn more about the key concepts related to Indian views,
and also about similarities and differences between the Western and Indian
perspectives on positive psychology in the next unit also. All these will help
you to understand your life style and bring changes to gain peace and well-
being.

34
 Eastern and Western
2.3 DISTINCTION BETWEEN WESTERN AND Perspectives on
INDIAN PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES Positive Psychology

Psychology today is considered as a science focusing on mental processes and

behaviors with the help of empirical methods. It has grown in many directions to
serve the human needs in almost all areas of life. While its repertoire of methods
and concepts has grown in many contexts, its prototypical form maintains the
position of a positivist scientist and favors an objective stance toward reality.
Of course, there are many new developments that are constructionist in
approach and opening up to respect, culture, subjectivity, and use of qualitative
methods.
In India, the discipline formally started at Calcutta University in the year
1915-16 when Dr. N.N. Sengupta, a Harvard-trained psychologist, joined as
a faculty. Another pioneer was Dr. Girindrasekhar Bose who was interested in
psychoanalysis and completed the first doctoral research in psychology in India
on the concept of repression. Both these scholars did have interest in the Indian
thought systems but the formal teaching and research in psychology remained
confined largely to the Euro-American tradition of mainstream psychology (see
for historical perspectives Sinha, 1986; Dalal, 2014). This tradition has formed
the formal or official perspective adopted in teaching and research in the Indian
academia.
In general, the teaching-learning practices have been preoccupied with the
concepts, theories, and methods developed in the Euro-American centers of
learning. They were adopted and to some extent indigenized to study various
issues in the Indian context (D. Sinha, 1997). The empirical researches thus used
Indian samples and provided patterns of data reflecting variations in Western
theoretical concepts. The use of concepts and theories of Indian origin was rare.
The awareness of limitations of this approach led to various efforts towards
indigenization of Western concepts and theories and incorporating concepts
of Indian origin (see Bhawuk, 2011; Dalal & Misra, 2010; Misra & Mohanty,
2002; Salgame, 2011; D. Sinha, 1997). The term ‘Indian Psychology’ has been
used for both the knowledge based on Indian data as well as the psychology
rooted in the indigenous Indian intellectual tradition. However, the latter usage
seems more appropriate.
In the modern period, the phrase Indian Psychology (IP) was first used by
Jadunath Sinha (1931) to present a review and reconstruction of the repertoire of
rich Indian knowledge systems related to mental functions and consciousness.
Subsequently, he published two more volumes (J.N. Sinha, 1958, 1961) in this
series. While there were many sporadic writings, it is only recently that IP has
revived and gained some momentum and several volumes and contributions
have been published (Akhilanand, 1948; Cornelissen, Misra, & Varma, 2014;
Misra & Paranjpe, 2012; Misra, 2013; Paranjpe, 1984,1998; Paranjpe & Misra,
2012; Rao & Paranjpe, 2016; Rao, Paranjpe & Dalal, 2008; Safaya, 1976).
As we know, the concepts, theories, and methods of IP have developed through
centuries of testing and practice and are quite diverse as reflected in the Vedic
literature (Vedas, Āraņyaka, Brāhmaņa, Upanishads), Vedăñga, and schools
of thought such as Vedānta, Sāňkhya, Yoga, Vaiśeşika, Mīmāńsā, Cārvāka,
35
Positive Psychology: Āyurveda, Buddhism, Jainism, and Tańtra, to name a few. Out of these, the
An Introduction position of Cārvāka comes closest to the materialist view held in modern
psychology. It did not consider any reality beyond what is perceivable through
sensory modality. It advocated that one should enjoy life thoroughly maximizing
pleasure and minimizing pain. But this view could not receive prominence.
Most of the other approaches are characterized by deep but diverse kinds of
engagement with transcendental reality and are characterized by moral-ethical
concerns. Also, there exist psychological concepts and insights in the huge
corpus of literature of various Indian disciplines (Śāstra), epics (Mahābhārata
and Rāmāyaņa), Smriti texts, Purāņa, Dharmaśāstra, Arthaśāstra, Kāmaśāstra,
etc. Owing to deeply entrenched colonial mindset and institutionalization of
Western-centric academic practices, most of these resources are still untapped.
Keeping the present context in view there is a need to familiarize ourselves
with the classical Indian psychological perspective. Rao (2011), a prominent
figure in the study of Indian Psychology, has noted that IP is the study of the
person (Jiva). This person is not an isolated and disconnected entity as Jiva
is transpersonal, bound by transcognitive states. The person is consciousness
embodied.
Mind is different from consciousness as well as the body/brain-machine. Unlike
consciousness, the mind is material, albeit subtle. Unlike the brain, the mind
has non-local characteristics, that is, it is not constrained by time and space
variables, as gross material objects are. Time and space are superimposed by
the mind; they are thus the creations of the mind. Yoga is a method of liberation
via the realization of transcognitive states. Depending upon one’s disposition
one may go for knowledge-focused Gyāna yoga or devotion-focused Bhakti
yoga or action-oriented Karma yoga.
Thus we find that IP is broad-based in its assumptions about reality and
encompasses physical, social, moral, and spiritual aspects of functioning in
an integrated manner. The consciousness-based IP offers a more coherent
framework for psychology than psychology with a material base as noted in
mainstream psychology. Self as a subject is the focus in IP, but in West, it is the
object. Experience is at the center of awareness and knowing becomes being.
There is direct personal involvement and Hindu, Buddhist, Jain, and Tantric
traditions clearly focus on spiritual development. The works of Sri Aurobindo
have attempted to synthesize the Eastern and Western ideas which clearly
indicates the direction in which psychology has to move if it wants to contribute
something substantial to our individual and collective development.
Self Assessment Questions 1
1. The traditional approach in psychology was based on ________
model.
2. According to Seligman, psychology is not just the study of weakness
and damage, it is also the study of ___________ and __________.
3. Confucianism and Taoism are examples of Eastern perspective. True/
False
4. The phrase Indian Psychology (IP) was first used by whom?
36
 Eastern and Western
5. Cārvāka philosophy referred to the materialist view. True/ False Perspectives on
Positive Psychology
6. Indian Psychology is the study of the person called _______.
7. Gyāna yoga is ________ focused, Bhakti yoga is ______ focused, and
Karma yoga is _______ focused.

2.4 POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY AND INDIAN

PSYCHOLOGIAL PERSPECTIVES
In the Indian scholarly works as well as folk traditions, concerns for health and
well-being have been prominent. Profound discussions on the concepts like
svāsthya, sukha, dukha, ānańda, ārogya, and prasannatā etc. are available at
many places. Similarly, we find elaborate discussions about human strengths
like paropakāra, sāhasa, dhairya, kshamā, śānti, ādhyātma, pragyā and śīla etc.
However, the framework of the Indian psychological perspectives is different
from positive psychology. The Indian perspectives on human nature have
been articulated in an integrated way from the position of a higher state of
consciousness that transcends the limits of ordinary awareness and space-time
constraints.
In broad terms positive psychology draws attention to the exploration of optimal
psychological functioning, investigating the nature and correlates of happiness
and wellbeing, and conceptualizing and assessing virtues and character strengths
(Peterson & Seligman, 2004) which are quite close to the Greek concept of
eudaemonia. This strength-based approach celebrates the self and locates
positivity in the individual. It ignores the relational and contextualized self.
Thus both the traditions of psychology, IP and PP, emphasize potentials,
strengths, and pursuit of well-being. The two streams of knowledge, however,
differ in several ways. The way of defining human existence, the basis of
awareness, thinking, and action is conceptualized differently. It may be noted
that the discipline of modern psychology as developed in the Euro-American
settings is rooted in an evolutionary view in which humans are evolved form
of animals. In contrast, the Indian view considers human beings as part of the
divine. These two divergent standpoints on human nature implicate diverse
agendas in regard to the definition of self, life goals, conceptualizing well-being
and happiness, and approach to our habitat.
Let us now discuss some of the Key themes and ideas from the Indian
perspective on the concerns of Positive psychology. These, however, offer
only a selective view and not an exhaustive one.
• The Multilayered Structure of Human Existence
From the Upanishadic period, one finds that human existence is conceived as
a multilayered structure that is connected with human development and well-
being. The Taittiriyopanishad describes five Kosas or sheaths. The first level is
Annamaya Kośa or bodily sheath, it is concerned with food, the physical body,
and the material world. The second level is Prāņamaya Kośa or the sheath related
to vital biological functions such as life-breath, emotions, and bio-energy. The
third level is the sheath of Manomaya Kośa which is made up of the mind. The
37
Positive Psychology: next level is Vigyānamaya Kośa which relates to higher forms of the mind and
An Introduction the subtle reams like high order insights, intuition, and clarity of awareness.
The final stage is the Ānandamaya Kośa or the realm of transcendence and
blissful release into infinity and perfect awareness. The Ānandamaya Kośa is
full of profound happiness and bliss beyond ordinary experience.

Fig. 2.1: Pancha Kosa Model

• Pursuing the Middle Path

Āyurveda, the Indian system of medicine, as well as the Indian folk wisdom
prominently emphasize that the extremes should be avoided (Ati sarvatra
varjayeta). The Buddhist doctrine of the middle path (Majjhimaparipada) also
gives preference to observing the middle way. It may be recalled that Buddhism
favors the position of Anātma and does not subscribe to the idea of Atman. It
also says that everything is changing in this world and nothing is permanent.
This may give freedom from everyday suffering. Impermanence, egolessness,
and ‘Nirvana’ form the key teachings of Buddha.
• Pursuit of Sthita Pragya or Steady Wisdom as a Desirable State
The text of Srīmad Bhagavad gītā proposes that the state of bliss is an attainable
goal. To this end, it recommends that one should move on the path of seeking
a state of steady wisdom (Sthitapragya). This state is achievable by training
the mind to maintain a state of equanimity in happiness and misery, success
and failure, fame and anonymity. It helps to transcend the illusory world full of
suffering and attaining bliss. Indeed it’s a model of a perfect person.
One is established in wisdom when one restrains one’s sense organs from their
sense objects, like the tortoise which pulls its limbs back from all sides. The
tortoise’s shell represents intellect which is fortified to withstand the various
temptations. When one abstains, the sense objects recede, but the fondness or
liking continues. The fondness goes only on the realization of ‘Atman’ which
is infinite happiness.
• Attaining an Inclusive Vision
It is clear that the Indian view proposes to strive for attaining a state of happiness
unaffected by mundane realities. This state allows enjoying equanimity and inner
38
liberation. The perspective of Vedanta school seeks to align with Brahman. The Eastern and Western
Brāhmaņa occupies the entire world (Sarvam khalvidam Brahma) and seeing Perspectives on
Positive Psychology
this would lead to the realization that I am Brahmaņa (Aham brahmāsmi).
Its natural consequence will be the experience of similarity and oneness with
others or non-duality (Advaita). Bhagavad gītā also states that only those
persons who can see sameness across all beings are the real seer (Sar vbhūteşu
yenaikam bhāvamavyaymiikshate). The wise people perceive everybody on
equal footing (Panditah samadarśinah). The inclusive vision is expressed
in the aspiration of treating the whole earth as a family (Udāra caritānām tu
vasudhaiva kutumbakam). The broad vision maintains this position and does
not discriminate against ‘others’. It is a dogmatic and constricted view to
distinguish between self and other .
• The Pursuit of Dharma and Human flourishing
It is important to note that the concept of Dharma implies virtues and extends
to duties which allow maintenance and sustenance of life. In the social context
the duties are performed based on one’s position in society and stage of life.
This maintains social order which contributes to cosmic order leading to
universal well-being. Human flourishing is brought about by balancing and
pursuing the life goals or purusharthas. According to Vaiśeśik school of Indian
thought , dharma includes both prosperity in this world (Abhyudaya) and
liberation (Nihsreyas) from suffering and pursuing Moksha. Therefore, material
development and spirituality both have legitimate places in life and they need
not be seen as mutually exclusive. In this context, it must be remembered that
the four life goals (Puruśārthas) i.e. dharma (ethical duties), artha (prosperity),
kāma (pleasure), and moksha (liberation) are equally important. This implies
that all aspects have to be integrated and form a description of an ideal life.
Self Assessment Questions 2
1. What is Vigyanamaya Kosa?
2. The Indian system of medicine is called ____________.
3. According to Indian psychological approach, a person with steady
wisdom is called as _______.
4. Name the four life goals according to Indian thought.

2.5 RELIGIOUS AND SPIRITUAL PRACTICES

FOR ENHANCING WELL-BEING
The Indian tradition has a rich repertoire of approaches and practices to enhance
well-being. However, their understanding requires greater engagement at the
experiential level and deeper scholarly engagement (see also Salagame, 2006,
2015). A few key perspectives are described below.
1) Yoga and Well-being
To begin with, it must be realized that the functioning of body and mind are
connected. The system of Yoga helps achieve integration of mind and body
and facilitates attaining happiness and well-being. Yoga helps nurture positive
attitudes and reconditions the neuromuscular systems. It enhances the capacity 39
Positive Psychology: to withstand greater stress and strain and allows harmonious development of
An Introduction all the potentialities present in a person. The meaning of Yoga implies the
act of joining. Patanjali, the author of Yoga Sutras, defines yoga as a process
of restraining the mind (Chitta) from various modifications (Vritti). In other
words, yoga involves regulating mental functions.
The system of yoga involves a family of practices dealing with different levels
and domains of human functioning. The eight limbs of yoga (Aştāńga Yoga)
enunciated by Patanjali include:
• Yama - moral injunctions or self restraints which consists of various moral
and ethical practices, for example, not to steal, not having greed etc.
• Niyama - various observances such as maintaining cleanliness, being
content, engaging in self-study (Svādhyāya), etc.
• Āsana - various yogasana or postures
• Pranāyama - regulation of breath, which is the life force or life energy
• Pratyāhara - internalization of the senses towards their source, non-
attachment
• Dhārana - concentration
• Dhyāna - meditation
• Samādhi - bliss, higher consciousness
Stilling the mind and consciousness is the key to yogic practices. The principle
of Karma or cause and effect states that our actions rooted in desire, greed,
anger, lust, pride, and malice bring afflictions (Kleśa) and those who are free
from these move towards bliss. Patanjali says that the practice of yoga reduces
afflictions and leads to Samadhi. For this purpose, he describes Kriyā Yoga or
yoga in action. You will learn more about Patanjali’s yoga in Unit 13 on Yoga
and Meditation.
In general most of us are preoccupied and concerned with what others are
doing. It has been estimated that roughly about 75 percent of the time goes to
it. The remaining 25 percent goes to becoming aware of the “I” identity. Thus
the mind is preoccupied with external things either looking at others critically
or trying to fulfill desires. Yoga aims at changing internally. The human mind
is like a blackboard on which we are constantly writing. So cleaning of mind
of sanskaras and karmas while doing purification, we move from awareness to
discrimination, performance, and creativity. The journey begins with a desire to
develop self-awareness or to discipline the self.
2) Self Mastery: The Path towards well-being
We think that enjoyment comes from the external world and we do everything
to entertain ourselves with the alluring world. However, we often find that
our efforts are futile as the enjoyment comes only to leave us with a feeling
of emptiness. The Bhagavad gītā tells that true enjoyment lies inside us and
promotes mastery over ourselves (Misra, 2009). Unfortunately, the persistent
focus on materialistic goals further intensifies the experience of unhappiness
40
because the goal shifts, and the sense of absence of happiness continues.
The Indian perspective states, therefore, that self needs to be regulated by self Eastern and Western
through self-initiated practices. As Lord Krishna advises to Arjuna, “let a man Perspectives on
Positive Psychology
lift himself by his own Self alone, and let him not lower himself; for, this Self
alone is one’s friend and this Self alone the enemy. The Self is the friend of the
self for him who has conquered himself by the Self, but to the unconjured self,
the Self stands in the position of an enemy like the (external) foe” (Bhagavadgītā
6-6).
Indeed mindfulness interventions and different kinds of Yoga (e.g., Vipāsana,
Prekshā Dhyāna, Sudarśana-Kriyā), and Seva or service to fellow beings offer
immense possibilities of self-renewal and experiencing peace and well-being.
With an adequate degree of self-regulation, one is able to deal with desires,
attain peace and enjoy sustainable happiness.
3) Development of Virtues
Bhagavadgītā presents details about the qualities to adopt - daivi sampat
(qualities belonging to the divine state, such as purity of heart, fearlessness,
control of the senses, truth, absence of anger, compassion, modesty, patience,
fortitude etc.), and those to be abandoned - āsuri sampat (demonic qualities,
such as arrogance, anger, hyprocrisy etc.) (Bhagavadgītā chapter 16 verses
1-4).
Thus freedom from pride and delusion, the conquest of attachment, dwelling in
the Self (Ātman), absence of desires, and freedom from the pairs of opposites
like pleasure and pain are recommended. In this context, it may be noted that
detachment is never possible without attaching ourselves to something nobler
and more divine. So in order that the mind may not have evil attachments, it
should attach to the Self and live in a spirit of contemplation upon it.
4) Vipāsanā Meditation
Vipāsanā which refers to insight is considered to be the essence of the teaching
of Buddha. It is a simple and non-dogmatic technique. It is taught in courses of
ten days during which the participants remain within the area of the course site,
having no contact with the outside world. They maintain silence, refrain from
reading and writing, and suspend any religious activity, working according
to the instructions provided. They observe celibacy and abstention from all
intoxicants. With meditation and self-discovery during this process, a meditator
gains mental strength, and then can apply the learning in everyday life for
one’s own benefit and for the good of others. These are reflective of Metta
Bhavana, the development of goodwill toward others. Real happiness lies in
peace, equanimity, and goodwill. Sri S.N. Goenka has made it popular (see
Hart, 1987).
Buddha has also talked about the noble eightfold path, which involves various
practices of abstinence, concentration, and developing insight into one’s own
nature. According to Buddha, wholesome actions produce happiness which are
real blessings.
5) Praņāyāma
It refers to the science of breath. Prana is the vital energy of the universe.
Thus prāņayāma is the science that imparts knowledge related to the control 41
Positive Psychology: of prana. Controlling prana allows control of mind and body. The yogic
An Introduction breathing exercises enable controlling the mind and attaining higher states of
consciousness. It is through the manifestation of prana that all body functions
are coordinated.
The energy of prana is subtle in form. Its most external manifestation is the breath.
Prana is the energy that governs the breath. Breath becomes the bridge between
mind and body. It is called a thermometer, which registers the conditions of
the mind and the influence of the environment on the body (Akhilanand, 1948,
1952; Swami Ram et.al. 1998). It is through the control of respiration that the
yogi proceeds to control the other subtle energies of prana.
There are various forms of Praņāyāma such as Nādi Śodhan, Kapāla-bhāti,
Bhaştrikā, Ujjayi, Bhrāmari, Sitali, and Sītkari. Actually, all these types of
pranayama involve variations in inhalation, retention, and exhalation of breath.
Breath awareness is an essential part of meditation.
6) Meditation
Meditation brings mind, body and spirit in harmony by experiencing equanimity.
The basis is the idea that we are not separated into mind and body. We are one
whole - the mind responds to the body at the same instant the body responds
to the mind. The awakened life is energetic and fully conscious. Meditation
essentially involves looking inward. It brings balance and equilibrium is
maintained.
Meditation involves a variety of practices such as self-inquiry, mindfulness,
reflection, concentration, contemplation, prayer, quiet mind, controlled breathing,
and bliss. Chopra (2020) has beautifully summarized these functions. Self inquiry
helps mind in recovering from habits. reflection frees from thoughtlessness.
Contemplation helps in recovering from confusion. Concentration allows to
recover from pointlessness. Prayer is the way mind recovers from helplessness.
Quiet mind helps recovering from overwork. Controlled breathing allows
recovery from stress. Bliss is the way to recover from suffering. In recent years
neuro-scientific mechanisms involved in meditation are being investigated (see
Goleman, & Davidson, 2018). It has been demonstrated that with training we
can change our level of consciousness and rise up into levels of consciousness
far beyond our ordinary human state.
7) Guņas and Svabhāva
It may be noted that experiencing the liberation of consciousness demands a
radical transformation in one’s awareness, which entails modification in one’s
svabhāva. We can understand this in terms of the triguna or three Gunas i.e.
Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas, which represent the principles of illumination
and creativity, activity and energy, and inertia, respectively. Thus people are
differentiated on the basis of the pattern of relative dominance of the three
gunas.
A satvic person is described as one who is endowed with discriminative intellect;
who is self-controlled, serene, equanimous, and steadfast; who is virtuous,
generous, and gentle; and who is detached and duty-bound without expectations,
a seeker of self and awareness of the unity underlying all diversities. A rajasic
42
person is one who is driven into action by passion, is restless, is struggling; who Eastern and Western
has more desires, strong likes and dislikes, and pursues sensory pleasures; who Perspectives on
Positive Psychology
is attached to one’s social roles; who lacks clear discrimination and has distorted
understanding; and who is egotistic. A tamasic person is depressed, lethargic,
disinclined to work, negligent, undisciplined, arrogant, hostile, indecisive,
ignorant, inadvertent, uncertain, and dull.
All the Indian perspectives converge on the point that spiritual development
involves getting more refined, which means leaving the tamasic and rajasic
tendencies and developing more sattvic qualities. The virtues and character
strengths that Positive psychology speaks of, are listed as satvic qualities in
Indian traditions. Thus IP emphasizes a comprehensive view of reality and
maintains a holistic stance, in which a human being is understood as biological,
psychological, and spiritual in nature and is in constant relationship with the
whole cosmos.
Self Assessment Questions 3
1. What is Yoga according to Patanjali ?
2. What are the first four sages in Ashtanga yoga ?
3. According to Bhagavadgita, human qualities are divided into which
two categories?
4. Controlling prana allows control of _______ and _________.
5. What are the three Gunas?

2.6 LET US SUM UP

Western and Indian perspectives both acknowledge the need to develop certain
human strengths. The Indian psychological approach emphasizes on a holistic
view of life and attends to interdependence and complementarity. It is being
realized that the individualist worldview and lifestyle of the western culture are
unsustainable and less likely to lead to happiness and life satisfaction. Whether
we like it or not we have to have interdependent existence, reflecting the eastern
collectivistic stance.
We are experiencing that in a globalized world, everyone’s actions have
repercussions on distant places and people. Also, it is felt that there is a
considerable degree of interdependence across all the animate and inanimate
partners constituting our environment. In this context fostering sustainable
happiness through behaviors, and motivating students and teachers to integrate
sustainability into their personal lives becomes very significant. The notion
of sustainable happiness implies that happiness must contribute to individual,
community, and global well-being without exploiting other people, the
environment, or future generations.
The idea of sustainable happiness, a major goal of both Positive psychology
and Indian psychology, requires acknowledging the fragility of the lifeworld
and navigating through it by expanding the notion of self and making it more
and more encompassing. As the Indian wisdom has been emphasizing that the
goal should be well-being of all (Sarvebhavantu sukhinah). The father of the 43
Positive Psychology: Indian nation, Mahatma Gandhi had not only emphasized in theory but put into
An Introduction practice a style of life in which genuine need is met but greed is deliberately
de-emphasized. Enduring well-being can be cultivated by caring for our body,
mind and spirit. Flourishing is possible by increasing the scope of generosity,
kindness and overcoming the rigid categories of ‘us’ and ‘they’. The empathy
and broader vision would foster interdependence, kindness and compassion.

2.7 GLOSSARY OF KEY WORDS IN INDIAN

PSYCHOLOGY
Advaita : non dualistic, identity of spirit and matter.
Ahimsā : non-violence, non-injury, harmlessness.
Ānanda : bliss , result of relation of sat and chit, part of
divine being and consciousness
Annamaya : material, made of matter
Artha : wealth
Āsana : sitting in particular posture such as padmasana,
vajrasana and virasana.
Ātman : the self, often used for self
Brahma : expanding one, all embracing spirit, the
universal soul.
Buddha : enlightened person
Buddhi : intellect, higher mind
Cārvāka : materialistic philosopher
Dharma : duty, virtue, first of the four aims of life
Dhāraņa : holding, concentrating mind upon before
dhyana, meditation
Dhyāna : meditation , reflection before samadhi
Dukha : suffering, sorrow, pain
Guņa : thread, three major qualities of prakriti, i.e.,
sattva, rajas and tamas, reflecting tranquility,
activity and inertia.
Jīva : living being, the living or personal soul
involved in manifestation
Karma yoga : yoga of action or work, involves freedom from
the fruit of action, freedom from attachment
to any action and freedom from the notion of
doer.
Kleśa : pain, affliction, distress; Yoga describes five
44 kleshas : avidya (ignorance) , asmita (egotism),
 raga (desire), dvesha (aversion) , abhinivesha Eastern and Western
(tendency of mundane existence). Perspectives on
Positive Psychology
Mānas : mind, antahkarana with the functions
perception, cognition.
Mettā : selfless love and goodwill. Metta bhavana is
systematic cultivation of metta.
Moksha : liberation, deliverance, release - the fourth
goal of life (Purushartha).
Nirvaņa : extinguished state, a state of ultimate peace
in which the whole world is seen as unreal,
absolute extinction or annihilation of
individual existence or of all desires, highest
bliss.
Satva : true existence, as a guna, it has purity and
knowledge.
Samādhi : union with, intense absorption, intense
contemplation of any object so that
contemplator identifies with the object
meditated upon. In vipassana it refers to
concentation and control of one’s mind, right
effort, right awareness, right concentration.
Sukha : good space, happiness, well-being opposed to
dukh, bad space as found in suffering, sorrow
and unhappiness.
Svabhāva : one’s nature, according to the nature of the
individual soul.
Vipāsanā : introspection, insight into impermanent nature
of mind and body which purifies the mind.
Yoga : the act of yoking or uniting; according to
Patanjali, it involves cessation of the habitual
movements of consciousness; any practice
which leads to union with divine is yoga. A
variety of yoga have been identified including
Karmayoga, Bhaktiyoga, Jnanayoga, Dhyāna
Yoga, Rājyoga, Hathayoga, Kriyā Yoga, and
Integral Yoga.

2.8 ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT

QUESTIONS
Answers to Self Assessment Questions 1
1. deficit
2. strength and virtue 45
Positive Psychology: 3. True
An Introduction
4. Jadunath Sinha
5. True
6. Jiva
7. Knowledge, devotion, action
Answers to Self Assessment Questions 2
1. Vigyanamay Kośa refers to higher forms of the mind and the subtle reams
like high order insights, intuition, and clarity of awareness.
2. Ayurveda
3. SthitaPragyā
4. Dharma, Artha, Kāma, and Moksha
Answers to Self Assessment Questions 3
1. Patanjali defines yoga as a process of restraining the mind (Chitta) from
various modifications (Vritti).
2. yama, niyama, asana, and pranayama
3. qualities belonging to the divine state (Daivī-Sampat) and demonic qualities
(āsurī-sampat).
4. mind and body.
5. Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas

2.9 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1. Describe the key parameters on which Indian perspective differs from the
western perspective.
2. Discuss the key themes and ideas from Indian psychology and explain how
they can enrich the field of positive psychology.
3. Discuss various religious and spiritual practices related to Indian perspective
that can help enhance well-being of people.

2.10 REFERENCES
Akhilanand, S. (1948). Hindu psychology: Its meaning for the West. London:
George Routledge & Sons.
Akhilanand, S. (1952). Mental health and Hindu psychology. London: George
Routledge & Sons.
Bhawuk, D. P. S. (2011). Spirituality and Indian psychology: Lessons from the
Bhagavadgita. New York: Springer.
Chopra, D. (2020). Total meditation. London: Penguin random House.
46
Cornelissen, R. M. M., Misra, G., & Varma, S. (Eds.). (2014). Foundations and Eastern and Western
applications of Indian psychology. New Delhi: Pearson. Perspectives on
Positive Psychology
Dalal, A. K. (2014). A journey back to the roots: Psychology in India. In R. M.
M. Cornelissen, G. Misra, & S. Verma (Eds.), Foundations and applications of
Indian psychology (pp. 18–39). New Delhi: Pearson.
Dalal, A. K., & Misra, G. (2010). The core and context of Indian psychology.
Psychology & Developing Psychology, 22, 121–155.
Gergen, K.J., Gulerce, A., Lock, A.L. & Misra, G. (1996). Psychological science
in cultural context. American Psychologist, 51, 496-503.
Goleman, D. & Davidson, R.J. ( 2018). The science of meditation. New York:
Penguin Books.
Hart, W. (2017). Vipassana meditation the art of living as taught by S.N.
Goenka. Igatpuri: Vipassana Research Institute.
Maslow, A. (1971). The farther reaches of human nature. New York: Penguin
Books.
Misra, G. (2003). Implications of culture for psychological knowledge. In J.W.
Berry, R.C. Misra, & R.C. Tripathi (Eds.), Psychology in human and social
development (pp. 31–67). Sage.
Misra, G. (Ed.). (2013). Psychology and psychoanalysis. Volume XIII Part 3
of History of science, philosophy, and culture in Indian civilization, General
Editor: D.P. Chattopadhyay. Centre for Studies in Civilizations.
Misra, G., & Gergen, K. J. (1993). On the place of culture in psychological
science. International Journal of Psychology, 28, 225–243.
Misra, G., & Mohanty, A. K. (Eds.). (2002). Perspectives on indigenous
psychology. New Delhi: Concept.
Misra G., & Paranjpe A.C. (2012).Psychology in modern India. In: Rieber
R.W. (eds) Encyclopedia of the history of psychological theories. Springer,
New York, NY
Paranjpe, A. C. (1984). Theoretical psychology: The meeting of east and west.
New York: Plenum Press.
Paranjpe, A. C. (1998). Self and identity in modern psychology and Indian
thought. New York: Plenum Press.
Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2004). Character strengths and virtues:
Handbook of classification. New York: Oxford University of Press.
Rao, K.R. (2011). Trishula: Trident model of person in Indian psychology. In
G.Misra (ed.) Handbook of psychology in India (pp 17-35). New Delhi: Oxford
University Press 17-35
Rao, K. R., & Paranjpe, A. C. (2016). Psychology in Indian tradition. New
Delhi : Springer.

47
Positive Psychology: Rao, K. R., Paranjpe, A. C., & Dalal, A. K. (Eds.). (2008). Handbook of Indian
An Introduction psychology. New Delhi: Cambridge University Press.
Safaya, R. (1975). Indian psychology: A critical and historical analysis of
psychological speculation in India philosophical literature. New Delhi:
Munshiram Manoharlal.
Salagame, K. K. K. (2006). Happiness and wellbeing in Indian tradition.
Psychological Studies, 51(4), 105-112.
Salagame, K. K. K. (2011). Indian indigenous perspectives and concepts:
Developments and future possibilities. In G. Misra (Ed.), Psychology in India
Volume IV: Theoretical and Methodological Developments (pp. 93-172). New
Delhi: Pearson Education.
Salagame, K.K.K. (2015) Indian perspectives and positive psychology. In
Upadesh Kumar, Archana, & Vijay Prakash (Eds.) .Positive Psychology:
Applications in Work, Health and Well-being. (pp. 1-28). New Delhi: Pearson
India.
Sinha, D. (1986). In psychology in a third world country. New Delhi: Sage.
Sinha, D. (1997). Indigenizing psychology. In J. W. Berry, Y. H. Poortinga, &
J. Pandey (Eds.), Handbook of cross-cultural psychology, Vol. I-Theory and
method (pp. 129–69). Boston: Allyn & Beacon.
Sinha, J. (1933/1985). Indian psychology: Perception. London, New Delhi:
Kegan Paul and Motilal Banarsidas.
Sinha, J. (1958). Indian psychology, Vol. 1 & 2. Calcutta: Jadunath Sinha
Foundation
Sinha, J. (1985). Indian Psychology, Vol. II –Emotion and Will. Delhi: Motilal
Banarasidas, (Reprint 1996).

2.11 SUGGESTED READINGS AND WEB

RESOURCES
Dalal, A. S. (Ed.). (2001). A greater psychology: An introduction to Sri
Aurobindo’s psychological thought. Pondicherry: Sri Aurobindo Ashram.
Misra, G & Sharad, S. (2011). Authenticity: A key to positivity in life . In A.K.
Chauhan, & S.S. Nathawat (eds.) New facets of positivism. (pp. 3-24). New
Delhi: McMillan.
Murthy, P. K., & Salagame, K. K. K. (2007). Concept triguna: A critical analysis
and synthesis. Psychological Studies, 52(2), 103-113
Nisbett, R.E. (2003) The Geography of Thought: How Asians and Westerners
think differently … and why. New York: Free Press.
Paranjpe, A. C., & Misra, G. (2012). Psychology in premodern India. In R. W.
Rieber (Ed.), Encyclopedia of the history of psychological theories (part 16)
(pp. 592–908). New York: Springer.

48
Rao, R. (1962). Development of psychological thought in India. Mysore: Positive Psychology
Kavyalaya. and Indian
Psychology
Safaya, R. (1975). Indian psychology. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal
Publishers.
Srivastava, A.K. & Misra, G. ( 2011). Happiness and wellbeing : An Indian
perspective. In G. Misra (ed.) Handbook of psychology in India (pp 299-310).
New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
Websites
https://ipi.org.in/

49