SSEKWE ROBERT

REFRACTION THROUGH PRISMS

A prism has two refracting surfaces. It uses a principle of reversibility of light, therefore light can
be incident on either surface.
When a ray of light is incident on the first surface at an angle of incidence 𝑖1 , it is refracted at an
angle of refraction, 𝑟1 with an angle of deviation, 𝑑1 .
The ray then emerges out on the second surface at an angle of emergence 𝑖2 , with an angle of
refraction, 𝑟2 and angle of deviation, 𝑑2 .

𝒊𝟏 𝒅
𝒅𝟏 𝒅𝟐
𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐 𝒊𝟐

𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝒅𝟏 = 𝒊𝟏 −𝒓𝟏

𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝒅𝟐 = 𝒊𝟐 −𝒓𝟐
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝒅 = 𝒅𝟏 +𝒅𝟐
𝒅 = ( 𝒊𝟏 −𝒓𝟏 ) + ( 𝒊𝟐 −𝒓𝟐 )
𝒅 = 𝒊𝟏 + 𝒊𝟐 − 𝒓𝟏 −𝒓𝟐
𝒅 = ( 𝒊𝟏 + 𝒊𝟐 ) − ( 𝒓𝟏 +𝒓𝟐 )
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑨 = 𝒓𝟏 +𝒓𝟐
𝒅 = (𝒊𝟏 + 𝒊𝟐 ) − 𝑨
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑨 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒔𝒎
NOTE:
If a ray of light does not emerge out but instead grazes on one surface of the prism, then
the angle of refraction at that surface is equal to the critical angle.

𝒊𝟏
𝒓𝟏 𝒄 𝒊𝟐

N.B:
For calculations involving prisms, it is easier to consider refractions at each side separately using
the law of reversibility of light.

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Examples:
1. A ray of light is incident on a glass prism of refractive index 1.5 at an angle of 400 . Given
that the ray emerges out an angle of 58.40 . Find the;
i) angle of refraction at both surfaces
ii) refracting angle of the prism.
iii) total deviation of the prism.
i)
𝑨 𝐑𝐞𝐟𝐫𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐚𝐭 𝐟𝐢𝐫𝐬𝐭 𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐞 𝐑𝐞𝐟𝐫𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐚𝐭 𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝 𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐞
∩𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊 = ∩𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓 ∩𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊 = ∩𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓
𝟒𝟎𝟎 ∩𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊𝟏 = ∩𝒈 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓𝟏 ∩𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊𝟐 = ∩𝒈 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓𝟐
𝒓𝟏 𝒓 𝟓𝟖. 𝟒𝟎
𝟐
𝟏 × 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟒𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓𝟏 𝟏 × 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟓𝟖. 𝟒𝟎 = 𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓𝟐
𝑨 𝟎. 𝟔𝟒𝟐𝟖 = 𝟏. 𝟓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓𝟏 𝟎. 𝟖𝟓𝟏𝟕 = 𝟏. 𝟓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓𝟐
𝟎. 𝟔𝟒𝟐𝟖 𝟎. 𝟖𝟓𝟏𝟕
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓𝟏 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓𝟐 =
𝟏. 𝟓 𝟏. 𝟓
𝒊𝟏 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎 , 𝒊𝟐 = 𝟓𝟖. 𝟒𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟐𝟖𝟓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟔𝟕𝟖
𝒓𝟏 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 (𝟎. 𝟒𝟐𝟖𝟓) 𝒓𝟐 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 (𝟎. 𝟓𝟔𝟕𝟖)
𝒓𝟏 = 𝟐𝟓. 𝟒𝟎 𝒓𝟐 = 𝟑𝟒. 𝟔𝟎

ii) ii)
𝐑𝐞𝐟𝐫𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐞 𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐝𝐞𝐯𝐢𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
𝑨 = 𝒓𝟏 + 𝒓𝟐 𝒅 = (𝒊𝟏 + 𝒊𝟐 ) − 𝑨
𝑨 = 𝟐𝟓. 𝟒𝟎 + 𝟑𝟒. 𝟔𝟎 𝒅 = (𝟒𝟎𝟎 + 𝟓𝟖. 𝟒𝟎 ) − 𝟔𝟎𝟎
𝑨 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝒅 = 𝟗𝟖. 𝟒𝟎 − 𝟔𝟎𝟎
𝒅 = 𝟑𝟖. 𝟒𝟎

2. A ray of light propagating from a liquid is incident on a prism of refracting angle 500 and
refractive index 1.6 at an angle of 300 as shown below.

𝟓𝟎𝟎

𝟑𝟎𝟎
𝒓𝟏 𝒓
𝟐
𝒆

𝟓𝟎𝟎

If the refractive index of the liquid is 1.35. Calculate

i) Angle of refraction, 𝑟1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟2
ii) Angle of emergency, 𝑒
iii) Angle of deviation

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i) ii)
𝐑𝐞𝐟𝐫𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐚𝐭 𝐟𝐢𝐫𝐬𝐭 𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐞 𝐑𝐞𝐟𝐫𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐚𝐭 𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝 𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐞
∩𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊 = ∩𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓 ∩𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊 = ∩𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓
∩𝒍 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊𝟏 = ∩𝒈 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓𝟏 ∩𝒍 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒆 = ∩𝒈 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓𝟐
𝟏. 𝟑𝟓 × 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟑𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏. 𝟔 × 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓𝟏 𝟏. 𝟑𝟓 × 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒆 = 𝟏. 𝟔 × 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝟓𝟎
𝟎. 𝟔𝟕𝟓𝟎 = 𝟏. 𝟔 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓𝟏 𝟏. 𝟑𝟓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒆 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟕𝟔𝟐
𝟎. 𝟔𝟕𝟓𝟎 𝟎. 𝟔𝟕𝟔𝟐
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓𝟏 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒆 =
𝟏. 𝟔 𝟏. 𝟑𝟓
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟐𝟏𝟗 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒆 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟗
𝒓𝟏 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 (𝟎. 𝟒𝟐𝟏𝟗) 𝒆 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 (𝟎. 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟗)
𝒓𝟏 = 𝟐𝟓. 𝟎𝟎 𝒆 = 𝟑𝟎. 𝟏𝟎

𝑨 = 𝒓𝟏 + 𝒓𝟐 iii)
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐝𝐞𝐯𝐢𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
𝟓𝟎𝟎 = 𝟐𝟓. 𝟎𝟎 + 𝒓𝟐
𝒅 = (𝒊𝟏 + 𝒊𝟐 ) − 𝑨
𝒓𝟐 = 𝟐𝟓. 𝟎𝟎
𝒅 = (𝟑𝟎𝟎 + 𝟑𝟎. 𝟏𝟎 ) − 𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝒅 = 𝟔𝟎. 𝟏𝟎 − 𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝒅 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟏𝟎
3. A ray of light is incident at an angle of incidence, 𝑖 a triangular prism of refractive index 1.52
as shown below. Find the angles marked 𝑐, 𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖.

𝟔𝟎𝟎

𝒊
𝒓
𝒄
𝟔𝟎𝟎

𝐑𝐞𝐟𝐫𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐚𝐭 𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝 𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐞

∩𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊 = ∩𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓 𝑨 = 𝒓 𝟏 + 𝒓𝟐
∩𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊𝟐 = ∩𝒈 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓𝟐 𝟔𝟎𝟎 = 𝒓 + 𝒄
𝟏 × 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟗𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟐 × 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒄 𝟔𝟎𝟎 = 𝒓 + 𝟒𝟏. 𝟏𝟎
𝟏 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒄 𝒓 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎 − 𝟒𝟏. 𝟏𝟎
𝟏 𝒓 = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟗𝟎
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒄 =
𝟏. 𝟓𝟐
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟓𝟕𝟗 𝐑𝐞𝐟𝐫𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐚𝐭 𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝 𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐞
𝒄 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 (𝟎. 𝟔𝟓𝟕𝟗) ∩𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊 = ∩𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓
𝒄 = 𝟒𝟏. 𝟏𝟎 ∩𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊𝟏 = ∩𝒈 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓𝟏
𝟏 × 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟐 × 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟏𝟖. 𝟗𝟎
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟗𝟐𝟒
𝒊 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 (𝟎. 𝟒𝟗𝟐𝟒)
𝒊 = 𝟐𝟗. 𝟓𝟎

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4. The figure below shows light incident normally on a glass prism in air.
a) Copy and complete the diagram.
b) Calculate the refractive index of the prism if the critical angle of
glass is 420

a) b)
𝟏
𝟎 ∩𝒈 =
𝟒𝟓 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒄
𝟒𝟓𝟎 𝟏
∩𝒈 =
𝟒𝟓𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟒𝟐𝟎
∩𝒈 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟗
𝟒𝟓𝟎

𝟒𝟓𝟎 𝟒𝟓𝟎

The ray took that path since the angle of

incidence is greater than the critical angle of
glass i.e. 𝟒𝟓𝟎 > 𝟒𝟐𝟎

EXERCISE
1. A prism of refractive index 1.5 and refracting angle 600 has an angle of refraction 280 on the
first refracting face. Determine;
i) Angle of incidence (Ans: 𝟒𝟒. 𝟖𝟎 )
ii) Angle of refraction on second refracting surface (Ans: 𝟑𝟐𝟎 )
iii) Angle of emergency (Ans: 𝟓𝟐. 𝟔𝟎 )
iv) Angle of deviation (Ans: 𝟑𝟕. 𝟒𝟎 )

2. A ray of light is incident on a glass prism at an angle, 𝑖 as shown below.

𝒊
𝟏𝟓𝟎
𝟒𝟑𝟎

Find the refractive index of the prism, refracting angle and angle of incidence, 𝑖.
Ans: ∩𝒈 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟕, 𝑨 = 𝟓𝟖𝟎 , 𝒊 = 𝟐𝟕𝟎

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3. A ray of light is incident on a glass prism of an angle, 𝑖 as shown below.

𝟔𝟎𝟎

𝒊
𝒚
𝒙 𝟒𝟎𝟎

If the refractive index of the prism is 1.5, find the angles marked 𝑥, 𝑦, and 𝑖.
Ans: 𝒙 = 𝟐𝟓. 𝟒𝟎 , 𝒚 = 𝟑𝟒. 𝟔𝟎 , 𝒊 = 𝟓𝟗. 𝟒𝟎

4. The diagram below shows a ray of yellow light incident at an angle of 500 on one side of an
equilateral triangular glass prism of refractive index 1.52.
𝟔𝟎𝟎

𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝒓 𝒆

Calculate the angles marked 𝑟 and 𝑒.

Ans: 𝒓 = 𝟑𝟎. 𝟑𝟎 , 𝒊 = 𝟒𝟖. 𝟗𝟎

Experiment to determine the refractive index of glass using a glass prism:

𝑹

𝒊
𝑵 𝒓 𝒓
𝑷𝟐 𝑴
𝑷𝟏 𝑷𝟑
𝑷𝟒
𝑷 𝑸
Procedures;
▪ Fix a white sheet of paper on a soft board using drawing pins.
▪ Place a glass prism on the white sheet of paper and draw its outline PQR.
▪ Remove the glass prism and draw a normal at N to meet PQ.
▪ Using a protractor, measure angle of incidence, 𝑖 from the normal and fix two pins 𝑃1 and 𝑃2
along it.
▪ Replace the glass prism back to its outline.
▪ Look through the glass prism from the opposite side QR and fix pins 𝑃3 and 𝑃4 such that they
appear to be in line with the images of pins 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 .
▪ Remove the glass prism and the pins 𝑃3 and 𝑃4 .
▪ Draw a line to join the marks of pins 𝑃3 and 𝑃4 to meet at M and then join N to M.
▪ Measure the angle of refraction, 𝑟.

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▪ Repeat the procedures above for different values of 𝑖 .

▪ Tabulate your results including values of sin 𝑖 and sin 𝑟.
𝑖(°) 𝑟(°) sin 𝑖 sin 𝑟

▪ Plot a graph of sin 𝑖 against sin 𝑟.

▪ Determine the slope of the graph.

Conclusion:
▪ The graph is a straight line and its slope is equal to the refractive index of the glass prism.

𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒊

𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒓

REFRACTION THROUGH LENSES

Lenses are spherical surfaces made from a transparent material.
The materials used to make these lenses may be glass, plastics and water.

Types of lenses;
There are two types of lenses namely;
• Convex (converging) lenses.
• Concave (diverging lenses.

CONVERGING (CONVEX) LENSES:

These are thicker in the middle than at the edges.
A convex lens is called a converging lens because all parallel rays incident to it meet at one point
after refraction.
Examples of converging lenses include;

𝑩𝒊 − 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒙 𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒐 − 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒙 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒙 𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒖𝒔

DIVERGING (CONCAVE) LENSES:

These are thicker at the edges than in the middle.
A concave lens is called a diverging lens because all parallel rays incident to it appear to diverge
from one point after refraction.

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Examples of diverging lenses include;

𝑩𝒊 − 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒖𝒔 𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒐 − 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒂𝒗𝒆

TERMS USED IN LENSES

𝐏 𝐏 𝐏 𝐏
𝟐𝑭 𝑭 𝐎 𝟐𝑭 𝑭 𝐎 𝑭 𝟐𝑭
𝑭 𝟐𝑭

Pole of a lens (P):

This is the mid-point of the surface of the lens.

Optical centre (O):

This is the centre of the lens between its poles.

Principal axis:
This is a straight line passing through the optical centre and principal focus of a lens.

Principal focus, F of a converging lens:

This is a point on the principal axis where all rays close and parallel to the principal axis
converge to after refraction.

𝑭 𝟐𝑭

Principal focus, F of a diverging lens:

This is a point on the principal axis where all rays close and parallel to the principal axis appear
to diverge from after refraction.

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𝟐𝑭 𝑭

Focal length ( f ):
This is the distance between the optical centre and the principal focus of the lens.

RULES FOR DRAWING RAY DIAGRAMS IN LENSES

CONVERGING LENS DIVERGING LENS

1. A ray parallel to the principal axis is A ray parallel to the principal axis is refracted
refracted passing through the principal such that it appears to be coming from the
focus, F. principal focus, F.

𝐅 𝐅

2. A ray passing through the principal focus A ray that pass through the principal focus is
is refracted parallel to the principal axis. refracted parallel to the principal axis.

𝐅 𝐅

3. A ray passing through the optical centre A ray passing through the optical centre is not
is not refracted or undeviated refracted or undeviated

𝐅 𝐅
𝐅 𝐅

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IMAGES FORMED BY CONVEX (CONVERGING) LENSES

The nature of the image formed depends on the position of the object from the lens.

(a) Object beyond 2F:

Nature of image, I formed:
✓ Between F and 2F.
✓ Real
✓ Inverted (upside down)
𝐈 ✓ Diminished (smaller than object)
𝐎 𝟐𝐅 𝐅 𝐅 𝟐𝐅

(b) Object at 2F:

Nature of image, I formed:
✓ Between at 2F.
✓ Real
✓ Inverted (upside down)
𝐈
✓ Same size as object
𝟐𝐅 𝐅 𝐅 𝟐𝐅
𝐎

(c) Object between 2F and F:

Nature of image, I formed:
✓ Beyond 2F.
✓ Real
✓ Inverted (upside down)
𝐈
✓ Magnified (bigger than object)
𝟐𝐅 𝐎 𝐅 𝐅 𝟐𝐅

(d) Object at F:
Nature of image, I formed:
✓ At infinity.
✓ Magnified

𝟐𝐅 𝐅 𝐅 𝟐𝐅
𝐎

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(e) Object between F and optical centre:

Nature of image, I formed:
✓ Beyond 2F.
✓ Virtual
✓ Upright
✓ Magnified

𝐈 𝟐𝐅 𝐅 𝐎 𝐅 𝟐𝐅

NOTE:
A converging lens acts as a magnifying glass when the object is placed between the
principal focus and the optical centre.

(f) Object at infinity:

Nature of image, I formed:
✓ Formed at F.
✓ Real
✓ Inverted (upside down)
✓ Diminished (smaller than object)

𝐈
𝟐𝐅 𝐅 𝐅 𝟐𝐅

QN:
Explain how a converging lens can be used as a magnifying glass.
A converging lens can used as a magnifying glass when the object is placed between the
principal focus and the optical centre.

𝐈 𝟐𝐅 𝐅𝐎 𝐅 𝟐𝐅

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IMAGES FORMED BY CONCAVE (DIVERGING) LENSES

For all positions of the object, the image formed by a concave lens is always virtual, upright and
diminished.

𝟐𝐅 𝐎 𝐅 𝐈 𝐅 𝟐𝐅

CONSTRUCTION OF ACCURATE RAY DIAGRAMS ON A GRAPH PAPER

Steps taken:
❖ Draw a horizontal line which acts as the principal axis.
❖ Choose a suitable scale for the object and its position depending on the given distances.
❖ Measure focal length, f and mark positions F and 2F (𝑹𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟐𝑭 = 𝟐𝒇)
❖ Use any two rules to draw ray diagrams.

Examples:
1. An object of height 4cm is placed at a distance of 60cm from a converging lens of focal
length 20cm. Find by scale drawing the position, height and nature of the image.

Axis Scale
Conversion
Vertical axis ▪ Height of object, O:
𝟏: 𝟐𝒄𝒎
4
= 2𝑐𝑚
2
Horizontal axis 𝟏: 𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎 ▪ Focal length, f:
20
= 2𝑐𝑚
10
▪ Object distance, U:
60
= 6𝑐𝑚
10

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𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, 𝑽
Hint: (3 × 10)
𝑽 = 𝟑𝟎𝒄𝒎

𝑵𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒆
- 𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝐈
𝐎 - 𝐷𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑑
𝟐𝐅 𝐅 𝐅 𝟐𝐅
- 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙

𝑺𝒊𝒛𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒆
Hint: (1 × 2)
𝒉𝒊 = 𝟐𝒄𝒎

2. An object of height 2cm is placed at a distance of 10cm from a converging lens of focal
length 30cm. Find by scale drawing the position, the height and the nature of the image.

Axis Scale Conversion

Vertical axis 𝟏: 𝟏𝒄𝒎 ▪ Height of object, O:
2
= 2𝑐𝑚
1
Horizontal axis 𝟏: 𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎 ▪ Focal length, f:
30
= 3𝑐𝑚
10
▪ Object distance, U:
10
= 1𝑐𝑚
10

𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, 𝑽
Hint: (1.5 × 10)
𝑽 = 𝟏𝟓𝒄𝒎

𝑵𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒆
- 𝑈𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
- 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑
- 𝑉𝑖𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
𝟐𝐅 𝐅 𝐈 𝐎 𝐅 𝟐𝐅
𝑯𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒆
Hint: (3 × 1)
𝒉𝒊 = 𝟑𝒄𝒎

𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝒗 𝟏𝟓
𝑴= =
𝒖 𝟏𝟎
𝑴 = 𝟏. 𝟓

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3. An object of height 10cm is placed at a distance of 60cm from a diverging lens of focal
length 20cm. Find by accurate diagrams, the;
i) Image position
ii) Height of image
iii) Nature of image
iv) Magnification

Axis Scale Conversion

Vertical axis 𝟏: 𝟓𝒄𝒎 ▪ Height of object, O:
10
= 2𝑐𝑚
5
Horizontal axis 𝟏: 𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎 ▪ Focal length, f:
20
= 2𝑐𝑚
10
▪ Object distance, U:
60
= 6𝑐𝑚
10

i) 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, 𝑽
Hint: (1.5 × 10)
𝑽 = 𝟏𝟓𝒄𝒎

ii) 𝑯𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒆

Hint: (0.5 × 5)
𝒉𝒊 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝒄𝒎

𝐎 𝟐𝐅 𝐅 𝐈 𝐅 𝟐𝐅 iii) 𝑵𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒆

- 𝑈𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
- 𝐷𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑑
- 𝑉𝑖𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
iv) 𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝒗
𝑴=
𝒖
𝟏𝟓
𝑴=
𝟔𝟎
𝑴 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓

4. An object 5cm tall placed in front of a converging lens forms an inverted image 10cm tall
and 30cm from the lens. By construction, find the position of the object and focal length of
the lens.

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Axis Scale Conversion

Vertical axis 𝟏: 𝟓𝒄𝒎 ▪ Height of object, O:
5
= 1𝑐𝑚
5
▪ Height of image, I:
10
= 2𝑐𝑚
5
Horizontal axis 𝟏: 𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎 ▪ Image distance, V:
30
= 3𝑐𝑚
10

𝑶𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, 𝑼
Hint: (1.5 × 10)
𝑼 = 𝟏𝟓𝒄𝒎

𝑭𝒐𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉, f
Hint: (1 × 10)
𝐅 𝐈
𝒇 = 𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎
𝐎

Recall: Light rays are

reversible

5. An object 32.5cm from a diverging lens of focal length 12cm. By scale drawing and using
height of your own choice, find the position and nature of the image.

Let height of object be 10cm

Axis Scale Conversion
Vertical axis 𝟏: 𝟓𝒄𝒎 ▪ Height of object, O:
10
= 2𝑐𝑚
5
Horizontal axis 𝟏: 𝟓𝒄𝒎 ▪ Focal length, f:
12
= 2.4𝑐𝑚
5
▪ Object distance, U:
32.5
= 6.5𝑐𝑚
5

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𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, 𝑽
Hint: (1.75 × 5)
𝑽 = 𝟖. 𝟕𝟓𝒄𝒎

𝑵𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒆
- 𝑈𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
- 𝐷𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑑
𝐎 𝐈 - 𝑉𝑖𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
𝟐𝐅 𝐅 𝐅

LENS FORMULA
The both formula for both converging and diverging lenses is given by;
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝒇 𝒖 𝒗
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝒇 = 𝑓𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝒖 = 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝒗 = 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑛𝑐𝑒
Sign convention;
It states that “real” is positive and “virtual” is negative.
Note:
When calculating using the lens formula;
▪ The focal length, image distance and object distance of a converging lens are positive.
▪ The focal length and image distance of a diverging lens are negative but the object
distance remains positive.

Examples;
1. An object of height 10cm is placed at a distance of 60cm from a diverging lens of focal
length 20cm. Find the position of the image and state its nature.

𝒖 = 𝟔𝟎𝒄𝒎, 𝒗 =? , 𝒇 = −𝟐𝟎𝒄𝒎 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
Image position; −𝟐𝟎 𝟔𝟎 𝒗
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + − =
𝒇 𝒖 𝒗 −𝟐𝟎 𝟔𝟎 𝒗
𝟏 −𝟏
=
𝒗 𝟏𝟓
𝒗 = −𝟏𝟓𝒄𝒎

The image is;

▪ Virtual (since V is negative)
▪ Upright and diminished (it is a diverging lens)

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2. An object of height 4cm is placed at a distance of 60cm from a converging lens of focal
length 30cm. Find the position and height of the image.
𝒖 = 𝟔𝟎𝒄𝒎, 𝒗 =? , 𝒇 = 𝟑𝟎𝒄𝒎, 𝒉𝒐 = 𝟒𝒄𝒎 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝒗 𝒉𝒊
= + =
Image position; 𝟑𝟎 𝟔𝟎 𝒗 𝒖 𝒉𝒐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟔𝟎 𝒉𝒊
= + − = =
𝒇 𝒖 𝒗 𝟑𝟎 𝟔𝟎 𝒗 𝟔𝟎 𝟒
𝟏 𝟏 𝒉𝒊 = 𝟒𝒄𝒎
=
𝒗 𝟔𝟎
𝒗 = 𝟔𝟎𝒄𝒎

POWER OF A LENS
Power of a lens is the reciprocal of its focal length in metres.
Its SI unit is Dioptres (D).
𝟏
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒔 =
𝒇𝒐𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉(𝒎)
𝟏
𝑷=
𝒇(𝒎)
Examples:
1. Calculate the power of a converging lens of focal length 10mm.
𝟏𝟎 𝟏
𝒇 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝒎 𝑷=
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏
𝟏 𝑷 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝑫
𝑷=
𝒇

2. Calculate the power of a diverging lens of focal length 10cm.

−𝟏𝟎 𝟏
𝒇 = −𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎 = = −𝟎. 𝟏𝒎 𝑷=
𝟏𝟎𝟎 −𝟎. 𝟏
𝟏 𝑷 = −𝟏𝟎𝑫
𝑷=
𝒇

NOTE:
If two lenses are combined, we get their total power of combination.
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒔 + 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒔

3. Two converging lenses of focal length 15cm and 20cm are placed in contact. Calculate the
power of combination.
𝟏𝟓 𝑷 = 𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐
𝒇𝟏 = 𝟏𝟓𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝒎 𝟏 𝟏
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑷= +
𝟐𝟎 𝒇𝟏 𝒇𝟐
𝒇𝟐 = 𝟐𝟎𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟐𝒎
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟏 𝟏
𝑷= +
𝟎. 𝟏𝟓 𝟎. 𝟐
𝑷 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟔𝟕𝑫

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4. A converging lens of focal length 20cm is placed in contact with a diverging lens of focal
length 100mm. find the power of the combination.
𝟐𝟎 𝑷 = 𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐
𝒇𝟏 = 𝟐𝟎𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟐𝒎 𝟏 𝟏
𝟏𝟎𝟎
−𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑷 = +
𝒇𝟐 = −𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒎 = = −𝟎. 𝟏𝒎 𝒇𝟏 𝒇𝟐
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟏 𝟏
𝑷= +
𝟎. 𝟐 −𝟎. 𝟏
𝑷 = −𝟓𝑫

METHODS OF DETERMINING FOCAL LENGTH OF A CONCAVE MIRROR

(Methods of determining radius of curvature of a concave mirror)

(a) Using a distant object/approximate/rough method:

𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒔

𝑹𝒂𝒚𝒔 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒂
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕

𝑺𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒏
𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒔 𝒉𝒐𝒍𝒅𝒆𝒓
𝒇
▪ The apparatus is arranged as shown above.
▪ Light from a distant object e.g. a window is focused onto the screen.
▪ The converging lens is moved to and fro until a sharp image of a distant object is obtained on
the screen.
▪ The distance between the sharp image (screen) and the lens is measured and it is
approximately equal to the focal length of the lens.

(b) Using plane mirror method:

𝑩𝒖𝒍𝒃
𝑰

𝑺𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆 𝒎𝒊𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓

𝒘𝒊𝒓𝒆 𝒈𝒂𝒖𝒛𝒆 (𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕)
𝒇

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▪ An illuminated wire gauze is placed in front of the converging lens.

▪ A plane mirror is placed behind the lens to reflect back the light that passes through the lens.
▪ The converging lens is moved to and fro until a sharp image of the wire gauze is formed on
the screen near the object. At this point the image and the object will be at the principal
focus.
▪ The distance between the lens and the screen is measured and it is equal to the focal length, f
of the converging lens.

(c) Using object and image distances (Lens formula method):

𝑶𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒔
(𝒘𝒊𝒓𝒆 𝒈𝒂𝒖𝒛𝒆)

𝑺𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒏

𝑩𝒖𝒍𝒃

𝒖 𝒗
▪ The apparatus is arranged as shown above with the lens between the screen and the object.
▪ The lens is placed at a known distance, u from the wire gauze.
▪ The screen is moved to and fro until a clear image of the object is formed on it.
▪ The image distance, V is then measured and recorded.
▪ The experiment is repeated for different values of object distance, u and the corresponding
values of image distance are obtained.
1 1
▪ The results are tabulated including values of and .
𝑢 𝑣
𝒖 𝒗 𝟏 𝟏
𝒖 𝒗

▪ The focal length for all values is calculated from;

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝒇 𝒖 𝒗
▪ The accurate focal length is obtained by getting the mean value of the calculated focal
lengths.

APPLICATIONS OR USES OF LENSES

• The eye uses a lens to focus images on the retina.
• Lenses are used in spectacles to correct eye defects.
• Lenses are used in lens cameras.
• Lenses are used in projectors.
• Lenses are used in microscopes.

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OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
(Applications of lenses)
Optical instruments help us to see near and far objects clearly.
They include;
▪ Slide projectors ▪ Telescopes
▪ Lens cameras ▪ Periscopes
▪ Human eye ▪ Microscopes

SLIDE PROJECTORS
The projector is used to project the image of a slide onto the screen. It forms a real image.
𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑺𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒏
𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒔

𝑺𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝑺𝒍𝒊𝒅𝒆/𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒎

𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒆𝒓
𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒆
Functions of the parts of the projector:
Source of light:
It provides a powerful beam of light which illuminates the whole system.

Concave reflector:
It reflects back light rays that would have been wasted.

Condenser:
It is made up of two plano-convex lenses which converge and concentrate light onto the slide.

Slide / film:
It acts as the object whose image is to be projected.

Projection lens:
It magnifies the image of the slide on the screen.

Screen:
This is where the real image of the slide is formed.

Heat filter:
It absorbs any heat from the source which would melt the slide.

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Examples:
1. A projection lens is used to produce a sharp image of an object when the object and the
screen are 160cm apart. If the linear magnification is 7, calculate the focal length of the lens
used.
𝑀 = 𝟕, 𝒖 + 𝒗 = 𝟏𝟔𝟎𝒄𝒎 ⟹ 𝒗 = 𝟏𝟔𝟎 − 𝒖 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝒗 = +
𝑴= 𝒇 𝒖 𝒗
𝒖 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝟏𝟔𝟎 − 𝒖 = +
𝟕= 𝒇 𝟐𝟎 𝟏𝟒𝟎
𝒖 𝟏 𝟐
𝟕𝒖 + 𝒖 = 𝟏𝟔𝟎 =
𝟏𝟔𝟎 𝒇 𝟑𝟓
𝒖= 𝟑𝟓
𝟖 𝒇=
𝒖 = 𝟐𝟎𝒄𝒎 𝟐
𝒗 = 𝟏𝟔𝟎 − 𝟐𝟎 𝒇 = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟓𝒄𝒎
𝒗 = 𝟏𝟒𝟎𝒄𝒎
2. A slide projector using slide 5cm by 5cm produces a picture of 3cm by 3cm on the screen at
a distance of 24cm from the projection lens. How far from the lens must the slide be?
𝒉𝟎 = 𝟓𝒄𝒎 𝒉𝒊 = 𝟑𝒄𝒎 𝒗 = 𝟐𝟒𝒄𝒎 𝟐𝟒 × 𝟓
𝒉𝒊 𝒗 𝒖 =
𝟑
= 𝒖 = 𝟒𝟎𝒄𝒎
𝒉𝟎 𝒖
𝟑 𝟐𝟒
=
𝟓 𝒖

LENS CAMERA
It consists of a light-tight box with a convex lens at the front side.
It has a light sensitive film at the back on which a real, inverted and diminished image.
The inner surface is painted black to prevent the reflection of stray rays of light which would
blur the image.

𝑫𝒊𝒂𝒑𝒉𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒎
𝑭𝒊𝒍𝒎 𝒔𝒑𝒐𝒐𝒍

𝑭𝒊𝒍𝒎
𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒔

𝑳𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒃𝒐𝒙
𝑺𝒉𝒖𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝑨𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆

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Functions of the parts of the lens camera:

Converging lens:
It focuses the image of the object on the film.

Diaphragm:
It controls the size of the aperture thus controlling the amount of light entering the camera.
The brightness of the image depends on the amount of light entering the camera.

Shutter:
It controls the amount of light reaching the film.

Film:
It is a light-sensitive part where a real, inverted and diminished image is formed.

HUMAN EYE
𝑺𝒖𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒐𝒓𝒚 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕

𝑰𝒓𝒊𝒔 𝑪𝒉𝒍𝒐𝒓𝒐𝒊𝒅

𝑨𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝒉𝒖𝒎𝒐𝒖𝒓 𝑹𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒂

𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒏𝒆𝒂
𝑷𝒖𝒑𝒊𝒍

𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒔 𝑶𝒑𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒆𝒔

𝑽𝒊𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝒉𝒖𝒎𝒐𝒖𝒓
𝑪𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒎𝒖𝒔𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔

Light enters the eye through the cornea. The eye lens focusses the image of the object onto the
retina.
The retina is sensitive to light and sends messages to the brain through the optic nerves.
Light entering the eye is controlled by the iris.
The lens changes its size so as to focus images of far and near objects on the retina and this is
referred to as accommodation.

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Functions of the parts of the eye:

Lens:
The convex lens changes in size so as to focus light onto the retina.

Ciliary muscle:
This changes the focal length of the eye lens by changing its size.

Iris:
It controls the amount of light entering the eye by regulating the size of the pupil.

Retina:
This is where the image is formed.

Optic nerves:
They transmit signals of the image from the retina to the brain for interpretation.

NOTE:
▪ Eye brows stop sweat from running into the eyes.
▪ Eye lashes help to stop dust blowing into the eye.
▪ Blinking of the eye prevents dust and other particles from reaching the surface of the
cornea.

Important definitions
Accommodation: This is the ability of the eye to change the focal length of its lens so as to
focus images of near and far objects on the retina.
OR
This is the ability of the eye to focus images of near and far objects on the
retina by changing the size of the eye lens.

Near point: This is the closest or nearest point at which an eye can have a clear vision/image.
For a normal eye, the near point is 25cm.

Far point: This is the most distant or furthest point at which the eye can have a clear
vision/image.
For a normal eye, the far point is at infinity.

EYE DEFECTS AND THEIR CORRECTIONS

This is a situation where the eye is unable to focus images of near and far objects on the retina.

There are two common eye defects namely;

▪ Short sightedness (Myopia)
▪ Long sightedness (Hypermetropia)

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SHORT SIGHTEDNESS (MYOPIA)

A short-sighted person can see nearby objects clearly but cannot see far objects clearly.
The images of the near objects are formed on the retina.
The images of far objects are formed in front of the retina because the eye ball is too long.
This causes a shorter focal length of the eye lens.
𝑵𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒚 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝑭𝒂𝒓 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕

𝑰 𝑰
𝑶

𝑹𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒂 𝑹𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒂

Correction of short sightedness:

It is corrected by wearing spectacles containing a diverging (concave) lens.
The diverging lens diverges the light rays from the far object before entering the eye and the
convex lens of the eye converges the diverged rays onto the retina thus forming a clear image.

𝑹𝒂𝒚𝒔 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒕𝒉𝒆

𝑭𝒂𝒓 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝑰

𝑹𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒂
𝑫𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒔

LONG SIGHTEDNESS (HYPERMETROPIA)

A long-sighted person can see far objects clearly but cannot see nearby objects clearly.
The images of the far objects are formed on the retina.
The images of nearby objects are formed behind the retina because the eye ball is too short.
This causes a longer focal length of the eye lens.
𝑵𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒚 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝑭𝒂𝒓 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕

𝑰 𝑰
𝑶

𝑹𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒂 𝑹𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒂

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Correction of long sightedness:

It is corrected by wearing spectacles containing a converging (convex) lens.
The converging lens converges the light rays from the near object before entering the eye and the
convex lens of the eye converges the converged rays onto the retina thus forming a clear image.

𝑶 𝑰

𝑹𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒂
𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒔
Astigmatism:
This is where light rays entering the eye fails to come to a single focus point. The person
sees a distorted image. A person suffering from astigmatism faces eye strains and headaches
after prolonged reading and watching televisions.

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN THE EYE AND THE CAMERA

• Both have a convex lens.
• Both form a real, inverted and diminished image.
• Both have a system which controls the amount of light entering i.e. Iris is to eye and
Diaphragm is to camera.
• Both have a light sensitive part where images are formed i.e. retina is to eye and film is to
camera.
• The camera is painted black inside and the eye is impregnated with a black pigment called
choroid.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE EYE AND CAMERA

Human eye Lens camera
• The eye lens is biological (natural). • The camera lens is artificial.
• The eye lens has a changing focal • The camera lens has a fixed focal length.
length. • The distance between the camera lens is
• The distance between the eye lens and adjustable.
retina is fixed. • Forms an image on the film.
• Forms an image on the retina. • Amount of light entering the camera is
• Amount of light entering the eye is controlled by the diaphragm.
controlled by the iris.

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COLOURS AND DISPERSION OF LIGHT

Colours of objects depend on the colour of light which reaches our eyes.
It is proved that white light is made up of a mixture (band) of seven colours i.e. Red, Orange,
Yellow, Green , Blue, Indigo and Violet. (ROYGBIV)
This band of colours in white light is referred to as a spectrum.
Definition;
A spectrum is a band of seven colours that form white light.

DISPERSION OF WHITE LIGHT:

❖ Dispersion is the splitting of white light into its constituent colours.
When white light is passed into a prism, it is deviated and separated into seven colours. This is
because the refractive index for a prism is different for each colour.
Therefore, each colour moves at a different speed.

𝑹
𝑶
𝒀
𝑮
𝑩
𝑰
𝑽
𝒅 − 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒆𝒗𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
▪ Red colour which has the least refractive index is deviated least.
▪ Violet colour which has the highest refractive index is deviated most.

PURE SPECTRUM
A pure spectrum is a spectrum is a spectrum in which the colours do not overlap (i.e. one colour
not mixing with the another colour)

𝑳𝟐
𝑳𝟏 𝑺𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒏
𝑹
𝑺𝒍𝒊𝒕
𝑽
𝑷𝒓𝒊𝒔𝒎

𝑺𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕

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▪ An illuminated slit is placed at the principle focus of the first converging lens, 𝐿1 .
▪ The converging lens, 𝐿1 converges a parallel beam of light onto the prism.
▪ Dispersion of light occurs at the prism thus separating the light into different colours.
▪ A second converging lens, 𝐿2 is placed at the other side of the prism.
▪ A screen is then placed at the principle focus of the second converging lens, 𝐿2 .
▪ The second converging lens, 𝐿2 focus each constituent colour of white light onto the screen
at different points without overlapping hence forming a pure spectrum.

NOTE:
❖ The first lens, 𝐿1 helps to produce a parallel beam of light from the source of light
(i.e. rays from the principal focus are refracted as parallel)
❖ The slit should be made narrow to reduce the overlapping of colours.
❖ The combination of the slit and first lens is called a collimator (to collimate means to
make it parallel)

FORMATION OF A RAIN BOW

▪ When white light from the sun is incident on a rain drop in the atmosphere, it undergoes
refraction and then dispersed into different colours of the spectrum.
▪ The spectrum is internally reflected back in the opposite direction from where it came from.
▪ The spectrum finally emerges out (refracts out) and this is viewed as a rain bow.

𝑾𝒉𝒊𝒕𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕

𝑽𝒊𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒕
𝑹𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒑

𝑹𝒆𝒅

COLOURS
The colour of an object depends on the colour falling on it and the colour the object reflects.
Therefore, an object absorbs all other colours and reflects the colour we see.
Examples
❖ A green leaf appears green in white light (day light) because the leaf absorbs all other colours
in white light and reflects only green.
❖ White object appears white in white light because it absorbs no colour and reflects all the
colours in white light.
❖ A blue shirt appear black in a dark room because there is no light falling on it in a dark hence
it reflects nothing.

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TYPES OF COLOURS:
There are three types of colours namely;
• Primary colours
• Secondary colours
• Complementary colours

Primary colours:
These are colours which cannot be obtained by mixing any other colours.
Examples include; Red, Blue, and Green (RGB)

Secondary colours:
These are colours which are obtained by mixing any two primary colours.
Examples include;
𝑌𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝑅𝑒𝑑 + 𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛
𝐶𝑦𝑎𝑛 = 𝐵𝑙𝑢𝑒 + 𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛
𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎 = 𝑅𝑒𝑑 + 𝐵𝑙𝑢𝑒

Complementary colours:
These are colours which produce white light when mixed together.
Examples include;
𝐵𝑙𝑢𝑒 + 𝑌𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝑊ℎ𝑖𝑡𝑒
𝑅𝑒𝑑 + 𝐶𝑦𝑎𝑛 = 𝑊ℎ𝑖𝑡𝑒
𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛 + 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎 = 𝑊ℎ𝑖𝑡𝑒

Note: When all the three primary colours are mixed together, white light is produced.

𝑹𝒆𝒅 𝑴 𝑩𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒀 − 𝒀𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘

𝐖 𝑴 − 𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂
𝒀 𝑪 𝑪 − 𝑪𝒚𝒂𝒏
𝑾 − 𝑾𝒉𝒊𝒕𝒆
𝑮𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒏

COLOUR FILTERS:
A colour filter is a transparent coloured material which allows light of its own colour type to pass
through it and absorbs other colours.
That’s to say;
• Green filter allows only green light to pass through it.
• White filter allows red, green and blue light to pass through it.
• Cyan filter allows only blue and green light to pass through it.
• Magenta filter allows only red and blue light to pass through it
ETC

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Examples:
❖ When white light is incident on a red filter, it allows only red light to pass through it
(transmits) and absorbs blue and green light.
𝑾𝒉𝒊𝒕𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝑹𝒆𝒅 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
(𝑹𝑮𝑩) (𝑹)

𝑹𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒕𝒆𝒓

❖ A green filter allows only green light to pass through it and absorbs other colours when
placed in white light.
𝑾𝒉𝒊𝒕𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝑮𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
(𝑹𝑮𝑩) (𝑮)

𝑮𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒕𝒆𝒓

❖ When yellow light is incident on a blue filter, no colour is allowed to pass through it.
Therefore, red and green light is absorbed hence we see black.
𝒀𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
(𝑹𝑮)
𝑩𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒌

𝑩𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒕𝒆𝒓

❖ When magenta light is incident on a cyan filter, only blue light will pass through it but red
and green lights are absorbed.
𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝑩𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
(𝑹𝑩) (𝑩)

𝑪𝒚𝒂𝒏 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒕𝒆𝒓
(𝑩 + 𝑮)
❖ When white light is incident on the cyan filter and then magenta filter; cyan filter allows only
green and blue light to pass through it and then the magenta filter allows only blue light to
pass through it.
𝑾𝒉𝒊𝒕𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝑪𝒚𝒂𝒏 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝑩𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
(𝑹𝑮𝑩) (𝑩𝑮) (𝑩)

𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝑪𝒚𝒂𝒏 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒕𝒆𝒓
(𝑹 + 𝑩)
(𝑩 + 𝑮)

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Further examples:
1. A girl wearing a red dress with white strips passes under green light. What will be the colour
of her dress under green light?
𝑮𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
(𝑮) 𝑩𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒌 + 𝑮𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒏
The dress will appear
black with green strips

𝑹𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒕𝒆 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒅𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔

2. A house is painted green and blue. What will be the colour of the house when viewed under
magenta light?
𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
(𝑹 + 𝑩) 𝑩𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒌 + 𝑩𝒍𝒖𝒆 The house will appear
𝑮 𝑩 𝑩𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒌 𝑩 black and blue

𝑮𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑩𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒔𝒆

3. What colour will be observed when a girl wearing yellow dress with blue dots dances in a
disco hall with green light?
𝑮𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
(𝑮) 𝑮𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒏 + 𝑩𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒌
The dress will appear
green with black dots

𝒀𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑩𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒅𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔

EXERCISE:
1. What colour should filter X have so that red light is seen on the screen.

𝑾𝒉𝒊𝒕𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕

𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑭𝒊𝒍𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑿 𝑺𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒏

2. Explain the appearance of a student wearing a green sweater in a disco hall with yellow light.
3. Explain why an object why an object illuminated by white light appears black.
4. State why most car registration numbers plates are printed black on a yellow background.

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EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
1.a) What is meant by focal length of a lens
b) Where should an object be placed in front of a converging lens in order to obtain
i) Diminished real image
ii) A real image, same size as the object
iii) A magnified real image
iv) A magnified virtual image
c) An object 4cm high is placed perpendicularly on the principal axis 10cm away from a
converging lens of focal length 15cm. With the aid of a ray diagram, determine nature, position
and magnification of the image formed
Ans: 30cm, 3
d) Mention two applications of the image formed
2.a) Define the following
i) Critical angle ii) Total internal reflection
b) Explain briefly why the sky appears blue
c) State two applications of a concave mirror
d) i) An object 8Cm high is placed perpendicularly on the axis and 12cm away from a concave
mirror. With the aid of a ray diagram, find the focal length of the mirror if the height of the
image formed is 2cm
Ans: 2.4cm
ii) State the nature of the image formed in (i) above
3.a) Explain dispersion as applied to light
b) i) What is a pure spectrum
ii) With the aid of a labeled diagram, describe briefly how a pure spectrum is produced
c) i) Distinguish between a primary and a secondary colour
ii) The figure below shows colours mixed by addition. Name the colours represented by
letters labeled A, B, C and D

Red Blue

Green
d) State the colour of a yellow dress in green light
4.a) Define the following as applied to a concave mirror
i) Centre of curvature
ii) Principal axis
b) State and explain one application of
i) Concave mirror ii) Convex mirror
c) Describe an experiment to measure the focal length of a concave mirror
d) An object of height 1cm is placed 15cm in front of a concave mirror of focal length 10cm. If
the object is perpendicular to the principal axis, find by construction the position, the size
and nature of the image.
Ans: 30cm, 2cm

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5. a) The diagram below shows a ray of yellow light incident at an angle of 50o on one side of
an equilateral triangular glass prism of refractive index 1.52

60o

50o
r

i) Calculate the angles marked r and e

Ans: r = 30.30, e = 48.90
ii) State and explain what would be observed if the ray above were of white light
b) Explain, with the aid of a diagram, why the writing on a piece of paper placed under a
glass block appears raised when observed from above
c) State
i) The conditions necessary for total internal reflection to occur
ii) One application of total internal reflection
6. a) i) State the laws of refraction of light
ii) Describe an experiment to verify the laws of refraction of light
b) An object 5cm tall placed in front of a converging lens, forms an inverted image twice as
tall as the object and 30cm from the lens. By construction, find the position of the object,
the focal length and power of the lens
Ans: 15cm, 10cm, 10D
c) A ray of light is incident on glass from air at an angle of 42o. If the refractive index of
glass is 1.41, find the angle of refraction
Ans: 28.30
7. a) i) State the laws of reflection of light
ii) Describe an experiment to verify the laws of reflection of light
b) i) Define the term critical angle
ii) A ray of light moving from water to air at an angle of incidence of 48.60 has the angle
of refraction of 900. Calculate the refractive index of water
Ans: 1.33
c) Distinguish between primary and secondary colours
d) White light is incident on two colour filters in the diagram below

White light Region A Region B

Yellow filter Blue filter

i) State the colours that will be observed in regions A and B
ii) Explain the observation in (d) (i) above
8. a) Explain the term virtual image as applied to optics
b) With aid of a ray diagram, explain why a convex mirror is used as a driving mirror

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c) An object is placed 15cm in front of a concave mirror. An upright image of

magnification four is produced. By graphical method, determine the
i) Nature of the image
ii) Focal length of the mirror
iii) Distance of the image from the mirror
Ans: ii) 12cm iii) 60cm
d) Name two applications of a concave mirror
9. a) Explain the following terms as applied to a thin converging lens
i) Principal focus
ii) Focal length
iii) Power
b) An object is placed at right angles to the principal axis of a thin converging lens of focal
length 10cm. A real image of height 5cm is formed at 30cm from the lens. Find by
construction the position and height of the object.
Ans: 15cm, 2.5cm
c) With the aid of a ray diagram show how a converging lens can be used as a magnifying
glass
10. a) With the aid of a diagram, explain briefly how a pure spectrum may be produced
b) i) What are primary colours? Name them
ii) Explain briefly what happens when white light falls on a green body
c) With the aid of a labeled diagram, describe how a lens camera works
11. a) Explain the phenomenon of dispersion as applied to white light
b) Draw a ray diagram to show the dispersion of white light by a glass prism
c) Distinguish between secondary and primary colours. Give one example of each
d) Name the colour that would be obtained when the following coloured lights are mixed
i) Green and red ii) Cyan and red
e) Explain why an object illuminated by white light appears
i) Coloured
ii) Black
12. a) Describe a simple method of measuring the refractive index of glass in form a block
b) i) Explain, with the aid of a diagram, the term critical angle
ii) Light of the same wave length is incident at an angle i on glass prism. The light is
refracted and follows the path shown in the figure below

i
18o 42o

Find the refractive index of glass and the angle of incidence, i

Ans: n = 1.49, i = 27.40
13. a) Define
i) The principal focus of a converging lens
ii) A virtual image
b) With the aid of a labeled diagram, describe a simple to determine the focal length of a

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converging lens
c) An object of height 4cm is placed perpendicularly on the principal axis at a distance of
45cm from a converging lens of focal length 15cm. By graphical construction, determine
i) The position of the image
ii) The magnification
Ans: i) 22.5cm, 0.5
d) Give one use of converging lenses
14. a) i) Describe a simple experiment to show that light travels in a straight line
ii) An object 3cm high is placed at right angle to the principal axis of a concave mirror of
focal length 7.5cm. If the object is 30cm from the pole of the mirror, construct a ray
diagram to obtain the position and size of the image formed
iii) State two applications of a concave mirror
Ans: ii) 10cm, 1cm
b) i) State laws of refraction of light
ii) Light of the same wavelength is incident from air on glass of refractive index 1.5. If the
angle of incidence is 600, find the angle of refraction
Ans: ii) 35.30
15. a) Describe an experiment to demonstrate the laws of reflection of light
b) With the aid of a diagram illustrate how shadows are formed when an opaque object is
placed between an extended source of light and the screen
c) An object 10cm high is placed at a distance of 15cm from a convex mirror of focal length
30cm
i) Draw a ray diagram to locate the position of the image
ii) Calculate the magnification
Ans: i) 10cm ii) 0.67
d) Give reasons for use of convex mirrors in vehicles

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