Switchgear &

Protection

POWER SYSTEM

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Switchgear & Protection

Introduction
 A series of device whose main purpose is to protect person & primary electric pow-
er equipment from the effects of faults are known as protection system.

 The apparatus or equipment and their associated auxiliaries employed for control-
ling, electrical circuit in the electrical power system is known as “Switchgear”.

Classification of switchgear
Low voltage switchgear High voltage switchgear

Switches (Air break type) Oil switches

Isolators Isolators
Fuses Circuit breakers
Relays HRC fuses up to medium voltage
Circuit breakers Lightning arrestors
Current transformer & potential transformers

Functions of protection
 It must identify the abnormal condition

 It must identify the location of fault

 It Isolate the faulty part.

 Chances of fault is very high in transmission line as compared to machine & gener-
ator because transmission line are exposed in the environment.

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Part of protection system

Relay
 The material used for fuse elements must have the following properties:

 Low melting point

 Low Ohmic loss

 High conductivity (or low resistivity)

 Low cost

 Free from detraction

 The material mainly used for fuse element are tin, lead, silver, copper, zinc,
aluminum, and an alloy of lead and tin. An alloy of lead and tin is used for small
current rating fuses.

 For current exceeding 15A This alloy is not used as the diameters of the wire will be
larger and after fusing the metal released will be excessive.

 Beyond 15 A rating circuit, copper wire fuses are employed.

Circuit Breaker

 A circuit breaker is a switching device that interrupts the abnormal or fault current.

 Its basic function is to interrupt current flow after a fault is detected. So, it functions
as a protective device, overcurrent controlling device as well as a circuit interrupt-
ing device

 It is designed based on the basis of maximum fault current (i.e., LLLG or symmet-
rical fault)

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Fuse

 A fuse is an electrical safety device that operates to provide overcurrent protection

of an electrical circuit. Its essential component is a metal wire or strip that melts
when too much current flows through it, thereby interrupting the current.

 The fuse wire should have low melting point so that it can get melt when current
more than rated flows in the circuit.

Fusing factor =

Where,

Imin fusing = Minimum current at which the fuse will operate

Load interrupter
 Load interrupter disconnect the additional load in the system so that load is less
than the rated value.

 Load interrupter operates at full load operating condition

Load Isolator

 Load Isolator is used to Isolate the transmission line and it is connected in series
with load interrupter.

 Isolator operates under the no-load condition.

Note

 Fuse operate under abnormal condition

 Load interrupter operates at full load condition.

 Line Isolator operates at no-load condition.

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Different types of Circuit Breaker

 Air magnetic circuit breaker

 It consists of a number of plates between the contacts and made up of either

metallic or insulating materials.

 In this type of circuit breaker, the plates are usually metallic.

 Air Blast Circuit breakers

 In this type, a high-pressure air-blast is used as an arc extinguishing

medium.

 These are finding their best applications in systems at 132 kV and above (up
to 400 kV) with breaking capacity up to 7500 MVA and above.

 Oil Circuit breakers

 In Oil Circuit Breakers, insulating oil is used as the arc extinguishing

medium.

 As the contacts are opened in oil, when the arc strikes, the surrounding oil is
evaporated as hydrogen gas.

 SF6 Circuit Breaker

 Due to high electronegativity, the recovery of dielectric strength after the arc
interruption in the SF6 circuit breaker is very fast.

 It has a high affinity for absorbing free electrons.

 It absorbs electrons from a negative ion.

 Ions are obviously much heavier than a free electron and the overall mobility
of charged particles in SF6 gas is much less compared to the other common
gases.

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Advantages

1. High dielectric strength.

2. The gas is non-inflammable.

3. Gives noiseless operation.

4. Minimum maintenance.

Disadvantages

1. The SF6 gas is identified as a greenhouse gas.

2. Puffer type design of SF6 CB needs high mechanical energy which is almost
five times greater than that of the oil circuit breaker.

Minimum oil circuit breakers (MOCB)

 These circuit breakers utilize oil as the interrupting media. It reduces the
requirement of oil. That’s why, these are called as minimum oil circuit breakers. As
a result, MOCB has less volume of oil.

It has following disadvantages as compared to bulk oil circuit breaker –

 Degree of carbonization is increased. Due to this high degree of carbonization,

dielectric strength of the oil deteriorates.

 There is a difficulty in removing the gases from the contact space in time.

Vacuum circuit breakers

 In vacuum circuit breakers or VCB, the arc extinguishing medium is, well Vacuum.

Note

 The voltage levels of different circuit breakers are given below.

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Circuit breaker Voltage level

Air-blast circuit breaker 132 kV
Air-break circuit breaker 400 V to 15 kV
Tank type oil circuit breaker up to 220 kV
SF6 circuit breaker up to 765 kV
Vacuum circuit breaker 22 kV to 66 kV

High Rupturing Capacity fuse

 It consists of a heat-resisting body having metal end-caps to which is welded silver
current-carrying element

 The space within the body surrounding the element is completely packed with a
filling powder

 The filling material may be chalk, plaster of Paris, quartz or marble dust and acts as
an arc quenching and cooling medium

 Under normal load conditions, the fuse element is at a temperature below its
melting point. Therefore, it carries the normal current without overheating.

 When a fault occurs, the current increases and the fuse element melts before the
fault current reaches its first peak.

Advantages

1. They can clear high as well as low fault currents

2. They do not deteriorate with age

3. They have a high speed of operation

4. They provide reliable discrimination

5. They require no maintenance

6. They are cheaper than other circuit interrupting devices of equal breaking capacity

7. They permit consistent performance

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Disadvantages

1. They must be replaced after each operation

2. The heat produced by the arc may affect the associated switches

Arc phenomenon
 The arc is produced between the contacts of the CB provides a gradual transition
from the current carrying of the voltage – Isolating states of the contacts, but it is
dangerous on account of the energy generated in it in the form of heat which may
result in explosive forces.

 Arc initiated at the instant of contact separation due to high field gradient or field
ionization.

 The arc is maintained not because of the field gradient.

 It is maintained because of thermal ionization due to the high amount of heat

produced during the arcing process.

 So, the arc is just a column of ionized gases.

 The conductance of the arc is directly proportional to the number of free electrons
generated during ionization.

 The conductance of the arc is directly proportional to the cross-section area of the
arc.

 Conduction of the arc is inversely proportional to the length of the arc.

 The path of the arc is purely resistive and it is having a negative temperature
coefficient (means if the temperature increases Rarc decreases and vice versa).

 The resistance of the arc is highly non-linear.

 There are two methods of extinguishing the arc –

 High resistance method

 Low resistance method

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Note:

 As the path of the arc is purely resistive, we know that for purely resistive elements
the voltage across the element is always in phase with current flowing through the
element. So, the arc voltage produced in the circuit breaker is always in phase with
the current.

 Sparking between the contacts of a circuit breaker can be reduced by inserting a

capacitor in parallel with the contacts.

Prospective voltage
The voltage developed across the circuit breaker contacts due to transfer of energy is
known as ‘Prospective voltage’.

Transient Recovery voltage

Recovery voltage
 It is the rms value of power frequency voltage
when arc is extinct is recovery voltage.

 Recovery voltage =

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Active recovery voltage

 It is the instantaneous value of power frequency voltage.

 Active Recovery voltage (ARV) = k1 k2 k3 Vmax sin ϕ

 Where,

Vmax (Maximum value of phase voltage) =

Restriking voltage

 The voltage due to which the arc will re-

strike is called as Restriking voltage.

 Restriking voltage (Vc) = ARV (1 – cos ω0t)

 Vr(max) = 2 ARV

 Vr(avg) = ARV

 Damping frequency (f) =

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Rate of Rise of restriking voltage

Resistance switching
 Resistance switching is used by connecting a resistance across the circuit breakers
contacts to prevent form a very high Voltage (i. e, prospective voltage) appears
across the CB.

 Critical value of R

 Critical damped

 Under damped

 Over damped

Circuit Breaker ratings

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Breaking Capacity
Breaking capacity = √3 Ibreak Vrated

Where,

Ibreak = Symmetrical or unsymmetrical breaking current

Making capacity

 Making capacity = 2.55 × (Symmetrical breaking capacity)

Protective relays
 The relay ensures the safety of the circuit equipment from any damage which might
be otherwise caused by the fault.

 Instantaneous relay

 The operation of relay takes place after a very short duration of time
(generally t ≤ 0.1 sec)

 Definite time over current relay

 It operates at constant time regardless of current.

 Inverse time over current relay

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 Inverse Definite Minimum time (IDMT)

 If I < 10 Ipickup Operates as Inverse time relay.

 If I > 20 Ipickup Operates as Definite time OC relay.

 If 10 Ipickup < I < 20 Ipickup → Transition region.

 Very Inverse type OC relay\

 Extremely inverse

Relay setting

Note: - If relay setting not given then assume it as 100%

Plug setting Multiplier (PSM)

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Time multiplier setting (TMS)

Note

If PSM > 1 → Relay operate

If PSM < 1 → No operation

Universal relay torque equation

Q = k1 |I|2 + k2 |V|2 + k3 |V| |I| cos (θ – ) – k4

Where, θ = Angle between V & I

= Adjustable parameter

For over current relays

K2 = k3 = 0

So, Q = k1 |I|2 – k4

⇒ (pick up current)

For direction relays

K1 = k2 =k4 = 0

Q = k3 |V| |I| cos (θ – )

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Distance Relays

 These are the relays which occurs if fault occurs within a certain distance of relay.
Such a distance is called protective zones.

 Relay does not measure distance It operates on the ratio of V & I

Types

Impedance relay

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K3 = k4 = 0

Q = k1 |I|2 – k2 |V|2

⇒ |Z| < |Zset|

Where, = Impedance setting of relays

Reactance relay
K2 = k4 = 0

Q = k1 |I|2 – k3 |V| |I| cos (θ – )

⇒ or

Mho relays

K1 = k4 = 0

Q = k3 |V| |I| cos (θ – ) – k2 |V|2

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Note

 Mho relay is also called voltage restrained directional relay.

 Impedance relay is also called a voltage restrained overcurrent relay.

 Mho relay is suitable for the protection of long transmission line.

 Impedance relay is suitable for protection of medium transmission line.

 Reactance relay is suitable for the protection of a short transmission line.

Buchholz relay
 Buchholz relay is a gas actuated relay and it is used to protect the transformer
against all internal faults

 It is a gas actuated device

 It is placed between the main tank and the conservator

 It is used in the transformer having the rating higher than 500 kVA

 It causes alarm for minor fault and tripping for a major fault

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Generator Stator Protection

 These faults occur in the generator due to the insulation failure of the stator wind-
ings.

 The following fault can cause insulation failure in the stator winding.

 Fault between phase and ground

 Fault between phases

 Inter-turn fault

 The stator winding faults are considered the most dangerous fault, therefore, auto-
matic protection is much necessary to clear the stator winding fault as soon as
possible.

 For the protection of alternators against stator winding fault, the Differential meth-
od of Protection or, Merz-Price Protection is most commonly used because of its
greater sensitivity and reliability.

Differential Protection or Merz-Price

protection of Alternators
 The most common system used for the protection of stator winding faults is the
circulating-current principle.

 In this method of protection, currents at the two ends of the protected section are
compared.

 Under normal operating conditions, the currents are equal.

 Under abnormal or fault conditions, the current becomes unequal.

 The difference of the unequal currents under fault conditions is arranged to pass
through the operating coil of the relay. The relay then closes its contacts to isolate
the protected section from the system.

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 The secondary of each set of current transformers are connected to the star.

 The two neutral points and the corresponding terminals of the two-star groups be-
ing connected together by means of a four-core pilot cable.

 This pilot cable provided an independent path for the current circulation in each
pair of current transformers and the corresponding pilot P.

 The relay coils are connected in star, the neutral point is connected to the current-
transformer common neutral, and the outer ends one to each of the other three
pilots.

 The relays are connected across equipotential points of the three pilot wires and
these equipotential points would naturally be located at the middle of the pilot
wires.

 The relays are used in this method of protection is instantaneous electromagnetic

type.

The CTs connection in the Merz-price protection

CTs are connected to every phase of the system.

In order to nullify the phase shift of the Power transformer (PT), The Current trans-
formers (CT) connected in a reverse configuration.

Configuration of CTs on primary and

Configuration of PT
secondary of PT respectively
Y–Y ∆-∆
Y-∆ ∆-Y
∆-Y Y-∆
∆-∆ Y-Y

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Overcurrent protection
 Overcurrent protection is protection against excessive currents beyond the ac-
ceptable current rating of the equipment. It generally operates instantly magnetic
circuit breakers, fuses and overcurrent relays are commonly used to provide over-
current protection be the line.

Earth fault protection

 Earth fault protection is intended to protect equipment when an insulation fault oc-
curs, for instance, direct contact between a live conductor and earth.

 When earth fault occurs, the electrical system gets short-circuited and the short-
circuited current flows through the system.

 Earth fault relay, earth leakage circuit breaker, and ground fault circuit interrupter
are used for earth fault protection.

Note

Protection of Relay

Current Balance Differential Relay

Alternator stator
Voltage Balance Differential Relay
Magnetic circuit breaker
Overcurrent in transmission line Fuses
Overcurrent relays
Earth leakage circuit breaker
Earth fault protection Ground fault circuit interrupter
Earth fault relay
Definite distance Relay
Transmission line
Time Distance Relay

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