CONCRETEBETON

The official publication of Cement & Concrete SA NUMBER 166 . SEPTEMBER 2021 . ISSN 1682-6116

Fulton Awards 2022 call

for nominations
Management of concrete waste
Iconic concrete landmark

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Editor’s comment.............................................................................. 4
CONTENTS
5
CEO’s message................................................................................... 6
YCRETS TECHNICAL PAPER 1
Investigating the use of isothermal calorimetry for
predicting physical properties of cements....................................... 8
YCRETS TECHNICAL PAPER 2
Potential for carbon dioxide sequestration
in wet concrete mixes..................................................................... 15
YCRETS TECHNICAL PAPER 3
Management of concrete and cementitious waste: an
assessment of practices and strategies in South Africa............... 19
TECHNICAL NOTE
UCT Service Life Prediction model for
South African marine structures ................................................... 24
ICONIC CONCRETE
Rio’s iconic concrete landmark refurbished
for 90th birthday............................................................................ 26
26
INDUSTRY NEWS
Poised for further growth, CHRYSO SA Group celebrates
silver anniversary ........................................................................... 28
Concor’s innovative Paarl Rock shows the way............................ 30
Admixtures to reduce contractors’ carbon footprint.................. 32
Sika’s go-to spalling repair solution.................................................... 34
Artisanry is an elite profession...................................................... 35
Managing readymix waste for a sustainable planet ................... 36
Construction industry can emerge stronger after Covid-19........ 37
Securing construction material supplies....................................... 37
Managing readymix waste for a sustainable planet.................... 38
Smart monitoring of concrete with Maturix................................ 39
Concrete possibilities: Colossal Concrete Products acquires
38
Aveng Infraset’s Brakpan and De Aar plants ............................... 40
PPC launches skills training for bakkie builders........................... 42
CCSA NEWS
Concrete careers experience inspired students............................ 44
KZN structural engineer wins CCSA ‘Young Concrete
Researcher’ Award.......................................................................... 45
Huge economic benefits in sound concrete practice................... 45
Recycling and retrofitting of concrete could
provide enormous cost-savings ..................................................... 46

46
CCSA MEMBERS............................................................................... 48
ONLINE COURSE DATES 2021......................................................... 50

COVER:
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Cube Route Logistics.

CONCRETE BETON 3
EDITOR’S COMMENT

Our duty is to unlock the possibilities in each individual and ensure that the passion for cement
and concrete is instilled in the younger generation as widely as possible. Maintaining a continued
employment stream for the cement and concrete industries at all levels, rests to a large extent on
the shoulders of educators, managers, and mentors.
Much of the content in this issue of Concrete Beton celebrates and encourages young people
in our industry. We are excited to feature three papers that were presented at the very successful
YCRETS symposium held in July. The relevance of the presentations just had to be shared with
our readers and in future issues of Concrete Beton we will publish all the papers presented by
these young researchers, engineers, and technologists. The technical note highlighting the UCT
service life prediction model for SA marine structures, was submitted by a PhD candidate from
UCT.)
Read about Dr Benedict Olalusi from the University of KZN who was honoured with the
Young Concrete Researcher Award, and the great Careers in Concrete initiative by the KwaZulu
Natal branch of CSSA to give two final-year Civil Engineering students a chance to experience
the business world in concrete related workplaces during their winter break. John Roxburgh adds
to this line of thought by stressing the importance of enrolling for the authoritative concrete
education courses offered by the School of Concrete Technology.
We congratulate CSSA Gold Member, Chryso, on their 25th anniversary in South Africa
and becoming a leading player in the development of sustainable solutions in the construction
industry.
“Youth is above all a collection An interesting article on the refurbishment of the Christ the Redeemer statue in Rio de
Janeiro is the first in or new Iconic Concrete Series.
of possibilities.” Is a quote from The prestigious Fulton Awards 2022 was launched with the deadline for nominations
the French philosopher and being 30th September 2021. We are optimistic about the judging, which is set to take place
Nobel prize winner, early in 2022, and hosting the gala event in June 2022. CCSA’s link with ACI has presented
an international opportunity for the winners of the 2022 Fulton Awards to be entered for the
Albert Camus. ACI Excellence in Concrete Construction Awards.
In a recent article https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20210628-concrete-the-material-that-
defines-our-age, the author stated that the ages of human history have often been named after
the materials that our ancestors mastered at that time: stone, bronze or iron. He continues:
“If future archaeologists do the same for us, what material might they choose to define the
21st Century? Silicon? Plastic? Both are
candidates, shaping the world for better or
for worse. But if the decision were based
on scale alone, then there can be only
one answer: we are living in the age of
concrete.”
Unfortunately, the author of this
article has omitted highlighting concrete
as the foundation to all technological
advancement in the last two centuries, and
the fact that its fully recyclable and that
per mass it has an incredibly low carbon
footprint compared to materials such as
plastic.
In whichever way we look at it, concrete
is undeniably part of our history and more
so, part of our future. The secret to the
sustainability of our future, is to facilitate
interventions for research, training, and
mentoring.

Hanlie
Hanlie Turner, Editor

4 NUMBER 166 | SEPTEMBER 2021

NOMINATIONS OPEN
Thursday, 15 July 2021

Time to showcase those projects and initiatives

portraying excellence in concrete
CATEGORIES:
g Buildings up to R50 million value
g Buildings > R50 million value
g Infrastructure up to R100 million value
g Infrastructure > R100 million value
g Innovation and invention in concrete

ADJUDICATION PANEL:
Bryan Perrie
CEO, Cement & Concrete SA
Stephen Humphries
Director, Nyeleti Consulting
Daniel van der Merwe
Architect, LEAF Architects

INTERNATIONAL OPPORTUNITY
As an International Partner of ACI,
CCSA may nominate Fulton Award
winners for the ACI Excellence in
Concrete Construction Awards 2022;
in-line with ACI’s project categories
and eligibility criteria.

Nominations must reach us by

Thursday, 30 September 2021
Nomination forms and further details available on the
Cement & Concrete SA website: www.cemcon-sa.org.za or
contact our Membership & Events manager, Natasja Pols
at [email protected]
CEO’S MESSAGE

This phase of the NIP 2050 focuses on four critical network sectors that provide a platform:
energy, freight transport, water, and digital infrastructure. There will be a second phase that
focuses on distributed infrastructure and related municipal services. This first phase of the NIP
2050 is being released for public comment, and Infrastructure South Africa will lead extensive
public engagement to gain feedback.
The South African civil construction and supplier sector will be expected to be a vibrant and
respected world class African full-service built environment delivery provider priming Southern
African development and beyond. To support this goal the NIP recommends among others that
there be a continuous pipeline of bankable projects that enables the construction sector to plan,
invest and develop its people and that regulations and process of issuing permits be streamlined
These are lofty goals and even partial achievement will be of huge benefit to the SA
construction industry and by implication our cement and concrete industry. I would therefore
recommend that you provide input through various whatever channels are available. CCSA will
be providing input directly to Government through its participation in the Public Private Growth
Initiative, or together with and through bodies such as the Construction Alliance of South Africa
(CASA).
The activities of CCSA continue to grow with the ongoing CONCRETEFiX webinars which
have now started to include some overseas presenters and all the online training courses through
the School of Concrete Technology.
Things definitely appear to be looking up for our industry.
As you are all probably aware,
Bryan Perrie
the Department of Public Works CEO, Cement & Concrete SA
and Infrastructure published the
“National Infrastructure Plan
2050 (NIP 2050)” on 10 August
2021 in the Government Gazette
and invited comments.

OUR VISION OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF

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South Africa, defending and promoting the industry, driving growth
Physical: Block D, Lone Creek, Waterfall Park, Bekker Road,
and delivering shared value.
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OUR MISSION Postal: PO Box 168, Halfway House, 1685, South Africa
To create long term shared value and industry growth in South
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innovation and the highest standards in sustainable cement and E-mail: [email protected]
concrete materials and products.
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DIRECTORS
RE Tomes (Chairman), D Claassen, NL Lekula, VL Lutchman, Cement & Concrete SA NPC (CCSA), its directors, officers,
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harm or injury caused to any person or any loss, destruction or
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BD Perrie goods supplied, or services rendered by CCSA.
©COPYRIGHT All editorial material published in Concrete Beton is
REVIEW COMMITTEE
reserved to Cement & Concrete SA. Requests for permission to use
WP Boshoff (Prof), GC Fanourakis (Prof), GPAG van Zijl (Prof),
any of the material, in part or in full, should be addressed to the
EP Kearsley (Prof), HD Beushausen (Prof)
editor of Concrete Beton.
EDITOR Although CCSA does its best to ensure that information contained
H Turner herein is accurate, no liabilities for negligence are accepted by
CCSA, its officers, its members, publishers or agents.
Design, layout and production
DesignWright, Tel: +27 83 448 4264

6 NUMBER 166 | SEPTEMBER 2021

YCRETS TECHNICAL PAPER 1

Investigating the use of isothermal calorimetry

for predicting physical properties of cements
Refiloe Mokoena (1), Tshepo Motau (2) and Georges Mturi (1)
(1) Smart Mobility, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), (2) PPC Cement SA (Pty) Ltd

ABSTRACT
Isothermal calorimetry is a useful technique for studying the cement remain standardized for determining the setting times as a measure of
hydration process that measures the heat flow of cement paste during a cement paste’s consistency.
hydration. Standard cement properties, such as compressive strength, Development of internal heat stresses within concrete structures
setting times and compatibility can be derived from calorimetry is also dependent on the cement hydration and it has the potential
investigation. This becomes relevant in assisting with monitoring the to cause excessive cracking when not properly managed. One of the
strength development during construction activities and studying the contributing factors of the concrete’s heat evolution is the cement’s
thermal related behaviour of concrete structures. During this study, the fineness, with fineness being a measure of the cement’s overall
heat generated from the cement hydration reactions was investigated surface area and therefore indicative of the cement’s reactivity. This
of four different cement types, namely CEM II/B-V 32.5N, CEM relationship has been shown by researchers such as Goodwin [5] who
II/B-V 42.5N, CEM II/A-M (S-V) 42.5R and CEM I 52.5N. Correlations reported that the smaller cement particle sizes, i.e. less than 10 -15
between the calorimeter results and the (i) initial setting time and final µm are in fact, the most active. In addition, Goodwin [5] found typical
setting time; (ii) 28 day compressive strength and; (iii) fineness, were ranges of fineness values for Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) and rapid
established for the cement types investigated. With the exception of hardening Portland cement to be 3000 - 3500 cm2/g and 4000 - 4500
early-day strength, the results indicated strong correlations between cm2/g respectively, indicating that rapid hardening cements have higher
the investigated parameters and the cement hydration curves. This fineness values compared to OPC.
was particularly the case for the setting time of the cements with an The 28 day compressive strength of concrete is one of the primary
R2 value of 0.82 and 0.89 for the initial and final setting times mechanical properties used for engineering design and is determined
respectively. in accordance with SANS 5863 [7]. Cement strength is determined
using an appropriate press for mortar specimens as per the national
Keywords: Isothermal Calorimetry, Cement Hydration, Cement Setting test method SANS 50196-1 [6] for measuring the early (2 or 7 day) and
Time, Cement Fineness, Cement Strength. 28 day compressive. These are widely accepted methods for concrete
and cement strength determination but it is still debated whether
1. INTRODUCTION such laboratory tests are truly representative of the in-situ concrete
Setting and strength development of concrete mixes are important properties. Researchers such as Indelicato [9] have argued that even
variables in the construction program of concrete structures. The cubes cast from the same batch of concrete do not necessarily represent
constructability of concrete structures can be highly dependent on the the in-situ concrete strength due to reasons such as the differences in
fresh properties of the concrete mix used, as this will inform various on- specimen size, geometry, compaction and curing conditions; compared
site activities such as formwork removal and surface texturing. In this to the concrete structure being represented. Although Indelicato [9] did
paper, the initial and final setting times, early and 28-day compressive acknowledge that the strength values obtained from testing laboratory
strengths and fineness of four South African cements will be assessed in cube specimens can coincide with in-situ strength values from time
relation to their respective heat of hydration curves from an isothermal to time. The findings prompted non-destructive test (NDT) methods
calorimeter. for condition assessments of concrete structures as well as concrete
Establishing the cement setting time and monitoring the early phase pavement rehabilitations as demonstrated by Al-Abbasi & Shalaby [10].
of strength development is valuable during the placement of concrete The above cement properties are all reliant on the cementitious
as it provides an indication of the optimum time for activities such as hydration reactions and can therefore be inferred using analytical
saw-cutting. Depending on the ambient climatic conditions, this can be techniques that quantify these reactions. This paper presents an
between 4 – 18 hours after placement but it is typically recommended investigation carried out using an isothermal calorimeter for determining
to be completed within 24 hours [1]. the relationships between the heat output from cement reactions and
Currently, the South African standard test method for determining the three cement properties indicated above, namely, setting time,
the setting time requires the use of a Vicat apparatus and makes a fineness and strength.
mechanical determination of the initial and final set for a given cement
paste SANS 50196-3, [7]. There has been extensive research done to 2. BACKGROUND
explain the heat rate evolution in relation to the setting time of cement Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA) is described as a testing technique
pastes [2, 3, 4]. However, empirical test methods such as the Vicat test that is used to measure the phase changes of materials by means of

8 NUMBER 166 | SEPTEMBER 2021

 YCRETS TECHNICAL PAPER 1

temperature measurements as a sample is other researchers have investigated the heat 2.1 Cement heat evolution
subjected to constant heating or cooling [11]. of hydration using calorimetry techniques for The four major compounds of OPC, namely
The technique is therefore useful in studying their unique investigation. C3S, C2S, C3A and C4AF combine with
and understanding the physical and chemical A report by Acker [19] on the contribution water during hydration to form the various
changes in materials due to changes in of the physical and mechanical properties of cementitious products. The cement hydration
temperature. The output graphs from DTA concrete on its mechanical behavior found process and can be described as consisting
analyses can be used to distinguish between that the two major influencing processes of five stages as shown in Figure 1. The first
endothermic and exothermic relationships. were (i) the heat of hydration resulting from stage is initiated when the cement is mixed
The use of DTA techniques can be the cementitious reactions and (ii) the natural with water. During the second/dormant
dated back to Le Chatelier [12] who set up drying of concrete elements. This given stage, the paste is plastic and workable.
an experiment to automatically record the that these two phenomena caused major The transition between dormant and setting
heating curve of the clays on a photographic mechanical effects related to the internal stages is defined as the initial set. During the
plate in order to investigate the material’s stresses and strains on various structural setting stage, the paste is typically stiff and
phase change relationship. This was elements. unworkable. The transition between setting
followed by other scientists who modified According to Lootens & Bentz [20], and hardening stages is defined as the final
different aspects of how the temperature previous research has demonstrated the set, after which, the paste is a rigid solid that
measurements were recorded from the sample linear relationship between the compressive gains strength with time [3].
and reference material such as Boersma [13], strengths of mortar specimens from 1-day South African standards do not require
which subsequently led to the development and beyond. The research explored this testing for the heat of hydration of cements
of the Differential Scanning Calorimetry relationship through the use of ultrasonic unless the cement is identified as a Low
(DSC) which measures the heat flux output as reflection and calorimetry on specimens for up Heat Common Cements (LH). The solution
opposed to temperature. to 3 days. From the investigation, it was found calorimetry method or the semi-adiabatic
Isothermal (conduction) calorimetry is that ultrasonic reflection and calorimetry can method can be used to determine the heat of
used to monitor the heat development of be used to monitor the early (up to 8 hours) hydration which needs to be below a specified
hydrating cements and is considered to strength development of mortar and concrete. threshold of 270 J/g. Low heat cements are
be the most accurate method for cement It is well accepted that the heat of hydration ideal for large mass pour applications. In these
pastes and mortar samples in comparison of cement pastes can be related to certain applications, the generation of excessive heat
to adiabatic and semi-adiabatic calorimeters physical properties particularly, setting time that can cause large amounts of thermal
which are usually used for concrete samples and strength development during the early cracking is avoided.
[14]
. Research on the use of calorimetry for stages of hydration. However, little research Typically, isothermal calorimeters are used
cement and concrete applications began has been conducted on the correlation of the for cement testing while adiabatic/semi-
between 1923 and 1939 when Carlson [15] different phases within the hydration process adiabatic calorimeters are used for testing
used a conduction calorimeter to investigate to the physical properties of the cement paste concrete specimens.
the heat development of cement. and concrete specimens. This paper presents The equipment used and methodology
the setting stage, the paste is typically stiff and unworkable. The transition between
This sparked further research to gain a a study that investigated the correlations followed for the laboratory investigation
better understanding on the quantitative between the heat of hydration, setting times presented in this paper is described below.
hardening stages is defined as the final set, after which, the paste is a rigid solid
and qualitative effects of various cement and compressive strengths of four South
strength with time [3].
constituents and additives on the heat of African cements.
hydration [16, 17].
Aschan [18] found that the hydration
reactions that characterize the hardening
process is a better method in establishing
the setting time of cement paste, mortar and
concrete in comparison to popular mechanical
methods. During the study, a copper-lead
electrode was used to establish the setting
time through distinct increases of potential
difference when the copper surface was
oxidized.
The cement industry saw significant
developments in conduction calorimetry with
the introduction of the Wexham calorimeter
in 1970 by J.A. Forrester and then the
Setaram heat flux calorimeter in 1990 which
allowed the in-situ mixing of cements and
recording of initial reactions. Subsequently,
Figure 1: Phases of cement heat of hydration [4]
Figure 1: Phases of cement heat of hydration [4]

South African standards do not require testing for the heat ofCONCRETE
hydration
BETON 9of cem

the cement is identified as a Low Heat Common Cements (LH). The solution
 of 190 kJ/kg at the end of the 8-day experiment. While this outcome was expected in
comparison with the lower strength cements, this is also justified by the “R” classification used
YCRETS TECHNICAL PAPER 1 to indicate a faster strength gain usually associated with precast concrete elements.
The time at which the second heat flux peak occurred is presented in Table 1, for each
cement, as well as corresponding values for heat flux and heat of hydration. The last column
is included to show the total heat of hydration at the end of the eight day experiment.
3. METHODOLOGY Table 1:Summary
Table 1: Summaryofofpeak
peakvalues
valuesand
andcorresponding
corresponding times.
times
Four different cements were tested using Cement Heat flux Time Heat of hydration 8 day
an isothermal calorimeter namely (i) CEM (W/kg) (min) (kJ/kg) heat of hydration
II/B-V 32.5N, (ii) CEM II/B-V 42.5N, (iii) CEM (kJ/kg)
II/A-M (S-V) 42.5R and, (iv) CEM I 52.5N. II 32.5N 1.00 2250 40.63 146
Approximately 3 g of each cement was mixed II 42.5N 1.20 2045 43.91 152
with approximately 2 ml of distilled water in II 42.5R 1.90 1815 50.52 190
a 20 ml disposable glass ampoule for about I 52.5N 1.60 1800 49.03 185
1 minute to produce a paste of uniform
consistency, where an electronic syringe With thewere
ampoules exception
loadedof at
CEMtheIIsame
42,5R,time
the heat
4.flux peak was observed to reduce with an
RESULTS
was used for mixing the cement paste. The increase in cement
to minimize the strength.
time toCEM I 52.5N
reach reached the second peak fastest at 1800 minutes, and
thermal
15 minutes later cement type CEM II 42.5R reached 4.1itsHeat
secondof peak.
hydration
Almostresults
4 hours later, CEM
ampoule was then placed in the isothermal equilibrium. The heat generated by the paste
II 42.5N reached its second peak, this was then followed by CEM II 32.5N,
The plots showing approximately
the heat 3.4
flux and the
calorimeter, connected to a computer for data sample,
hours in the
later, isothermal
which calorimeter
is also the is sentcement.
lowest strength recorded heat of hydration during the test are
capturing and securely insulated to prevent as electric signals by a sensitive thermopile to shown in Figure 2 and Figure 3 respectively for
any heat loss where a constant temperature 4.2 Results of
the computer forother cement
recording properties
and calibration.
Additional information of the respective cements the fourwascements
also used in thisfrom
provided study.the cement
of approximately 20 ºC was maintained. The heat of hydration generated for 8 days
manufacturer. This included test results of (i) initial setting time; (ii) final setting1,time;
As illustrated earlier in Figure the first
(iii)
A reference ampoule containing water from the start of the test was progressively
fineness; (iv) early day compressive strength; andheat(v) 28 day
flux compressive
peak strength.
occurs during Phase The
1 results
of the
4 RESULTS
to balance the heat capacity of the sample recorded
for to obtain the
each parameters are total
shown heat generated.
below in Figure 4 cement
to Figure 6.
hydration which is also known as the
ampoule was used in order to reduce the The test was performed in accordance with
4.1 Heat of hydration results pre-induction period associated with the rapid
noise of the signal. The sample and reference ASTM C1679 [21].
The plots showing the heat flux and the recorded heat of hydration during the test are shown release of Ca2+ and OH- ions into solution
4 RESULTS
in Figure 2 and Figure 3 respectively for the four cements used in this study. (Ramachandran et. al., 2002). The second peak
4.1 Heat of hydration results occurs at the end of Phase 3 and is associated
The plots showing the heat52.5N
flux and the42.5R
recorded heat of hydration
42.5N
during the test are shown
32.5N
with the final set according to Vazquez &
in Figure 2 and Figure 3 respectively for the four cements used in this study. Pique (2016), this is described as when the
12 rapid crystallization of CH and CSH occurs. For
the purpose of this paper, the second heat flux
10 52.5N 42.5R 42.5N 32.5N
peak is analysed and discussed.
12
8 It is also observed how the heat flux
Heat flux (W/Kg)

corresponds to the heat of hydration output

10
6 shown in Figure 3, where the two major
8 gradients are related to each of the heat
Heat flux (W/Kg)

4 Page in6
flux peaks. While the heat flux presented
6 Figure 2, shows no significant activity after the
2
second peak, the heat of hydration was still
4 observed to increase, albeit at a much lower
0
rate, for all the cements until the end of the
1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

4500

5000

5500

6000

6500

7000

7500

8000

8500

9000

9500
0

500

10000

10500

11000

11500

12000

2
test period at 8 days as seen in Figure 3.
Time (min)
0 CEM II 42.5R showed the highest
Figure 2: Heat flux plot reactivity of all the tested cements with a
1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

4500

5000

5500

6000

6500

7000

7500

8000

8500

9000

9500
0

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10500

11000

11500

12000

Figure 2: Heat flux plot. total heat output of 190 kJ/kg at the end of
52.5N 42.5R Time (min) 42.5N 32.5N
the 8-day experiment. While this outcome
200 Figure 2: Heat flux plot was expected in comparison with the lower
180 strength cements, this is also justified by the
52.5N 42.5R 42.5N 32.5N
160 “R” classification used to indicate a faster
hydration (kJ/Kg)

200
140 strength gain usually associated with precast
180
120 concrete elements.
160
100 The time at which the second heat flux
(kJ/Kg)

140
80 peak occurred is presented in Table 1, for
Heat of

120
60 each cement, as well as corresponding values
Heat of hydration

100
40 for heat flux and heat of hydration. The last
80
20 column is included to show the total heat
60
0 of hydration at the end of the eight day
experiment.
0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

4500

5000

5500

6000

6500

7000

7500

8000

8500

9000

9500

10000

10500

11000

11500

12000

40
20 With the exception of CEM II 42,5R, the
Time (min)
0 heat flux peak was observed to reduce with
Figure 3: Heat of hydration plot an increase in cement strength. CEM I 52.5N
0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

4500

5000

5500

6000

6500

7000

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8000

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9500

10000

10500

11000

11500

12000

As illustrated earlier in Figure 1, the first heat flux peak occurs during Phase 1 of the cement reached the second peak fastest at 1800
Time (min)
hydration which is also known as the pre-induction period associated with the rapid release of minutes, and 15 minutes later cement type
2+ - Figure 3:
Ca and OH ions into solution (Ramachandran hydration
Heat of plot The second peak occurs at the
et. al., 2002). CEM II 42.5R reached its second peak. Almost
Figure 3: Heat of hydration plot.
endAsofillustrated
Phase 3 and is associated
earlier in Figurewith thefirst
1, the final setflux
heat according to Vazquez
peak occurs during&Phase
Pique1 (2016), this is
of the cement
hydration which is also known as the pre-induction period associated with the rapid release of
Ca2+ and OH- ions into solution (Ramachandran et. al., 2002). The second peak occurs at the
10 NUMBER 166 | SEPTEMBER 2021
end of Phase 3 and is associated with the final set according to Vazquez & Pique (2016), this is
 YCRETS TECHNICAL PAPER 1

4 hours later, CEM II 42.5N reached its second peak, this was then The average setting time plot in Figure 4 shows a decrease in initial
followed by CEM II 32.5N, approximately 3.4 hours later, which is also and final setting time based on the results as expected. The results also
the lowest strength cement. show that the setting times for CEM II 42.5R and CEM I 52.5N are
similar with only 2.5 minutes between the two initial setting times and
4.2 Results of other cement properties 1.25 minutes between the two final setting times.
Additional information of the respective cements was also provided As expected, the 28-day compressive strength results exhibit an
from the cement manufacturer. This included test results of (i) initial increase with an increase in cement strength class as seen in Figure 5. A
setting time; (ii) final setting time; (iii) fineness; (iv) early day compressive similar trend is observed for the 2-day strength for CEM II 42.5N, CEM
strength; and (v) 28 day compressive strength. The results for each II 42.5R and CEM I 52.5N. Due to the low compressive strength gain at
parameters are shown below in Figure 4 to Figure 6. 2 days, the 7-day strength is reported for CEM II 32.5N instead of 2-day
compressive strength results.
The fineness results in Figure 6 show the increase in fineness as the
cement classification increases except for the CEM I 52.5N which has
Early Day Compressive Strength
Initial Setting Time Final Setting Time
350 the second lowest
28-Day fineness value
Compressive out of the investigated cements.
strength
70
300
60

Compressive Strength
Setting Time (min)

250 4.3Relationship between heat of hydration and other

50
200 cement parameters
40
(MPa)
In order to understand the relationship between the heat flux peak
150
30
and the setting times, the correlation plots between the second heat
100 20
flux peak and the parameters obtained from the manufacturer are also

2-day

2-day
2-day
7-day
50 10
shown from Figure 7 to Figure 11. The averaged values used to develop
0 0
the relationships were extracted from the raw data of all four cement
32.5 N 42.5 N 42.5 R 52.5 N 32.5 and
properties N are summarised
42.5 N in42.5 R 2.
Table 52.5 N
Figure 4: Plot of setting time based on
Figure 4: Plot of setting time based on average results.
Figure 5: Plot of compressive strength based
average results on average results
Early Day Compressive Fineness
Time
al Setting Time Final Setting Time 4100Strength Early Day Compressive Strength Peak 2 Linear (Peak 2)
28-Day Compressive strength 28-Day Compressive strength
70 4000
70
2,00 2,00
(cm2/g)

60 3900
Compressive Strength

60
Strength

Heat flux (W/Kg)

Heat flux (W/Kg)

3800
50 50
3700 1,50 1,50
Fineness

40 40
(MPa)

(MPa)

3600
Compressive

30 30
3500 1,00 1,00
20 R² = 0,8246
20
3400
2-day

2-day

2-day

2-day
2-day
7-day

2-day
7-day

10 3300
10
0,50 0,50
0 0 32.5 N 42.5 N 42.5 R 52.5 N
52.5
N N 42.5 N 42.5 R 32.5 N
52.5 N 42.5 N 42.5 R32.5 N 52.5 N42.5 N 42.5 R 52.5 N
Figure 6: Plot of fineness based on average 0,00 results 0,00
dPlot
on of setting
F i g u r e
Figure 5: time 5: Plot
Plot ofbased of compressive
on strength
compressive strength
Figbased
ure 5on : Plot based
of results.
average compressive strength 160 based 210 260 310 200
The average
average results onsetting
averagetime plot in Figure
results 4 shows
on average a decrease in initial and
results Initialfinal setting
Setting time
Time(min)
based on the results as expected. The results also show that the setting times for CEM II 42.5R
Fineness Figure 7: Correlation plot between heat flux Figure 8: C
Fineness
and4100
CEM I 52.5N are similar with only 2.5 minutes between the two plot
Figure 7: Correlation initial setting
between heattimes and
flux peak and initial
setting time. peak and initial setting time pe
1.25 minutes between the two final setting times.
4000
Fineness (cm2/g)

As expected, the 28-day compressive strength results exhibit an increase with an increase in
3900
3800
cement
3700
strength class as seen
Peak 2 in Figure 5. A similar
Linear (Peak 2) trend is observed Peak for
Peakthe
22 2-day strength for
Linear(Peak
Linear (Peak2)2)

CEM3600II 42.5N,
2,00CEM II 42.5R and CEM I 52.5N. Due to the2,00 low compressive strength gain at
2,00 2,00
2 days,
3500 the 7-day strength is reported for CEM II 32.5N instead of 2-day compressive strength
Heat flux (W/Kg)

Heat flux (W/Kg)

(W/kg)
flux (W/Kg)

1,50 R² = 0,1562
1,50
results.
3400 1,50 1,50

The
3300 fineness results in Figure 6 show the increase in fineness 1,00 as the cement classification 1,00
Heat flux

N 42.5 N 42.5 R 32.552.5N N 42.5 N 42.5 R 52.5 N

increases except 1,00 for the CEM I 52.5N which has the second lowest
1,00 fineness value out
R² =of the
0,8927
Heat

R² = 0,8246 0,50 0,50

fineness Fibased 6on
gur6:e Plot
investigated
Figure average
: Plot
of of
cements.
fineness results
fineness
based onbased
averageon average results
results.
0,50 0,50
0,00
gure 4 shows
e setting 4.3 aplot
time decrease
in Figure
Relationship in initialshowsand afinal
4between setting
decrease
heat in time
of hydrationinitial and
and other
final setting
cement 20 time
parameters 25 30 35
0,00
45
esults asalso show
expected. that
In order Thethe
to0,00settingalso
results
understand timesthefor
show CEM
that theIIsetting
relationship 42.5R
betweentimestheforheat
CEM flux II peak
0,00 42.5R andday
Early theCompressive
setting times, the
Strength (MPa)
y 2.5are
.5N minutes
similar between
with only
correlation plotsthe160 twominutes
2.5
between initialthesetting
between
210 second times
the
heat
260and
two initial
flux peak setting
310andFigtheutimes and
9: Correlation
re 200
parameters 250 plot between
obtained from 300 heat flux350
the Figure 10
ting times.
between the two final setting
manufacturer are also times. Initial Setting Time(min)
shown from Figure 7 to Figure 11. The peakaveraged
and early Final Setting
day compressive
values
Time (min)
used to develop strength flux peak
ve strength
d, the 28-day results F i
exhibit
compressive g u r e
an 7 : Correlation
increase
strength with
results plot
an
the relationships were extracted from the raw data Figure between
increase
exhibit an heat
in
increase flux
with F
an i g u r e
increase8 :
of all8: Correlation Correlation
in
four cement plot
properties
plot between
between
and
heat flux
heat
are
peak
flux
and final
h5.class
A similar trend
assummarised
seen is observed
in Figure 5. A
in Table peak 2. and
for initial
2-dayissetting
thetrend
similar strength
observed time
forfor the 2-day time. peak
settingstrength for and final setting time
M
, CEMI 52.5N. Due to
II 42.5R andtheCEM low Icompressive
52.5N. Due strengthto the low gain at
compressive strength gain at Peak 2 Linear (P

or CEM
day II 32.5N
strength instead
is reported forofCEM 2-dayIIcompressive
32.5N instead strength
of 2-day compressive strength 2,00
Peak 2 Linear (Peak 2) Peak 2 Linear (Peak 2) R² = 0,6
CONCRETE BETON 11
(W/Kg)

2,002,00 1,50
owresults
ss the increase in fineness
in Figure as the
6 show the cement
increase in classification
fineness as the cement classification R² = 0,7943
)
)
 160 210 260 310
II 32.5N250 200 265300 330
350 30 (7day)
Initial Setting Time(min) II 42.5N 218(min)
Final Setting Time 285 22 (2day)
YCRETS
FigurTECHNICAL PAPER
e 7: Correlation plot1 between heat flux Figure 8: Correlation
II 42.5R plot between180 heat flux224 30 (2day)
peak and initial setting time peak and final setting
I 52.5N 178time 225 30 (2day)
Peak
eak 2) 2 LinearPeak
(Peak
2 2) Peak
Linear (Peak 2) 2 Linear (Peak 2)

2,00
Table
Peak2:
2 Cement properties
Linear (Peak 2)
2,00
The relationship
The relationship between
between the setting timesthe
and setting times
time of the secondand
heattime of
Peak 2 Linear (Peak 2)
fluxbelow
peak is in Figure 12 and Figure 13 where a strong correla
shown below in Figure 12 and Figure 13 where a strong

Heat flux (W/Kg)

flux (W/Kg)

2,00
1,50 Cement Average1,50Initial final set. Average 2,00correlation
Average early for both
is observed Average 28final set.Average
initial and
Type Setting
= 0,1562Time Final Setting day Day
R² = 0,7943
Fineness

Heat flux (W/Kg)

(W/kg)

1,50 R²
1,50
1,00
R² = 0,8246 (min)
1,00
R² = 0,8927 Time (min) compressive
R² = 0,8927 compressive
Peak 2 (cm2)2/g)
Linear (Peak
Heat

Time of heat flux peak (min)

2500 2300
strength 1,00 strength (MPa)

Time of heat flux peak (min)

1,00
Heat flux

2300
0,50
0,50
0,50
0,50
(MPa) 2100
II 32.5N 265 330 30 (7day)
2100 47 3616
R² = 0,992
0,00
0,00 0,00 1900
0,00
310210 200
20 II
260 42.5N 250
25 310 218 200
300
30 285
250
350
35 45
22
300 (2day)
1900
50 350 55
52 60 65
3949
IIEarly
Initial Setting Time(min) 42.5Rday Compressive
Final 180Strength
Setting Time (min) (MPa) 224Setting Time (min)
Final 301700
(2day)
28 59 (MPa)
day Compressive Strength 4054 1700
Correlation
heat flux FFplot iigguurrbetween heat flux
ee98::Correlation
Correlation
I 52.5N plot igure 8:heat
Fbetween
plotbetween
178 Correlation
heat flux225 plot
flux Figubetween
re 1030 heat flux plot between
Correlation
:1500
(2day) 62 heat 3890 1500
Figure 9: Correlation plot between heat flux peak and early day
ak and initial setting
peak and
compressive strength. time
early day compressive
peak and final setting time peak
strength and final setting
flux peak time
and 28
170day compressive
190 210 strength
230 250 270 210
Initial Setting Time (min)
The relationship between the setting times and time of the second heat flux peak is shown
Peak
2) 2
below in Figure
LinearPeak
(Peak
12 and Figure 13 where a Linear
strong igcorrelation
FigureF12:uCorrelation is observed
re 12: Correlation
plot betweenplot for
time of both
between initial
time
heat flux and Figure 13
peakof
eak 2 2) LinearPeak 2 2) 2
Peak
(Peak (Peak(Peak
andLinear
initial 2) 2)
set.
final set. 2,00
heat flux peak and initial set h
2,00 2,00
R² =20,7943 R²R²= =0,7943
0,6421 Peak 2 Linear (Peak 2)
Heat flux (W/Kg)

Peak Linear (Peak 2)

Heat flux (W/Kg)

R² = 0,1562
4.4 2300Discussion of results
Heat flux (W/Kg)

1,50 1,50 1,50

Time of heat flux peak (min)

2500

Time of heat flux peak (min)

2300
With the exception of fineness (R2 = 0.87), the first p
1,00 1,00 1,00
cement
2100
properties. Table 3 shows the summarised R2 valu
2100 R² = 0,9971
0,50 0,50 0,50 R² = 0,992 the investigated
1900 properties.
1900
0,00 0,00 0,00 Table1700
3: Linear regression values for the different cement
3525 1700
45 30 50 35 553600 453700
60 3800
5065 3900
55 4000 60 4100 65
Early day Compressive Strength
(MPa) 28(MPa)
1500 day Compressive Strength (MPa) 28 Fineness
day Compressive
(cm2/g) Strength (MPa) Parameter R2
1500
Correlation plot
heat fluxFigure 10: between heat
F i g u
ure 10: Correlation
FigCorrelation 170 rflux
e 1 1 :
190
plot between heat
F i
plotflux g
Correlationu r e
between
210 1 0
peak and
:
plot
230Correlation
heat
28 day
250 plot
270 Initial
between
between heat flux peak set
heat
210and230
fineness
250 270 290 310 330 350 0.82
early day
rength compressive
flux peak
compressive and
strength.strength
28 day compressive fluxSetting
Initial peakTime and(min)
strength28 day compressive Finalstrength
set Final Setting Time (min) 0.89
Figure 12: Correlation plot between time ofFigure Early
F13: rday
e 13compressive
: Correlation
iguCorrelation plot between strength
plot
timebetween
of heat fluxtime
peak of 0.16
Peak heat flux peakLinear
and(Peak
initial
2) set
28-day
and final set. compressive strength
heat flux peak and final set 0.79
eak 2 Linear (Peak 2) 2
Fineness 0.64
2,00 4.4 Discussion of results
R² =4.4
0,6421 Discussion of results
R² = 0,6421 With the exception of fineness (R2 = 0.87), the first peak did not reveal
It is observed fromnotthe results that the
there is strong corr
Heat flux (W/Kg)

1,50 With the exception of fineness (R2 = 0.87), muchthe aboutfirst

the peak
cementdid reveal
properties. Table 3much
showsabout the
summarised
cement properties. Table 3 shows the setting
summarised R 2 times and 28-day compressive strength. Lower co
values for the second heat flux peak and
R2 values for the second heat flux peak and the investigated properties.
1,00
the investigated properties. and
It is no correlation
observed from the observed
results that for
thereearly day correlation
is strong strength. The p
0,50 noteworthy
between the heat because
flux peak,itsetting
showstimesthatand
the28-day
28-day compressive s
compressive
Table 3: Linear regression values for the differentstrength.cement parameters
Lower correlation was observed for fineness and no correlation
0,00
00 3800
Parameter
39003600 40003700 41003800 3900 R Pagewith8high correlation are
observed for2 early day strength. The parameter
4000 4100
noteworthy because it shows that the 28-day compressive strength can
Fineness (cm /g)
2 Initial set Fineness (cm2/g) 0.82
in fact be inferred during the early stages of hydration. Even though
plotFibetween
guFigure
re 1111: Correlation
: heat Final
flux
Correlation plot
set
peak
plot between
and fineness
between heatpeak
heat flux flux peak
and and fineness
fineness. there is 0.89
a strong correlation between the second heat flux peak and
Early day compressive strength 0.16 properties, with the exception of early day strength
the investigated
Table Cement28-day
Table2:2:Cement compressive strength
properties
properties. 0.79 and fineness, stronger correlation exists
Cement Average Fineness
Initial Average Average early Average 28 0.64
Average between the time at which the second heat
Type Setting Time Final Setting day Day Fineness flux peak occurs and the corresponding
(min) Time (min) compressive compressive (cm2/g) setting times as shown in Figure 12 and
It is observed from the results
strength (MPa)that there is strong correlation Figure
strength between13, asthe heattoflux
opposed peak,
the heat flux (W/
setting times and 28-day compressive strength. (MPa) Lower correlationkg).was observed for fineness
Given the strong correlation (where R2
II 32.5N and265no correlation330 observed for early day47strength. The
30 (7day) 3616 parameter withthishigh
> 0.99), correlation
demonstrates how thearesetting
II 42.5N 218 285 22 (2day)
noteworthy because it shows that the 28-day compressive 52 3949strength timescan in canfact be inferred
be determined by during
assessing the
II 42.5R 180 224 30 (2day) 59 4054 heat output curves from a calorimeter.
I 52.5N 178 225 30 (2day) 62 3890

Page
The relationship between the setting times and time second heat flux peak isPage
of the 8 shown 8
below in Figure 12 and Figure 13 where a strong correlation is observed for both initial and
final set.
Peak 2 Linear (Peak 2) Peak 2 Linear (Peak 2) Page 9
e of heat flux peak (min)

2500 2300
of heat flux peak (min)

2300
2100
2100 R² = 0,9971
R² = 0,992 1900
1900
12 NUMBER 166 | SEPTEMBER 2021
1700 1700
 heat flux peak and initial set heat flux peak and final set

4.4 Discussion of results

YCRETS TECHNICAL PAPER 1
With the exception of fineness (R2 = 0.87), the first peak did not reveal much about the
cement properties. Table 3 shows the summarised R2 values for the second heat flux peak and

KERAPOXY CQ
the investigated properties.
Table
Table 3:3:Linear
Linear regression
regression values
values for different
for the the different cement
cement parameters
parameters.

Parameter R2

THE BACTERIOSTATIC,
Initial set 0.82
Final set 0.89
Early day compressive strength 0.16
Icons
28-day compressive strength
Fineness Icons
0.79
0.64 HIGH-PERFORMANCE,
Product Lines / Linee di p
Product Lines / Linee di prodotto
It is observed from the results that there is strong correlation between the heat flux peak,
5. CONCLUSIONS
setting times and 28-day compressive strength. Lower correlation was observed for fineness MULTIFUNCTIONAL,
and no correlation
An isothermal observed
calorimeter was for
usedearly daystudy
in this strength. The parameter
to investigate the with high correlation are 520 521
noteworthy because itfive
relationship between shows
520 that the
different 28-day
cement compressive
properties
521 strength
and the
evolution of four types of South African cements. The properties
heat can in 522
fact be inferred during
EASY-TO-USE EPOXY GROUT. 523 524

THE WORLDWIDE
investigated were: Icons
• Initial and final setting time; Icons

PARTNER IN
• Early day (2 day or 7 day) and 28-day compressive strength and; Product
Icons
Lines / Linee di prodotto
• Cement fineness. CERAMIC AND STONE MATERIAL RESILIENT, LVT, TEXTILE MATERIALS Product Product
Page Lines
9 SPORT
Linesdi/ Linee
/ Linee di prod
prodotto CERAMIC AND STONE MATERIAL
CERAMICA E MATERIALI
WOODEN LAPIDEI
FLOORING
RESILIENT, LVT, TEXTILE MATERIALS
RESILIENTI, LVT, TESSILI
RESIN FLOORING

CONSTRUCTION
CERAMICA E MATERIALI LAPIDEI RESILIENTI, LVT, TESSILI SPORT PARQUET RESINA

Understandably, current standardized test methods use different 520 521 522
equipment and specimens to measure each of the above properties as 520 528 521 529 5
528 529 530 520 531 521 532 522
per the relevant test method. In this study it has been shown how these
properties can also be inferred with the use of a single equipment, i.e.
an isothermal calorimeter for cement, through analysis of the heat
development during cement hydration.
CERAMIC AND STONE MATERIAL RESILIENT, LVT, TEXTILE MATERIALS
Products
SPORT

otto/ Linee di prodotto

nes In fact, thermal analysis techniques have been shown useful for
ARCHITECTURAL PAVING ARCHITECTURAL STONE PAVING
CERAMICA E MATERIALI LAPIDEI

Tile Adhesives
RESILIENTI, LVT, TESSILI
STRUCTURAL STRENGTHENING CERAMICA EMASONRY Concrete
CERAMIC AND STONE MATERIAL
ARCHITECTURAL
MATERIALI
PAVING
RESTORATION
LAPIDEI
SPORT
for Resilient,
RESILIENT, LVT, TEXTILE MATERIALS
ARCHITECTURAL
THERMAL
RESILIENTI,
STONE PAVING
INSULATION
LVT, TESSILI
many types of cement and PAVIMENTAZIONI
concrete studies, particularly to quantify
PAVIMENTAZIONI the
ARC. IN PIETRA CERAMIC AND STONE
RINFORZO STRUTTURALE MATERIAL RESILIENT, LVT,
PAVIMENTAZIONI
RISANAMENTO TEXTILE
EDIFICI MATERIALS PAVIMENTAZIONI
ISOLAMENTOARC.
LVT & Textile
SPORT
IN PIETRA
TERMICO
ARCHITETTONICHE
& Grouts
CERAMICA E MATERIALI LAPIDEI Repair
IN RESILIENTI,
MURATURALVT, TESSILI
ARCHITETTONICHE SPORT
heat relationships that cause thermally induced cracking and also to Materials
523 524 525 528 526 529 527 530
assist engineers in making decisions related to material handling and
523 524 537 525 528
526 529
527 5
521 536
construction activities that522
are dependent on the setting 523 times and 538 524 539 525
536 537 526
528 529 530
strength development of concrete. Icons

The following relationships were identified during this study:

WOODEN FLOORING RESIN FLOORING
Product Lines / Linee di prodotto
ACOUSTIC INSULATION ARCHITECTURAL PAVING BUILDING
i. Strong correlation was found between the second heat flux peak ARCHITECTURALADMIXTURES
STONE PAVINGFOR CONCRETESTRUCTURAL STRENGTHENING
PARQUET RESINA ISOLAMENTO ACUSTICO PAVIMENTAZIONI EDILIZIA PAVIMENTAZIONIADDITIVI PER CALCESTRUZZO
ARC. IN PIETRA RINFORZO STRUTTURALE
SPORT
RESILIENT,(W/kg) and WOODEN FLOORING
(a) setting timesAND andADHESIVES RESIN FLOORING
(b) 28-day compressive strength for ACOUSTIC INSULATION
ARCHITETTONICHE Sealants
BUILDING
ARCHITECTURAL PAVING Admixtures
ADMIXTURES FOR
ARCHITECTURAL STONE for
CONCRETE
PAVING ST
Resin
SPORT LVT, TEXTILE MATERIALS SEALANTS
PARQUET SPORT MARINE
RESINA INDUSTRY
WOODEN FLOORING ISOLAMENTOCEMENT ADDITIVES
RESIN
ACUSTICO FLOORING ASPHALT PAVEMENTS
ACOUSTIC
EDILIZIA
PAVIMENTAZIONI INSULATION ADDITIVI PERMARINE
PAVIMENTAZIONI BUILDING
CALCESTRUZZO
ARC. IN INDUSTRY
PIETRA
SEALANTS AND ADHESIVES
RESILIENTI, LVT, TESSILI SIGILLANTI E ADESIVI ELASTICI
SPORT
all the cements investigated. The highest R2 value (0.89) was that
INDUSTRIAPARQUET
NAVALE C-ADD RESINA PAVING
ARCHITECTURAL PAVIMENTAZIONI
SIGILLANTI
ISOLAMENTOBITUMINOSE
ARCHITECTURAL
ARCHITETTONICHE
E ADESIVI
ACUSTICO
STONE
ELASTICI
PAVING ConcreteSTRUCTURAL
INDUSTRIA
EDILIZIA
STRENGTHE
NAVALE
Flooring
PAVIMENTAZIONI
ARCHITETTONICHE
PAVIMENTAZIONI ARC. IN PIETRA RINFORZO STRUTTURA
520 521 522 523
531 for final setting time. The heat flux peak was
532 observed 533to decrease 536 534 537 535 538

529
with an longer 531 cement setting times and
530
532 increase with higher
531
533
532
536
534
533
537
535
534
5

cement strengths. 536 537 538

ii. The strongest correlation found in this study was that for final
setting time and the time at which the second heat flux peak
occurred as opposed to theTHERMAL heat flux peak CERAMIC
in pointAND(i)STONE
above. This is Sports Cement
G MASONRY RESTORATION
RISANAMENTO EDIFICI
INSULATION
ISOLAMENTO TERMICOCERAMICA E MATERIALI
WALL PROTECTIVE
MATERIAL
AND DECORATIVE
LAPIDEI COATINGS
RESILIENT,
SEALANTS
Waterproofing
RESILIENTI,
SIGILLANTI E ADESIVI
WATERPROOFING
LVT,ADHESIVES
AND TEXTILE MATERIALS
IMPERMEABILIZZANTI
LVT, TESSILI
ELASTICI INDUSTRIA
UNDERGROUND
MARINE INDUSTRYSPORT CONSTRUCTION CEMENT
Flooring
COSTRUZIONI
SPORT IN SOTTERRANEO
NAVALE
WOODEN FLOORING
ADDITIVES
C-ADD PARQUET
inINline
CTURAL STRENGTHENING with other
MURATURA researchers’
MASONRY findings such asTHERMAL
RESTORATION Ramachandran
INSULATION et. al.
FINITURE COLORATE E PROTETTIVEWALL PROTECTIVE SEALANTS AND ADHESIVES
WATERPROOFING Additives
MARINE
UNDERGROUND INDUSTRY
CONSTRUCTION
ARCHITECTURAL
FORZO STRUTTURALE
[22]
STONE
, Soroka
PAVIMENTAZIONI
PAVING
[3]
and Vazquez
ARC. IN PIETRA
STRUCTURAL
RISANAMENTO EDIFICI
& Pique
RINFORZO
IN MURATURA
STRENGTHENING
[4]
.
STRUTTURALE
MASONRY
ISOLAMENTO TERMICO RESTORATION THERMAL
AND DECORATIVE COATINGS
RISANAMENTO EDIFICIFINITURE COLORATE ISOLAMENTO
INSULATION
E PROTETTIVE TERMICO
SIGILLANTI Solutions
E ADESIVI WALL
IMPERMEABILIZZANTI PROTECTIVE
ELASTICI
AND DECORATIVE COATINGS
INDUSTRIA
COSTRUZIONI WATERPROOFING
INNAVALE
SOTTERRANEO
IMPERMEABILIZZANTI
IN MURATURA SEALANTS AND ADHESIVES FINITUREMARINE INDUSTRY
COLORATE E PROTETTIVE CEMENT ADDITIVES
SIGILLANTI E ADESIVI ELASTICI INDUSTRIA NAVALE C-ADD
iii. Given the strong correlation (i.e. R2 > 0.99) of both initial and
539
final set, this demonstrates how the heat output curves from a528 529 530 531
539
537
calorimeter can be used538 to determine setting times.539 MAPEI is a trusted manufacturer and supplier
iv. CEM II 42.5R exhibited the highest reactivity of all cements through of the highest quality building materials to the
analysis of the calorimetry output curves. The cement consistently construction sector. The MAPEI Group consists of
showed the highest values at each of the heat flux peaks as well as 90 subsidiaries with 83 plants in five continents.
ASPHALT PAVEMENTS
overall heat
PAVIMENTAZIONI output within the 8 day durationARCHITECTURAL
BITUMINOSE of the experiment.
CEMENT ADDITIVES
v. INDUSTRIA
C-ADD EarlyINDUSTRY
MARINE day cement
ASPHALT PAVEMENTS
strength
PAVIMENTAZIONI showed
CEMENT
BITUMINOSE no
ADDITIVES significant
PAVING
correlation
PAVIMENTAZIONI with
ASPHALT PAVEMENTS
KERAPOXY
ARCHITECTURAL STONE PAVING
Our
PAVIMENTAZIONI team
ARC. IN PIETRA CQ is
is committed a easy-to-use,
STRUCTURAL STRENGTHENING
RINFORZO toSTRUTTURALE
providing anti-acid,
pre-sales easy-to-c
MASONRY RESTORATION
RISANAMENTO EDIFICI

BioBlock® technology for grouting the joints of c

NAVALE C-ADD ARCHITETTONICHE
PAVIMENTAZIONI BITUMINOSE IN MURATURA
any of the heat flux peaks. advice, technical on-site support and training and
vi. The value of the second heat flux peak reduced with an increase in after-sales support f rom
prevents the growth of unwanted micro-organism the conception of your
cement strength. 536 537 project to the completion. 538 539

KERAPOXY CQ is ideal for grouting joints where

According to this study, three out of the five cement properties
industrial &, commercial kitchens, residential en
investigated can be inferred through analysis of its heat flux peak,
REBUILDING SOUTHERN
AFRICA WITH MAPEI.
namely initial, final setting time and 28-day compressive strength. CB

SEALANTS AND ADHESIVES MARINE INDUSTRY CEMENT ADDITIVES ASPHALT PAVEMENTS

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Email: [email protected] CONCRETE BETON 13
YCRETS TECHNICAL PAPER 1

REFERENCES
[1] Perrie, B. & Rossman, D., 2009. Concrete Road Construction. [12] Le Châtelier, H., 1887. Compt. Rend. Hebd. Séanc. Acad. Sci.
MIdrand: Cement & Concrete Institute. Paris, 104:1443.
[2] Czernin, W., 1980. Cement Chemistry and Physics for Civil [13] Boersma, S. M., 1955. A Theory of Differential Thermal
Engineers. 2nd ed. Michigan: Bauverlag. Analysis and New Methods of Measurement and
[3] Soroka, I., 1979. Setting and Hardening. In: Portland Interpretation. Journal of the American Ceramic Society, 38(8),
Cement Paste and Concrete. London: Palgrave. https://doi. pp. 281-284.
org/10.1007/978-1-349-03994-4_2, pp. 28-45. [14] Wadsö, L., 1995. Evaluation of isothermal calorimetry for
[4] Vazquez, A. & Pique, T. M., 2016. Biotech admixtures for characterization of very early and early cement reactions:
enhancing portland cement hydration. In: F. Pacheco-Torgal, A critical literature review. Report TVBM, Intern 7000-rapport,
V. Ivanov, N. Karak & H. Jonkers, eds. Biopolymers and Vol. 7094, Lund: Division of Building Materials, LTH, Lund
Biotech Admixtures for Eco-Efficient Construction Materials. University.
s.l.:Woodhead Publishing, pp. 81-96. https://doi.org/10.1016/ [15] Carlson, R. W., 1934. The Vane Calorimeter. Proceedings-
B978-0-08-100214-8.00005-1. American Society for Testing and Materials, 34(2),
[5] Goodwin, R. W., 2014. Chapter 6 - Utilization Methodology pp. 322-328.
- MWC Residues. In: R. W. Goodwin, ed. Combustion Ash [16] Lerch, W. & Bogue, R. H., 1934. Heat of hydration of Portland
Residue Management: An Engineering Perspective. s.l.: Cement pastes. Part of Bureau of Standards Journal of
William Andrew Publishing, pp. 77-96. Research, Volume 12, pp. 645-664.
[6] SANS 50196-1:2006, 2006. South African National Standard. [17] Rastrup, E., 1954. Heat of Hydration in Concrete. Magazine
Methods of testing cement. Part 1: Determination of strength, of Concrete Research, 6(17), pp. 79-92.
Pretoria: South African Bureau of Standdards (SABS). [18] Aschan, N., 1966. Determining the setting time of cement
[7] SANS 5863:2006, 2006. South African National Standard. paste, mortar and concrete with a copper-lead electrode.
Concrete tests - Compressive strength of hardened concrete., Magazine of Concrete Research, 18(56), pp. 156-160.
Pretoria: South African Bureau of Standdards (SABS). [19] Acker, P., 1988. Mechanical behaviour of concrete:
[8] SANS 50196-3:2006, 2006. South African National Standard. contribution of the physical and chemical approach. Rapport
Methods of testing cement. Part 3: Determination of setting de Recherche LPC (Laboratoire Central des Ponts et Chaussees),
times and soundness, Pretoria: South African Bureau of Issue 152.
Standdards (SABS). [20] Lootens, D. & Bentz, D. P., 2016. On the Relation of Setting
[9] Indelicato, F., 1997. Estimate of concrete cube strength by and Early-Age Strength Development to Porosity and Hydration
means of different diameter cores: A statistical approach. in Cement-Based Materials. Cement and Concrete Composites,
Materials and Structures/Materiaux et Constructions, Volume 68, pp. 9-14.
Volume 30, pp. 131-138. [21] ASTM C1679-09, Standard Practice for Measuring Hydration
[10] Al-Abbasi, A. & Shalaby, A., 2018. Non-Destructive Testing Kinetics of Hydraulic Cementitious Mixtures Using Isothermal
for Optimizing Concrete Pavement Rehabilitation. Saskatoon, Calorimetry, ASTM International, West Conshohocken,
Proceedings of Innovations in Pavement Management, PA, 2009.
Engineering and Technologies Session. [22] Ramachandran, V. S., Paroli, R. M., Beaudoin, J. J. & Delgado,
[11] Vold, M. J., 1949. Differential Thermal Analysis. Analytical A. H., 2002. Handbook of Thermal Analysis of Construction
Chemistry, 21(6), pp. 683-688. Materials. New York: Noyes Publications / William Andrew
Publishing.

REFILOE GEORGES MTURI TSHEPO C MOTAU

MOKOENA is a is a Senior Scientist is a Cement and
civil engineering and the Acting Road Concrete Laboratory
researcher at Materials Testing manager at the
the Council for Research Group PPC Cement,
Scientific and Leader within the Group Laboratory
Industrial Research Smart Mobility Operations.
(CSIR). Her research cluster of the Council He received his
area of interest for Scientific and N-Diploma (Civil
is in sustainable Industrial Research Engineering) from
transport (CSIR) in South Tshwane University
infrastructure and her work is aimed towards Africa. He currently leads a multi-disciplinary of Technology; B-Tech degree (Structures)
providing climate resilient, cost-effective and technical team working on projects involving from University of Johannesburg (UJ); M-Tech
sustainable solutions to the road design and the sustainable use of waste material in degree (Civil Engineering) from UJ; and MBA
construction industry. Refiloe graduated from roads, innovative road technologies, advanced degree from Regent Business School. He is a
the University of the Witwatersrand (WITS) road material characterisation and forensic professional member of Engineering Council
in 2011 with her undergraduate degree in investigations into road failures that span the of South Africa (ECSA).
civil engineering. She also obtained her MEng African continent.
(Civil Engineering) degree in 2016 from WITS.

14 NUMBER 166 | SEPTEMBER 2021

 YCRETS TECHNICAL PAPER 2

Potential for carbon dioxide sequestration

in wet concrete mixes
I.I. Milanova (1) and E. Kearsley (1)
(1) Department of Civil Engineering, University of Pretoria

ABSTRACT This reaction begins during the hydration of the cementitious phases
The novel concept of CO2 sequestration in wet concrete mixes relies on with the added CO2. The products formed during these hydration
permanent capture and storage of CO2 in the form of solid limestone reactions are calcium ions (Ca+) and carbonate ions (CO3-2) respectively.
within the concrete matrix. This technology is designed to alleviate a When these ions bond together, they undergo an exothermic
portion of the carbon footprint while ensuring that the strength and carbonation reaction in which calcite is produced as seen in Equation 4.
integrity of the concrete is not impaired. Sequestration occurs when This carbonation reaction is diffusion limited when it takes place in
CO2 is introduced into the freshly hydrating cement paste where cement, responding with CaO individually as well as in the C-S-H phase [5].
it reacts with the main calcium silicate phases, forming calcite and
silicate hydrate gel. In this study, CO2 was added to fresh concrete and
mortar mixes during mixing. Two forms of CO2 addition were utilised: Ca+2 + CO3-2 w CaCO3 Equation (4)
the first comprised carbonating the mix water and the second, CO2
within its solid state, commonly referred to as dry ice. The effects of Various experimentation with CCS in concrete have been undertaken,
CO2 absorption of mixes were physically and chemically investigated with adjustments made in the means and methods of CO2
during a series of comparative tests. Results indicate a strong potential sequestration. From these, it was concluded that introducing CO2 to
for concrete mixes treated with dry ice to reach acceptable flexural and wet concrete during the mixing stage would utilize CCS on a larger
compressive strengths after 28 days, scale, as opposed to it being exposed to mature concrete. The addition
of CO2 to the concrete mix thus eventually accounts for the formation
Keywords:concrete, carbon dioxide, carbonation. of calcite within the hardened concrete matrix. Moreover, the fresh
properties of the mix are also said to experience an impact, such as
1. INTRODUCTION accelerated drying times and decreased alkalinity. Further experiments
The anthropogenic CO2 load is an increasingly problematic secondary
[5]
saw increased early-age compressive strengths of concrete cubes
effect of the modern world. Cement production alone is responsible treated with varying concentrations of solid CO2 during the mixing
for nearly 7% of global CO2 emissions [14]. In an attempt to combat phase. This strength increase is attributed to the formation of calcite
this, Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) has become a popular field within the hardened concrete. When carbonation takes place within a
of study in recent years [5]. As concrete is the most universal building concrete matrix, carbonic acid is formed during the reaction shown in
material, storage of CO2 within it offers massive promise, offering a Equation 5:
‘greener’ solution to current industrial practices. During the production
of cement, a calcination process occurs wherein calcite (CaCO3) is CO2 + H2O w H2CO3 Equation (5)
transformed into calcium oxide (CaO) as indicated in Equation 1.
The creation of this acid results in a pH drop of the pore solution which
CaCO3 w CaO + CO2 Equation (1) is originally of a high alkalinity, usually a pH reading of above 12.5.
Carbonation of hydrated Portland cement paste can reduce this value to
This reaction, along with the energy necessary to run the cement kiln, as low as 8.3, which may be deemed problematic as the depassivation
together comprise the CO2 released into the atmosphere. The chemical threshold of reinforcing steel is approximately 9.5 [7], thus potentially
makeup of concrete has a direct effect upon its strength and durability. resulting in accelerated corrosion of reinforcement. However, this is said
During the carbonation of freshly hydrating cement paste, the main to be a possibility only when CO2 is exposed to mature concrete and its
calcium silicate phases present in the cement and the added CO2 react hydration phases [6]. Furthermore, the porosity of carbonated cement
together to form calcite as well as silicate hydrate gel as shown in paste may change. This change can be manifested as a decrease in
Equation 2 and 3 respectively. the case of Portland cement and an increase in the case of blended
cement paste [4]. The chemical changes arising in cement paste when
3CaO∙SiO2 + 3CO2 + XH2O w SiO3∙XH2O + 3CaCO3 Equation (2) it is carbonated can be analysed using X-ray powder diffraction (XRD)
and Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). XRD is a reliable method to
2CaO∙SiO2 + 2CO2 + XH2O w SiO3∙XH2O + 2CaCO3 Equation (3) use to identify the phases present in the cement, as well as trends in
the production and consumption of secondary hydration products like

CONCRETE BETON 15
YCRETS TECHNICAL PAPER 2

portlandite and ettringite [2]. TGA portrays powder and stored in sealed, clearly marked and reinforcing was positioned within each
the change of mass of a material sample as a packets to be used during TGA. During the test, specimen such as to create a voltaic cell. Sodium
function of time over a temperature heating the sample was covered by the TGA furnace Chloride (NaCl) solution was periodically
rate. and heated to a temperature of 800 ºC at a poured on the top surface of each specimen
rate of 20 ºC/min in the presence of Nitrogen so as to accelerate the natural rusting process
2. EXPERIMENTAL WORK gas to induce chemical decomposition of the by inducing cyclic wetting and drying of the
2.1 Preparation of Mortar material. XRD analysis was performed on concrete. This corrosion experiment continued
The mortar mix allowed for a comparative, samples from each of the five mortar mixes at for 28 days, after which both specimens were
small scale representation of the concrete a curing age of 14 days. broken in half and the exposed inner surface
mix which could be chemically analysed while sprayed with a phenolphthalein solution to
disregarding chemically inert aggregates. The 2.2 Preparation of Concrete give an indication of the concrete’s pH level.
mix design for one batch of mortar consisting A simple concrete mix design, with a Thereafter, the reinforcement bars were
of a set of three prismatic specimens water:binder ratio of 0.5 was chosen. The mix cleaned from rust and weighed to determine
comprised of 450 g of CEM II with a 20 % design per cubic meter comprised of 400 kg the degree of corrosion suffered.
fly ash content, 1350 g of ISO standard sand CEM II (containing 20 % fly ash), 200 kg of
and 225 g of water and possessed a 0.5 water, 900 kg of dolomite sand and 900 kg of 3. ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
water:binder ratio. Each prismatic specimen 10 mm dolomite aggregate. A reference mix 3.1 Mortar Results
had dimensions of 40 mm x 40 mm x 160 mm. (Mix 1) and a CO2 treated mix (Mix 2) were Analysis of the mortar results suggest a higher
As the ultimate goal of this experiment was produced in order to run comparative tests. rate of CO2 sequestration taking place in Mix
to test the structural suitability of a greener The CO2 for Mix 2 was added in the form of C and Mix D. This is indicated in Table 1 by
and more environmentally friendly building carbonated mix water, with approximately lower pH values and workability as well as
material, CEM II was chosen as it already 3.3 litres of CO2 used per litre of mix water. greater amounts of calcite within the samples
contains fly ash as an admixture. Directly following the mixing stage, both as predicted.
Originally, three test mixes were created: concrete mixes were tested for their pH level Flexural and compressive strength of
the reference mix (Mix T) with the standard mix using an electronic pH probe. Thereafter slump the prismatic specimens from each mix are
design, Mix A wherein one litre of mix water tests were performed for each mix (SANS portrayed in Figure 1 and Figure 2 respectively.
was carbonated using approximately 3.3 litres 5862-1) in the attempt to observe potential Prisms from the reference mix appear to have
of CO2 and Mix B wherein one litre of mix relationships between the added CO2 and the highest strengths, followed by those from
water was carbonated using approximately 6 the resulting workability of the mix. Concrete Mix A and Mix B, which increase in relative
litres of CO2. Mix water was carbonated one specimens were cast into the required moulds flexural and compressive strength with time.
litre at a time using commercially available and left to set for 24 hours in a humidity and Mixes C and D indicate an even smaller
home carbonation equipment. Subsequently, temperature controlled room, whereafter they retention of the reference mix’s flexural and
it was decided to include two more mortar remained in a water bath until their respective compressive strength at early age. The general
mixes, to which CO2 was introduced during curing ages were reached. decline in strengths between prism of the
the mixing stage in the form of dry ice in The CO2 treated concrete was examined reference mix and those of Mixes A, B, C and
additions of 200 g and 300 g respectively per in order to determine whether its transformed D can be attributed to the previous exposure
litre of mix water. chemical composition would impact its to CO2. However, their steady increase in
Specimens from Mixes T, A and B were durability in any way. Test specimens percentage flexural and compressive strength
prepared for curing ages 1, 3, 7 and 14 days, comprised of circular disks, approximately of the reference mix suggests the possibility
while specimens from Mixes C and D were 70 mm in diameter and 30 mm in thickness, of minimal strength differences between these
prepared for curing ages 1, 3, 7, 14 and 28 cored and cut from previously cast cubes. mixes and the reference mix at later ages.
days. Directly following the mixing stage, Specimens were left in an oven for 7 days at Results thus imply that the addition of
the wet mortar from each mix was tested a temperature of 50 ºC in order to remove an solid CO2 offers a more efficient sequestration
for its pH using an electronic pH probe and excess moisture within the sample. The same method compared to the carbonation of mix
subsequently for its workability using the flow set of specimens
solution to give anwere used firstofinthe
indication theconcrete’s
oxygen pH level. Thereafter, the reinforcement bars
water.
table test (ASTM C230). Mortar specimens were cleaned from
permeability test, rust
andand weighed
later in theto determine
water the degree of corrosion
TGA curves suffered.
relating percentage weight
were left to set for 24 hours in a humidity and sorptivity test. loss of the five samples at 14 days curing age
temperature controlled room, whereafter they An investigation of the impact of as a function of temperature are indicated in
3. ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
remained in a water bath until their respective carbonation on the concrete’s pH level was Figure 3. A distinct dip is visible in every curve
curing ages were reached. conducted
3.1 through
Mortar Resultsan experiment in which between 600 ºC and 800 ºC, indicating the
Flexural strength testing followed by 300Analysis
mm x of300 the mortar
mm x results
200 mm suggest a higher rate
concrete of CO2 sequestration
temperature taking decomposition
region of calcite place in Mix
compressive strength testing were performed C and Mix D.
specimens Thiscast
were is indicated
from Mixin 1Table
and 1Mix
by lower
2 pH values and workability
(decarbonation). as wellamounts
The varying as greaterof
amounts of calcite within the samples as predicted.
on the mortar specimens at the stipulated
curing ages (EN 196-1). Thermogravimetric Table 1: Summary of mortar results.
Table 1: Summary of mortar results
analyses were performed on mortar samples Mix T Mix A Mix B Mix C Mix D
at their various curing ages. Pieces from the
pH value 12.96 12.53 12.50 11.35 11.02
mortar specimens were stored in an oven at
60 ºC for a duration of 24 hours to expel any Flow (%) 183 186 195 138 115
remaining water, and thereafter ground into Weight of calcite within sample at 14 days (%) 1.48 1.79 1.84 1.99 2.38

Flexural and compressive strength of the prismatic specimens from each mix are portrayed
in Figure 1 and Figure 2 respectively. Prisms from the reference mix appear to have the highest
16 NUMBER 166 | SEPTEMBER 2021
strengths, followed by those from Mix A and Mix B, which increase in relative flexural and
compressive strength with time. Mixes C and D indicate an even smaller retention of the
 YCRETS TECHNICAL PAPER 2

100%
100%
9

101%
100%
101%
100%
alkalinity which can only be attributed to the

96%
96%
8

100%
100%
CO2 addition. While the lower value remains

85%
(MPa)

85%
95%
Strength (MPa)

82%
95%

82%
7

79%
79%
84%

73%
higher than the depassivation threshold

84%

73%
100%
100%
6 Mix T

72%
72%
95%
of reinforcing, problems may arise when

95%
Flexural Strength

89%
89%

63%
63%
5 Mix A the concrete sets and hardens as the drop

63%
4

63%
Mix B

59%
100%

59%
100%

in alkalinity may potentially continue as a

92%
92%
81%

3
81%
Flexural

Mix C result of the hydration of products inside the

52%
49%
52%
49%

2 Mix D concrete matrix. The slump was determined

1 as an indication of the workability of the
0 fresh concrete. The slump was measured as
1 Day 3 Day 7 Day 14 Day 28 Day
90 mm for Mix 1 and 105 mm for Mix 2.
Curing Age
anticipated. The percentage mass loss due to decarbonation can be further deduced as a result The CO2 addition in Mix 2 thus increased the
Figure
of this.1: Flexural strength
Figure of 1: Flexural
mortar strength of mortar prisms
prisms workability with more than 15 %. This may
100% be attributed to improved lubrication of the

100%
45 mix as a result of the entrained air present
100%

100%

94%
94%
88%
(MPa)

88%
Strength (MPa)

89%
40
89%
from carbonation of the mix water. The results
79%
100%

79%
100%

35 72%
72%
for oxygen permeability and water sorptivity
95%
95%

68%
68%
Compressive Strength

86%

30
86%
82%

Mix T
82%

testing are summarised in Table 2. General

80%
80%
100%
100%

25
94%
94%

Mix A observation of these values indicates good

80%
80%

20
66%
66%
61%

durability characteristics in both mixes. The

61%

Mix B
Compressive

100%
100%

15
91%
91%
79%
79%

permeability of concrete defines its ability

71%
71%
62%
62%

10 Mix C
5 to resist flow of a fluid within its hardened
Mix D
0 matrix. Permeability of Mixes 1 and 2 appears
1 Day 3 Day 7 Day 14 Day 28 Day to be practically equivalent, with no significant
nticipated. The percentage mass loss due to decarbonation
Curing Age can be further deduced as a resultvariance which may be linked to the CO
2
this. addition.
Figure 2: Compressive Figure
strength2: of
Compressive strength of mortar prisms
mortar prisms.
Considering the data, sorptivity and
TGA curves relating percentage weight loss of the five samples at 14 days curing age as a porosity are depicted to be higher in the case
function of temperature are indicated in Figure 3. A distinct dip is visible in every curve between of Mix 2. This behaviour is in line with the
600 ˚C and 800 ˚C, indicatingFigure 3: Fourteen-day
the temperature region of TGA
calciteof mortar samples
decomposition (decarbonation). findings of [4], which states that carbonation
The varying amounts of calcite within the mortar, most prominent in the case of Mix C and Mix
may induce an increase in the pore structure
D, within the mortar allude to the fact that CO22 has been captured inside the mortar as
3.2 Concrete Results of concrete produced with blended cements.
Comparison of the concrete results revealed a certain difference in performance between the While a rise in sorptivity and porosity in
CO2 treated mix and the reference one. The pH readings for Mix 1 and Mix 2 were 13.30 and
concrete are not ideal, the results of Mix 2
12.68 respectively. This discrepancy in values indicate a change in original concrete alkalinity
which can only be attributed to the CO2 addition. While the lower value remains higher than are still within the limits of good practice.
the depassivation threshold of reinforcing, problems may arise when the concrete sets and However, care should be taken in cases where
hardens as the drop in alkalinity may potentially continue as a result of the hydration of products reinforcement is present or higher CO2 dosages
inside the concrete matrix. The slump was determined as an indication of the workability of the are desired in the mix design.During the
fresh concrete. The slump was measured as 90 mm for Mix 1 and 105 mm for Mix Page 5 CO2
2. The wetting-dry cycles of the accelerated corrosion
addition in Mix 2 thus increased the workability with more than 15 %. This may be attributed test, qualitative changes were observed as a
to improved lubrication of the mix as a result of the entrained air present from carbonation of rust stain on the surface of the Mix 2 specimen
the mix water. The results for oxygen permeability and water sorptivity testing are summarised
(significantly larger than that on the surface of
in Table 2. General observation of these values indicates good durability characteristics in both
mixes. The permeability of concrete defines its ability to resist flow of a fluid within its the Mix 1 specimen) began to appear. Figure 4
hardened matrix. Permeability of Mixes 1 and 2 appears to be practically equivalent, with no depicts, the specimens when they were halved
significant
Figure variance which
3: Fourteen-day may be linked to the CO addition.
Figure 3: Fourteen-day TGA of mortar samples
TGA of mortar samples. 2 and sprayed with phenolphthalein solution.
Considering the specimen of Mix 1, there
Table2:2:Summary
Table Summaryofofresults
resultsfrom
fromoxygen
oxygenpermeability
permeabilityandandwater
water sorptivity
sorptivity testing.
testing is a very fine colourless strip at the top right-
2 Concrete Results Mix 1 Mix 2 hand surface which signifies a small reduction
Comparison of the concrete
Oxygen Permeability Index
results revealed a certain difference in
10.53
performance
10.50
between thein pH in this region. A pH drop was only
O2 treated mix and the reference one. The pH readings for Mix 1 and Mix 2 were 13.30 and experienced near the top of the specimen,
Water Sorptivity
2.68 respectively. Index (mm/hrin
This discrepancy
0.5
)values indicate a change8.68 9.95
in original concrete alkalinityand any potential corrosion of reinforcement
hich can Porosity
only be(%) attributed to the CO2 addition. While the lower 9.49 value remains10.62 higher thanis limited to that region. The previously CO2
e depassivation threshold of reinforcing, problems may arise when the concrete sets andtreated specimen of Mix 2, in contrast, displays
ardens ascalcite
the drop within the mortar,
in alkalinity may most 3.2 Concrete
prominentcontinue
potentially as a resultResults
of the hydration of productsan acidic region of substantial size near the
in the case of Mix C and Mix D,
side the concrete matrix. The slump was determined within the as an indication
Comparison of the workability
of the concrete of thetop of its cross-section, entirely surrounding
results revealed
mortar allude to the fact that CO2 has been a certain
esh concrete. The slump was measured as 90 mm for Mix 1difference
and 105inmm performance
for Mix between
Page 6CO2the first reinforcement bar. The drop in
2. The
captured inside the mortar as anticipated. The the CO treated mix and the reference one.
ddition in Mix 2 thus increased the workability with more than 15 %. This may be attributed
2 alkalinity caused by the extraction of sodium
percentage mass loss due to decarbonation The pH readings for Mix 1 and Mix 2 were
improved lubrication of the mix as a result of the entrained air present from carbonation ofchloride ions within the NaCl solution into the
can be further deduced as a result of this. 13.30 and 12.68 respectively. This discrepancy
e mix water. The results for oxygen permeability and water sorptivity testing are summarisedconcrete, further resulted in corrosion induced
in values indicate a change in original concrete
Table 2. General observation of these values indicates good durability characteristics in bothmass loss of the fixed reinforcement bars. The
ixes. The permeability of concrete defines its ability to resist flow of a fluid within its
ardened matrix. Permeability of Mixes 1 and 2 appears to be practically equivalent, with no CONCRETE BETON 17
gnificant variance which may be linked to the CO2 addition.
higher CO2 dosages are desired in the mix design.During the wetting-dry cycles of the
accelerated corrosion test, qualitative changes were observed as a rust stain on the surface of
the Mix 2 TECHNICAL
YCRETS specimen (significantly
PAPER 2larger than that on the surface of the Mix 1 specimen) began
to appear. Figure 4 depicts, the specimens when they were halved and sprayed with
phenolphthalein solution.

Figure 4: Inner surface of Mix 1 (left) and Mix 2 (right) specimens.

Figure 4: Inner surface of Mix 1 (left) and Mix 2 (right) specimens

topConsidering
reinforcement thebar of Mix 1of
specimen experienced
Mix 1, therea mass loss of
is a very 2.07
fine 4. CONCLUSIONS
% as strip
colourless at the top right-hand
opposed to thatsignifies
surface which of Mix 2 which
a smallexperienced
reduction ain6.41
pH in% this
massregion.
loss. Acidity Treating
A pH drop was only mortar and concrete with CO2 during mixing results in
experienced
nearthus
was the able
top toof diffuse
the specimen,
through aand any distance
greater potential corrosion
from carbonation
of reinforcement
the top surface of the to
is limited cement
that and alters the chemical composition of the
region.
of the MixThe2 previously CO2 treated
specimen, similarly specimen
affecting the restofofMix
the 2, in contrast, displays
reinforcement mix onan anacidic region
elemental of TGA results exhibited a considerable mass
level.
substantial
bars, albeit size
to a near
lesserthe top of This
degree. its cross-section,
creates causeentirely surrounding
for concern as any the first reinforcement
percentage bar.
of the anticipated calcite within samples of mortar mixed
The drop inwithin
reinforcing alkalinity causedcement
CO2 treated by the extraction of sodium
is at a greater chloride ions with
risk for corrosion. within drythe
iceNaCl
duringsolution
decarbonation of the sample. From XRD analyses
into the concrete, further resulted in corrosion induced mass loss of calcite the fixed was reinforcement
found to exist in the least amounts within the reference
bars. The top reinforcement bar of Mix 1 experienced a mass loss of 2.07 % as opposed to
mix, with increasing that present in Mixes A to D, correlating to the
dosages
ELSABE
of Mix 2KEARSLEY is Professorain6.41 % mass loss. Acidity was thus able to diffuse through a
which experienced sequestration method used and difference in carbon content. Better
greater
Civil distance at
Engineering from
the the top surface
University of of the Mix 2 specimen, similarlyCO affecting the restappears
sequestration of the to have taken place in Mixes C and D where
reinforcement
Pretoria. She is abars, albeitProfessional
registered to a lesser degree. This creates cause for concern 2
as any reinforcing
it was added as dry ice.
within CO
Engineer, 2 treated
and she holdscementa PhD is from
at a greater risk for corrosion.
The strengths of mortar prisms from Mixes C and D showed
Leeds University. For the last 25 years her
substantially weaker results for early-age strength gain, however, a
research has focused on reducing the
4. CONCLUSIONS prominent increase in strength was noticed toward the 28-day mark.
environmental impact of the cement and
This shows potential when considering strength development at
Treating
concrete mortar and concrete with CO2 during mixing results in carbonation of the cement
industry.
later ages. In terms of durability aspects, it was found that sorptivity
and alters the chemical composition of the mix on an elemental level. TGA results exhibited a
and porosity increased in the case of the CO2 treated concrete mix,
considerable mass percentage of the anticipated calcite within samples of mortar mixed with
dry ice during decarbonation of the sample. From XRD analyses calcite suggesting
was found potential
to existproblems
in in the long-term durability of the
IVONA
the leastMILANOVA
amounts within is a civil
theengineering
reference mix, with increasing dosages present concrete. in This
MixeswasAfurther
to D, supported when results showed corrosion
graduate
correlating fromto UP
theand is currently method used and difference in carbon
sequestration occurred at a Better
content. faster COrate2 in the CO2 treated mix due to decreased
sequestration
enrolled at UP forappears to have
a part-time BEngtaken place in Mixes C and D where it was addedwithin
alkalinity as dryit.ice.Outcomes of the investigation prove that it is
Honours in water resources engineering. possible to sequestrate CO2 into mortar and concrete during mixing
She works as project manager at without significant negative consequences on the material properties,
Aquaplan Water Treatment Services. She especially in their later age. This, however, is only true on condition that
is a ardent environmentalist with a high no steel reinforcement is present in CO2 sequestrated concrete. CB
regard for nature and green technologies.
Page 7

REFERENCES
[1] ASTM C230 (2014), Standard specification for flow table for [7] Sajiva, B. Lukovic, M. 2016. Carbonation of cement paste:
use in tests of hydraulic cement Understanding, challenges and opportunities. Construction
[2] Du Toit, G. 2018. Chemical and mechanical activation of and Building Materials, Vol 117.
hybrid fly ash cement. PhD thesis. University of Pretoria. [8] SANS 50196-1 (2006): Methods of testing cement - Part 1:
[3] EN 196-1 (2005), Methods of testing cement Part 1: Determination of strength
Determination of strength [9] SANS 5861-1 (2006), Concrete tests – Part 1: Mixing fresh
[4] G. Rimmelé, V. Barlet-Gouédard, O. Porcherie, B. Goffé, F. concrete in the laboratory
Brunet. 2008. Heterogeneous porosity distribution in Portland [10] SANS 5861-2 (2006), Concrete tests – Part 2: Sampling of
cement exposed to CO2-rich fluids. Cement and Constrution freshly mixed concrete
Research, Vol 38, No 8, pp1038–1048. [11] SANS 5861-3 (2006), Concrete tests – Part 3: Making and
[5] Monkman, S. Macdonald, M. 2016. Carbon upcycling into curing of test specimens
industrially produced concrete blocks. Construction and [12] SANS 5862-1 (2006), Concrete tests – Part 1: Consistence of
Building Materials, Vol 124. freshly mixed concrete – slump test
[6] Papadakis, V. Fardis, M. Vayenas, C. 1992. Effect of [13] SANS 5863 (2006), Concrete tests – Compressive strength of
composition, environmental factors and cement-lime mortar hardened concrete
coating on concrete carbonation. Materials and Structures, [14] Shi, C. Jimenez, AF. Palomo, A. 2011. New cements for the
Vol 25, No 5, pp 293-304. 21st century: The pursuit of an alternative to Portland cement.
Cement and Concrete Research, Vol 41, No 7, pp750-763.

18 NUMBER 166 | SEPTEMBER 2021

 YCRETS TECHNICAL PAPER 3

Management of concrete and cementitious

waste: an assessment of practices and
strategies in South Africa
Frieda M. Mogodi (1) and Mike Otieno (1)
(1) School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg

ABSTRACT practitioners to have proper Waste Management Plans (WMP) that are
The construction industry is among the top three waste producers in environmentally friendly [2].
South Africa. There is limited literature on the contribution of concrete
and cementitious material to waste generated in the Construction 2. SIGNIFICANCE AND SCOPE OF THE STUDY
and Demolition (C&D) category. The government outlines waste The study reported in this paper focused on the management of concrete
management strategies in the State of Waste Report (SoWR) which and cementitious waste which is part of C&D waste considering that
aim to minimise waste production levels and landfill issues; however, concrete is one of the most used materials in the construction industry
there is a poor understanding of the link between these strategies and and the second most used material in the world [3]. Although there are
practices in the industry. This study assesses the practices and strategies studies that have been conducted on C&D waste in South Africa [2],
for the waste management of concrete and cementitious material on there is limited published literature on the management of concrete
construction sites based in Braamfontein, Midrand, Rosebank, Menlyn and cementitious waste specifically. One of the envisaged outcomes of
and Johannesburg Central Business District. The results indicate that the study is to create awareness of the current practices and strategies
there is limited published literature on the management of concrete for waste management of concrete and cementitious waste in South
and cementitious waste produced in construction projects; also, that Africa, and thus presenting a case for the need for improved approaches
there is a partial practice of the Reduce, Re-use and Recycle strategies. to managing concrete and cementitious waste. The findings of the
There is poor adherence to the recent waste hierarchy model stated study also contribute to the promotion of sustainable practices, thereby
in the SoWR because practitioners are unfamiliar with the report. The supporting the National Development goals of South Africa which call
study contributes to sustainable development practice in South Africa for the urgent implementation of the Nationally Appropriate Mitigation
and recommends that the private and public sector should actively Action (NAMA) [4].
participate in transferring knowledge to practitioners, thus encourag- This study critically reviewed the current management practices
ing them to consciously practice sustainable waste management in and strategies for concrete and cementitious waste generated by
the SoWR. construction projects in South Africa, China, Australia, Germany and
Kenya. Due to time and cost constraints, the study was carried out on
Keywords: Concrete, Construction and demolition, project life cycle, selected construction projects in South Africa’s Gauteng province.
waste management hierarchy, landfill.
3. LITERATURE REVIEW
1. INTRODUCTION Between 2011 and 2017, South Africa reported a relatively small per
In 2018, the South African Department of Environmental Affairs capita decline of 0.19 in the total waste produced in the country [1].
(DEA) published a State of Waste Report (SoWR) which contained This period also coincided with the introduction of waste management
waste management legislations from 1989 to 2018 [1]. These legislations policies as reported in the SoWR which can lead to the conclusion
inform the management of waste produced in South Africa including that the policies contributed to the decline. However, it is difficult to
construction and demolition (C&D) waste, organic waste and municipal apportion how much of the decline can be apportioned first, to C&D
waste, among others. The SoWR, issued in 2018, [1] indicated that C&D waste, and second, to concrete and cementitious waste. There is a
waste contributed the third largest (13%) proportion of the total waste gap for studies focusing on classified waste such as concrete, glass,
produced in the country. C&D waste can comprise a variety of materials wood, etc.
including concrete, ceramics, glass, timber, and metals. However, the When a concrete structure is demolished, the rubble material can
report does not provide this breakdown. Therefore, the proportion of be either be disposed of in a landfill or re-used or recycled on site.
concrete and other cementitious material waste in the lump sum C&D Disposal in a landfill is the last phase and least preferred option in the
figures in the DEA report is potentially unknown. life cycle of a concrete structure [5]. Barnes [6] reported that in South
In South Africa, a large proportion of all the wastes produced end Africa most concrete and cementitious materials waste is transported
up in landfills. This strategy is common even in the disposal of C&D to a landfill but there are no records of exactly how much of the
waste from the construction industry and poses several environmental waste is disposed of. Abel [7] reported that there is a problem of illegal
challenges. To overcome this challenge, the DEA legislation encourages dumping of concrete waste in South Africa; this can be attributed to

CONCRETE BETON 19
YCRETS TECHNICAL PAPER 3

the country’s potential shortage of technology techniques include Convenience Sampling, interviews were essential in the understanding
for processing waste material and limited Purposive Sampling, Quota Sampling and and interpretation of the data collected. An
published literature on the waste produced in Snowball Sampling. inductive method was used to code the data,
construction sites. In addition to the critical review of a process that facilitated a holistic view of
Strategies should be put in place to literature, case studies were carried out on the results to enable the generalization of
encourage the practice of re-using and/or five selected construction sites located in the outcomes of the study albeit with the
recycling of the materials, and disposal on Braamfontein, Midrand, Rosebank, Menlyn limitations mentioned earlier.
landfill last when managing concrete and and Johannesburg’s Central Business District The respondents in the study comprised
cementitious waste. This is a grave-to-cradle (CBD), all in South Africa’s Gauteng province civil engineers, site managers, safety officers,
approach that has been shown to have – see Table 1. The five construction sites site agents, forepersons, managing directors
the capacity to decrease the quantities of comprised of one small, two medium and two and general workers. Also, they had varying
concrete dumped in landfills [8]. Further studies large projects, as per the project classification site and professional experiences ranging from
are required to understand the capacity and criteria presented in Table 2 [12]. interns, junior workers to senior personnel. In
limits on the utilisation of recycled concrete A survey questionnaire (available online terms of site experience, and considering all
and other cementitious materials, and the at https://bit.ly/39GTFEv) was developed to the respondents, 27%, 37%, 18% and 18%
perception of contractors on the utilisation source information from the target population. had 0–1, 1–3, 10–15 and over 15 years of
of recycled concrete and other cementitious The development of the questionnaires working experience.
materials. was guided by the aim and objectives of As indicated in Table 2, none of the con-
the study, as well as a review of available struction sites provided information on the
4. METHOD literature. Ethics clearance was obtained sizes of the project teams. Table 2 can be
A qualitative approach was adopted for from the University before commencing the interpreted as follows [12]:
the study which was conducted in 2019. study to facilitate the collection of data. A (i) Completion time takes less than six
According to Minchiello [9], this method response rate of 22% was received on the months, six to twelve months and more
focuses on understanding human behaviour questionnaires. The questionnaire feedback than 12 months for, respectively, small
from the informant’s perspective and assumes was the primary data for analysing the projects, medium projects and large
a dynamic and negotiated reality. The data findings in conjunction with the interviews projects.
is collected through participant observation held on site. The [informal] interviews were (ii) The complexity levels of small projects
and interviews. In the method, data analysis conducted with the construction practitioners are manageable, the problem is easily
is carried out through themes informed by on site during the site visits and while understood, and the solution is readily
the informants’ descriptions. This approach distributing the questionnaires. The [informal] achievable. In medium projects, the
allowed for the exploration of an untapped
area of study for C&D waste management
Table 1: Construction sites sampled as Case studies.
in South Africa. Sinaga [10] reports that the Table 1: Construction sites sampled as Case studies
advantage of the qualitative method is that it Case
Location Type of construction Project size
study1:
Table No.
Construction sites sampled as Case studies
enables the researcher to “identify new and
1
Case Braamfontein, Johannesburg Multi-storey accommodation Medium
untouched phenomena; provide a deeper Location Type of construction Project size
study2No. Midrand, Johannesburg Multi-storey hotel with office space Medium to large
understanding of mechanisms; provide verbal 13 Braamfontein, Johannesburg
Rosebank, Johannesburg Multi-storey accommodation
Multi-storey office MediumMedium
information that may sometimes be converted 24 Midrand,
Menlyn,Johannesburg
Pretoria Multi-storey hoteloffice,
Multi-story with office space and
apartment MediumLarge
to large
to numerical form and reveal information 3 Rosebank, Johannesburg Multi-storey
shoppingoffice
centre Medium
45 Menlyn, PretoriaCentral BusinessMulti-story
Johannesburg office,
Multi-story apartment and
residential Large Small
that would not be identified through pre-
shopping centre
determined survey questions”. However, the District (CBD)
5 Johannesburg Central Business Multi-story residential Small
disadvantage with qualitative method is that District (CBD)
it can restrict the researcher as the results are Table 2: Project sizing criteria of Case studies based on the guidelines by Wilson [12]
“general to the population, easily applied
Table
Table2:2:Project
Projectsizing
sizingcriteria
criteriaof
ofCase
Casestudies
studiesbased
based on
on the guidelinesConstruction
the guidelines by Wilson
by site
Wilson [12].
[12]
Project aspect considered Case study 1 Case study 2 Case site
Construction study 3 Case study 4 Case s
in statistical methods, and easily assessed in
Project aspect considered Case Sstudy
M1L study
Case S M L study
2 Case S 3MCase L study
S 4M CaseLstudy
S5 M
relations between characteristics” [10].
Size of project team (full-time equivalent)S –M –L – M– L– S– M– L – S – M – L –S –M –L –
S
Construction practitioners formed the Size of projecttime
Completion team (full-time equivalent) – ☐ – ☒ –☐– ☐ – –☐ –☒ –☐ –☒ – ☐ – ☐– ☐– ☒– ☐ – ☒
target population, with non-probability and Completion
Timeframe time ☐ ☐ ☒ ☒ ☐☐ ☐
☐ ☐ ☒ ☐ ☐ ☒ ☒☐ ☐☒☐☐☐ ☐☒ ☐☐ ☒ ☒ ☒ ☐ ☐
purposive sampling methods being used to Timeframe ☐ ☒ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☒ ☐ ☒ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☒ ☒ ☐ ☐
Complexity ☒ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☒ ☐ ☒ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☒ ☒ ☐
select the samples. According to Showkat Complexity ☒ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☒ ☐ ☒ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☒ ☒ ☐ ☐
Strategic importance ☐ ☐ ☒ ☐ ☒ ☐ * * * ☐ ☐ ☒ ☒ ☐
& Parveen [11], non-probability sampling Strategic importance ☐ ☐ ☒ ☐ ☒ ☐ * * * ☐ ☐ ☒ ☒ ☐ ☐
Reputation importance ☐ ☒ ☐ ☐ ☒ ☐ ☐ ☒ ☐ ☐ ☒ ☐ ☒ ☐
is characterised using; non-randomised Reputation importance ☐ ☒ ☐ ☐ ☒ ☐ ☐ ☒ ☐ ☐ ☒ ☐ ☒ ☐ ☐
Total cost * ** ** ** * * * * ☐ * ☐ ☐☒ ☐* ☒* ** *
methods to select the sample and judgement, Total cost ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☒☒
Level of change
Level of change ☐ ☒ ☒
☐ ☐☐
☐ ☐ ☐ ☒ ☐ ☒ ☒ ☐☒ ☐☐☐☐☒ ☐☐ ☒☒ ☐ ☐ ☒ ☐ ☐
convenience and access to the sample. It is Dependenciesand andinter-related
inter-related projects ☒ ☒
Dependencies projects ☐ ☐ ☐☐
☐ ☒ ☐ ☐ ☒ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☒ ☒ ☐ ☐ ☐
☐ ☒ ☐ ☐ ☒ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☒ ☒
less expensive, less complicated, and easier Medium-to-
to apply. The results lack generalization of the Overallproject
Overall projectsize
size MediumMedium-to- Medium
Medium MediumLarge LargeSmall Sm
large large
sample to an entire population and generate Small-sizedproject
S: Small-sized project
valuable insight on an existing phenomenon M:
M: Medium-sized
Medium-sizedproject
project
or developing a new one. The sampling L:
L: Large-sized
Large-sizedproject
project
*:
*: Information
Informationconfidential
confidential
'–':
'–': Information
Informationnot
notavailable/provided
available/provided
As indicated in Table 2, none of the construction sites provided information on the sizes of the
As indicated in Table 2, none of the construction sites provided information on the sizes
20 NUMBER 166 | SEPTEMBER 2021 project teams. Table 2 can be interpreted as follows [12]:
project teams. Table 2 can be interpreted as follows [12]:
(i) Completion time takes less than six months, six to twelve months and more than 12 months
(i) Completion time takes less than six months, six to twelve months and more than 12 m
 YCRETS TECHNICAL PAPER 3

problem is either difficult to understand or the solution is unclear or waste management collectors for disposal in landfills. These findings
difficult to achieve while in large projects, both the problem and the corroborate the findings of previous studies [6] that South Africa faces
solution is difficult to define or understand and the solution difficult excessive amounts of waste disposed of in landfills. The survey results
to achieve. indicate that ´selling´ (or exchange of waste for money) is not utilized
(iii) Strategic importance in small projects is of internal interests only by any of the construction sites as a waste management strategy. The
and thus have no reputation implications. In medium projects, there insufficient use of the exchange for money strategy suggests that
could be some direct impact on a low priority initiative with some there exists an opportunity to develop incentives that will encourage
reputation implications. Large projects affect core university service practitioners to sell waste as a form of managing the waste.
delivery and/or directly relates to key initiatives in a strategic plan Case study 1 (a medium multi-storey accommodation construction
and there are major reputation implications. site) indicated that their construction project produced an estimate of
(iv) In small projects the total costs are less than USD 25K, medium 0.07 cubic meters of concrete and cementitious waste per day. Case
projects range from USD 25K to USD 200K and in large projects the studies 2, 3, 4 and 5 did not have an estimate and records of quantities
costs are more than USD 200K. of concrete and cementitious waste material produced on their
(v) Small projects have no major dependencies as their changes impact construction projects. Due to minimal information provided by other
a single area. Medium projects have some low-risk dependencies sites, results from case study 1 cannot be generalized. These findings
and changes could impact several areas. Large projects have high- demonstrate why there is limited [published] literature on the amounts
risk dependencies, and the changes could impact the entire project. of concrete and cementitious waste generated in construction sites.
Construction practitioners should be encouraged and incentivised to
5. RESULTS document the type and quantity of waste generated in their projects.
From the data collected, 46% of the respondents indicated that The survey results in Table 4 indicate that up to 73% of the
there was a designated strategy for the management of concrete respondents support the notion that the management of waste concrete
and cementitious waste on site while 27% indicated that there was and cementitious material is necessary and important. However, the
no strategy. The remaining 27% of the respondents were not sure if implementation of this seems to be poor based on the response rate
there were designated strategies for concrete and cementitious waste of 64% indicating a non-committal (neutral) stance. Nevertheless,
management. Amongst the respondents who indicated the presence these results present an optimistic perception of advancing the
of waste management strategies on site, “reduce, reuse and recycle” waste management of concrete and cementitious waste because the
were the most cited strategies for managing concrete and cementitious practitioners understand the underlying value.
waste – see Table 3. Based on the observations made during the site
visits, there were waste management plans in all construction sites. It 6. CONCLUSIONS
was therefore clear, from the responses received, that all the site workers The study focused on current practices and strategies for waste
were not familiar with the [formal] site waste management plans in management of concrete and cement-based materials in the South African
place. Possible reasons for this may include (i) poor communication of construction sector. A desktop study (critical literature review) and a
the waste management strategies on the construction sites, or (ii) poor qualitative approach were used in the study in which questionnaires
inculcation of a waste management culture in the organisation and and informal oral interviews were used to collect data in five selected
on site. construction sites in Gauteng province, South Africa. The target
50% of the respondents in Table 3 indicated that backfilling is the population was site construction practitioners.
primary form of re-use strategy for managing concrete and cementitious The results showed that practitioners are generally aware of the
waste. ‘Reuse’ is one of the preferred methods of waste management traditional waste management hierarchy (i.e., reduce, re-use and recycle)
in the SoWR. 39% of the respondents indicated that ‘Disposal’ is the and how it is implemented. However, they are unaware of the current
next most used strategy after re-use. According to the respondents waste management hierarchy in the State of Waste Report (SoWR).
interviewed on site, the waste is collected from the site by formal

Table 3: Waste management methods on the construction sites.

Table 3: Waste management methods on the construction sites
study 5 Table
Waste 3: Waste management
management method methods on the rate
Response construction sites
M L Re-use
Waste management method 50%
Response rate
– – Disposal
Re-use 39%
50%
☒ ☐ Recycling
Disposal 11%
39%
☐ ☐ Selling (exchange for money)
Recycling 0%
11%
☐ ☐ Selling (exchange for money) 0%
☐ ☐ Table 4: Responses on practices and strategies for managing concrete and cementitious waste
☐ ☐ Table 4: Responses on practices and strategies for managing concrete
StronglyandDisagree
cementitiousNeutral
waste.
Table 4: Responses on practices and strategies for managing concrete and cementitious
Statement wasteStrongly
Agree
* * disagree agree
Statement Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly
☐ ☐ The management of waste concrete and cementitious 0% 0% 18% 73% 9%
disagree agree
☐ ☐ material is a necessary practice in the South African
The management of waste concrete and cementitious 0% 0% 18% 73% 9%
mall industry
material is a necessary practice in the South African
The use of a waste management plan for waste
industry 0% 0% 64% 36% 0%
concrete and
The use of cementitious
a waste material
management is for
plan wellwaste
adapted in 0% 0% 64% 36% 0%
the Southand
concrete African construction
cementitious industry
material is well adapted in
the South African construction industry
6 CONCLUSIONS
6 CONCLUSIONS
of the The study focused on current practices and strategies for waste management of concrete and CONCRETE BETON 21
The study focused
cement-based on current
materials practices
in the South and strategies
African for waste
construction management
sector. A desktopofstudy
concrete and
(critical
months cement-based materials in the South African construction sector. A desktop study (critical
YCRETS TECHNICAL PAPER 3

REFERENCES Nevertheless, the SoWR is a useful tool that construction practitioners

[1] Department of Environmental Affairs (DEA), ´South Africa should not only familiarise themselves with but also put in place systems
State of Waste. A report on the state of the environment´, in construction sites to implement. Given that construction sites are the
(First draft report, South Africa, 2018). primary sources of waste, accurate data on the type and quantity of
[2] Van Wyk, L., ‘Towards Net-Zero Construction and Demolition waste generated, and how it is managed can be obtained therein. There
Waste’, 59, (2008) 1–7. is a need for the government to encourage and incentivise construction
[3] WBCSD, ´The Cement Sustainability Initiative. Recycling practitioners to collect and share this data.
concrete´, (Executive Summary, North America Office, 2009). The waste hierarchy outlined in the SoWR should be implemented
[4] DEA, ´Climate Change and Air Quality’, in South Africa’s in construction sites. Practitioners should, in particular, be encouraged
Intended Nationally Contribution (INDC), to the United to put in place systems that aim at waste avoidance and reduction. The
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change: policies and legislation need to encourage practitioners to quantify the
Discussion Document´, (2015) 1-13. different types of waste produced in construction sites. This will improve
[5] ICCA, ´How to know If and When it’s time to Commission a the data available in South Africa and enable an objective up-to-date
Life Cycle Assessment an Executive Guide´, (2010). analysis to be carried out. Stakeholders involved in construction need
[6] Barnes, K., ´Builders’ rubble: opportunities in processing and to be educated on the importance of waste management. Stakeholders
application´, (Cape Town, 2016). that need to be educated on waste management include construction
[7] Abel, D. J., ´Perceptions on illegal dumping in the eThekwini practitioners, and in particular the Environment, Health and Safety
municipality´, (University of Free State, 2009). (EHS) practitioners. This can be done through workshops, awareness
[8] Muigai, R., Alexander, M. G. and Moyo, P., ´Cradle-to-gate campaigns and by creating website groups (including social media).
environmental impacts of the concrete industry in South The government should ensure that EHS practitioners are aware of the
Africa´, (Journal of the South African Institution of Civil latest policies and legislations in the SoWR.
Engineering, South Africa, 2013). The responses received did not indicate ‘avoidance’ and/or
[9] Minchiello, V. et al., ´In-Depth Interviewing: Researching ‘reduction’ of concrete and cementitious waste material. If practitioners
People´, (Reprint, Melbourne: Longman, Cheshire. Reprint. are educated on these practices, there will be a reduction in the amount
Longman Cheshire, 1990). of waste disposed of in landfills. According to the findings of this study,
[10] Sinaga, A., ´Difference between Qualitative and Quantitative practitioners acknowledge that the management of concrete and
Analysis and How it should be Applied in our Research´, cementitious waste is necessary; therefore, both the private and public
(2014) 1–7. sectors should work together to incentivise construction practitioners to
[11] Showkat, N. and Parveen, H., ‘Non-Probability and Probability pro-actively consider recycling concrete and cementitious waste before
Sampling’, (2017) pp. 1–9. resorting to disposal of the same in landfills. None of the construction
[12] Wilson, E., ´Project sizing guidelines´, (2014). sites sampled in this study indicated using recycled concrete; it will
be beneficial to conduct studies to obtain the views of construction
practitioners on the use of recycled concrete. Concrete and cementitious
waste can be disposed of by sending the material to recycling plants
F. MOSHADI MOGODI is a Quantity
to be crushed or recovered for reuse (e.g., aggregate or blocks)
Surveyor in the private sector, currently
through waste management collectors. For recycling, the concrete
based in Santiago de Chile. She
and cementitious waste can be sent, through waste management
holds a Bachelor of Science degree
collectors, to cement and concrete manufacturing plants and/or other
in Construction Studies, Bachelor of
similar plants that recycle the waste material.
Science with Honours in Quantity
The scope of this study did not extend to investigating the role of
Surveying and Master of Science in
the construction sector in self-regulating and developing organisational
Engineering, from the University of the
cultures that promote responsible generation and management of
Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. She is
concrete and cementitious waste within the industry. Future studies
driven by continuous education and the
are recommended to find out how the industry, and contractors, in
development of rural communities.
particular, view self-regulation and development of cultures that
promote responsible generation and management of concrete and
MIKE OTIENO is an Associate Professor cementitious waste.
in the School of Civil and Environmental
Engineering at the University of the ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Witwatersrand in South Africa. He holds The authors express their gratitude to the construction project owners
a First Class Honours Bachelors degree in who gave access to the construction sites and all the respondents
civil engineering from the University of who voluntarily participated in the study. The support of The Concrete
Nairobi, and Masters and PhD degrees in Institute, The National Research Foundation, AfriSam and the
civil engineering from the University of Department of Environment is greatly acknowledged. CB
Cape Town. His interests are in the fields
of concrete durability, service life
prediction, sustainability and repair and
rehabilitation of reinforced concrete structures.
He also has a strong passion in the progressive development
of the next generation of academics and researchers on the
African continent.

22 NUMBER 166 | SEPTEMBER 2021

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TECHNICAL NOTE

UCT Service Life Prediction model

for South African marine structures
S. Surana, H. Beushausen, and M.G. Alexander
University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa

Durability of Reinforced Concrete Structures through life prediction models is a necessary step to achieve the full potential
Performance Approach of this approach.
Corrosion of steel continues to be one of the most challenging
problems facing the construction industry. Corrosion of steel severely Figure 1. Durability index (DI) framework5
reduces the service life of the structure if not controlled appropriately
and increases the life cycle costs by adding additional repairs. Ensuring
that the structure achieves its intended service life, in other words,
ensuring its durability, therefore becomes at least as vital as its structural
adequacy, if not more. The concept of durability is now well-known in
the research and engineering community, following decades of research
and growing investment in the repair of deteriorating structures.
However, its relevance and implementation still are restricted mostly
to prescriptive specifications by national standards in most countries1.
Prescriptive specifications address durability issues by providing
limitations on mix design parameters such as maximum water-to-binder
ratio, minimum cement content, cement type; minimum cover depth
to reinforcing steel, etc. Although this type of approach is simple to
follow, it assumes that the end performance will be achieved if all the
prescriptions are followed. This assumption is largely based on past
experiences and thus may not work as well for new materials and
technologies. Moreover, compliance with specifications is checked using
strength tests, which in general, have little correlation with durability.
Performance approaches, on the other hand, focus on the end
performance rather than the process or means of achieving it. Rather
than restricting material proportions of concrete, a mix design is approved
or rejected based on its performance under the expected environment.
This means that the concrete is tested for the anticipated degradation The South African durability index (DI) approach uses three index tests
mechanisms rather than just strength-related characteristics. Due to – oxygen permeability index (OPI), water sorptivity index (WSI), and
several advantages of performance-based approaches over prescriptive chloride conductivity index (CCI). The approach is relevant to corrosion-
approaches, much research effort has been expended to move towards induced failure by carbonation and chloride ingress6. The OPI has been
performance-based design to ensure the durability of concrete shown to relate well with carbonation depth and has been used to
structures. Various researchers have proposed performance-based predict the service life of structures undergoing carbonation7. The CCI
design frameworks2–4. In all of them, the use of indicators or indexes has also been used to predict the service life of concrete structures
has been recommended for characterizing material at the design stage exposed to marine environments8. However, the existing service life
as well as for quality control after construction of the structure, based model needs to be aligned to the latest developments in the field of
on relevant deterioration processes. See for example the South African chloride-induced corrosion and improved to enhance its scope, in terms
durability index (DI) framework (Figure 1). These index tests need to of newer materials, and its reliability.
have a reasonably good correlation with direct durability tests. The
direct durability tests evaluate the material performance against the Service Life Prediction using DI approach
degradation process directly. The effective implementation of service life models requires reliable and
The use of index tests is to ensure the feasibility and successful quick index tests that can provide a link between durability design and
implementation of performance-based approaches, since these index quality control. In the case of chloride-induced corrosion, conductivity
tests provide a quick means of relevant performance assessment as measurements provide a promising option as quick index tests (see
opposed to the use of long-term durability tests, which involve long Figure 2). A PhD research project at UCT’s Concrete Materials and
durations, unavailable to most projects. Their incorporation in service Structural Integrity Unit (CoMSIRU) aims to develop a scientifically

24 NUMBER 166 | SEPTEMBER 2021

 TECHNICAL NOTE

sound and practical model to improve the reliability of service life SAARTHAK SURANA holds an MS in
predictions using conductivity measurements. The conductivity and Civil Engineering from Indian Institute of
diffusivity characteristics of various concrete mixes are currently being Technology Madras, India. He is currently
evaluated in the lab to arrive at suitable correlations that can be used pursuing a PhD at the University of Cape
for service life prediction. CB Town. His current research focuses on the
service life prediction of marine concrete
Figure 2. Different types of electrical conductivity/resistivity tests (note: structures. He is a member of Concrete
resistivity is the inverse of conductivity Materials and Structural Integrity Unit
(CoMSIRU) at UCT.
Email: [email protected]

PROF HANS BEUSHAUSEN is a Professor

of Structural and Materials Engineering
at the University of Cape Town (UCT).
He holds a first degree in Structural
Engineering from the University of Applied
Sciences in Hamburg, Germany, and MSc
and Ph.D. Degrees from UCT. He has more
than 20 years of research experience in
concrete technology, durability modelling
of concrete structures, concrete repair technology, and reinforcement
corrosion. He is currently the Director of the Concrete Materials and
(a) CCI test
Structural Integrity Research Unit at UCT. Hans is a specialist industry
consultant for condition assessment and repair of concrete structures,
and he is also actively involved in RILEM and fib and other national and
international organizations. Email: [email protected]

EMERITUS PROF MARK ALEXANDER

is an Emeritus Professor and a Senior
Research Scholar in the University of Cape
Town. He has a PhD from the University of
the Witwatersrand, and is a Fellow of the
University of Cape Town and of RILEM.
He coauthored “Aggregates in Concrete”
(2005), “Alkali-Aggregate Reaction and
Structural Damage to Concrete” (2011), and “Durability of concrete –
design and construction” (2017) (CRC Press) and was Editor of “Marine
concrete structures. Design, durability and performance” (Woodhead
Publishers (2016). He is involved in (CoMSIRU) at UCT, which focuses on
(b) Wenner resistivity test
infrastructure performance and renewal research.
Email: [email protected]

REFERENCES
1. Alexander, M. G., Santhanam, M., & Ballim, Y. (2011). Durability 4. Andrade, C., Prieto, M., Tanner, P., Tavares, F., & D’Andrea, R.
design and specification for concrete structures––the way forward. (2013). Testing and modeling chloride penetration into concrete.
International Journal of Advances in Engineering Sciences and Construction and Building Materials, 39, 9–18.
Applied Mathematics, 2(3), 95–105. https://doi.org/10.1007/ 5. Ballim, Y., & Alexander, M. G. (2018). Guiding principles in
s12572-011-0027-x developing the South African approach to durability index
2. Alexander, M. G., Ballim, Y., & Stanish, K. (2008). A framework testing of concrete. 6th International Conference on Durability of
for use of durability indexes in performance-based design and Concrete Structures, ICDCS 2018, July, 36–45.
specifications for reinforced concrete structures. Materials and 6. Mackechnie, J. R., & Alexander, M. G. (2002). Durability
Structures, 41(5), 921–936. https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-007- Predictions Using Early Age Durability Index Testing. 1993, 1–9.
9295-0 7. Salvoldi, B. G., Beushausen, H., & Alexander, M. G. (2015).
3. Baroghel-Bouny, V., Thiéry, M., & Wang, X. (2014). Performance- Oxygen permeability of concrete and its relation to carbonation.
based assessment of durability and prediction of RC structure Construction and Building Materials, 85, 30–37. https://doi.
service life: transport properties as input data for physical models. org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.02.019
Materials and Structures, 47(10), 1669–1691. https://doi. 8. Mackechnie, J. R. (1995). P
org/10.1617/s11527-013-0144-z

CONCRETE BETON 25
ICONIC CONCRETE

Rio’s iconic concrete landmark

refurbished for 90th birthday
by Jan de Beer

O
ne of the world’s most iconic structures, the Christ the Redeemer main unit in the ‘crown’ of Christ - needed
statue overlooking Rio de Janeiro, is currently undergoing updating and expansion. Often hit by lightning
refurbishment to prepare for its 90th anniversary celebration on in increasingly violent tropical storms caused by
October 12 this year. global warming, Rio’s landmark now carries high-
Built on top of Mount Corcovado, the reinforced concrete sculpture - tech conductors with maximum earthing capacity
one of the New Seven Wonders of the World – was before Covid-19 but because granite rock is a poor conductor of
visited by more than 2 million people per year. Towering 38 m high (the electricity, proper earthing on Corcovado is an ongoing challenge.
equivalent of a 13-storey building) with pedestal base of 8 m, it took The world’s largest Art Deco monument is not only a global wonder
six years to complete in 1931 at a cost of US $250 000 – about US $4 but its design and erection also reflect the development of concrete in
million in today’s monetary terms. the early 20th Century.
Supervised by an architectural team headed by Brazilian architect, Back in 1925, when work started on Christ the Redeemer, the 1 400-
Cristina Ventura, with assistance from engineers and geologists, a day ton sculpture’s erection had been regarded as challenging as building
at the office for the team of 40 rope access specialists now involved the pyramids of Giza. Its successful completion offered substantial proof
in the statue’s refurbishment and preventative maintenance, calls for of the merits and versatility of reinforced concrete which, at the time,
clambering on the arms, hands, and head of the sculpted Christ, and had not yet been fully utilised artistically.
abseiling his concrete tunic to check for damaged parts and clean the The Brazilian Catholic Church had already in the mid-19th Century
structure. With Mount Corcovado already over 700 m high, these called for a prominent “holy sculpture” as a symbol to counter
intrepid technicians are literally working in the clouds. Merely accessing increasing “godlessness” in Rio. Eventually, this led to the appointment
the sculpture is challenging: after climbing steep flights of stairs in the of local engineer, Heitor da Silva Costa, and artist, Carlos Oswald, to
cavernous innards, the harnessed workers must crawl through tight create such a sculpture to try and control rampant waywardness. But
tunnels that open on to the arms and head. the project turned out a lot more difficult than the church – which had
Prior to the new refurbishment project, 3D scanning and lab a metallic sculpture in mind - had anticipated.
tests of parts of the colossal Christ statue established where new Costa, firstly, foresaw difficulties in hauling a heavy bronze statue up
corrosion had taken place and exterior cladding, weakened. Ventura Corcovado mountain and felt that Christ in metal would not be durable
has overseen previous refurbishments of the statue and this year again enough for constant exposure to the elements. He felt reinforced
prescribed urgent restoration to prevent permanent damage and loss concrete – using steel mesh as reinforcement – would add strength and
of parts because of decay and corrosion. An impressed current cathodic fluidity and could here be used in an innovative, creative manner. He
protection (ICCP) system was installed in 2014 to try and control further commented in his journal: “The public is now used to seeing reinforced
corrosion of the concrete but the statue’s site is exceptionally exposed concrete in engineering work, pillars, columns etc but I want to present
to the elements. it as being able to serve as a work of art. It still seems unusual but this
This year’s assessment showed that more moisture had seeped material is modern. Reinforced concrete is the material of the future.”
through cracks of the sandstone tile cladding and the lightning Artist Oswald had envisaged Christ carrying a cross with one arm
conductors added in recent years - along the arms to augment the and a global sphere in his other hand but locals – already then fanatical
about soccer - mocked his drawings, calling it “Christ-with-a-ball”.
Costa and Oswald realised that they would have to rethink the design.
Christ the Redeemer – statistics: But first there was the problem of an appropriate building material
• Erected at an elevation of 710 metres above the city of which Rio could not solve.
Rio de Janeiro; So, Costa sailed to Paris to approach structural engineer, Albert
• Height of statue: 38m on a pedestal of 8 m; Caquot, then regarded as the finest “living engineer in France”. Caquot
was a pioneer in reinforced concrete design, with significant research
• Distance between the tips of the fingers: 30 m;
findings on the subject and other technical matters, such as the
• Length of each hand: 3.2 m;
definition of the intrinsic curve. The visionary engineer had a passion
• Height of the head: 3.75 m; for cable-stayed reinforced concrete bridges and even proposed such
• Weight of the head: 30 tons; a bridge spanning the entire English Channel from France to Britain.
• Weight of each arm: 80 tons; Caquot agreed to design the concrete for Christ the Redeemer and
helped Costa find a suitable sculptor: the renowned Paul Landowski,
• Weight of each hand: 8 tons; and
also based in Paris. Polish-French Landowski was then one of the most
• Width of tunic at its feet; 6 m. sought-after sculptors in the world, also involved in the design of the

26 NUMBER 166 | SEPTEMBER 2021

 ICONIC CONCRETE

Archival photo of construction About six million small soapstone triangular tiles One of the 40 rope access specialists involved in
in progress on the statue prior adorn and protect the Christ the Redeemer concrete refurbishment checks lightning conductors on an arm of
to its completion in 1931, structure. (Photo: Andrea Leopardi – Unsplash). the sculpture. (Photo: Reuters).
showing the special scaffolding
installed to build the arms.

mausoleum of Sun Yat-sen in Nanjing, China, as well as several revered Rio paid homage to the unified efforts of the world’s medical profession
structures in France. He changed Oswald’s “Christ-with-a-ball” plans to fighting Covid-19 with the words, ‘Thank You’, projected in many
feature the welcoming, outstretched arms that from a distance makes different languages on Christ the Redeemer’s concrete tunic. It seemed
the sculpture resemble a biblical cross. The original plaster model for as if the sentiment had heavenly endorsement. CB
his concept is still on display in the Landowski Museum in Boulonnais
but Landowski never saw the completed Christ the Redeemer owing to
pressure of work that prevented a Trans-Atlantic sea voyage that would
then have taken many weeks.
The bulk of the cement for the sculpture’s concrete was sourced
from limestone-rich Limhamn in Sweden which had an important
cement factory and busy harbour – an important consideration as
freight shipping was the only option until global aviation started in
earnest later in the mid-20th Century.
For the sculpture construction, which began in 1925, building
materials and site workers were taken to Mount Corcovado by a
cogwheel railroad as the rising figure, surrounded by metal scaffolding
and huge cranes, became a familiar sight on the prominent hilltop. The
most difficult part of the construction, according to Caquot, was the
arms because the upper part of Corcovado was not wide enough to
readily accommodate suitable scaffolding.
After being impressed with a soapstone cladding of a fountain he
had seen in Paris, Costa decided that this would add protection and
beauty to the concrete statue. A staggering six million small triangular
soapstone tiles (tesserae) were apparently used to clad the sculpture
with strips of the tiles sewn on fabric by hundreds of local Cariocas
who wrote notes or prayers on the back of many of the tiles. The light
coloured soapstone – a form of metaphoric rock - came from a quarry
near Ouro Preto, about 500 km from Rio, but because soapstone
can vary in colour, the only type available for the current and future
restoration is now a darker shade which will eventually produce a
darker Christ.
The passing years introduced several additions to the sculpture. In
2002, escalators and panoramic elevators were installed and in 2006
to mark the statue’s 75th anniversary, a chapel was consecrated at its
base. In 2010, scaffolding again encircled the Christ figure for a massive
refurbishment project followed by another in 2014.
Collaboration was needed to create, and is vital to preserve, Brazil’s Rio de Janeiro’s iconic, massive sculpture, Christ the Redeemer, will
treasured landmark. So, it was fitting that on Easter Sunday last year, be 90 years old on October 12 this year. (Photo: Wikipedia).

CONCRETE BETON 27
INDUSTRY NEWS

Poised for further growth,

CHRYSO SA Group celebrates silver anniversary
T
he Chryso Southern Africa Group, dustless cementitious products, now available on the African continent. Chryso places heavy
which in July 2021 celebrated its 25th from the Group subsidiary, a.b.e. Construction emphasis on research and development to
anniversary, has in recent years made Chemicals, provided an invaluable competitive maintain product status and diversification
rapid progress in establishing itself as a leader edge in a ‘green’ market.” to meet African conditions. In fact, we invest
in construction chemicals not only in SA but Seymore believes the acquisition of a.b.e. at least 4% of our sales revenues into R&D
in many other countries on and around the in 2010 was a vital move for growth as it annually,” Seymore added.
African continent. made the Chryso SA Group a “one-stop- Chryso Southern Africa currently operates
Norman Seymore, CEO of the Group and shop” for construction systems and played a three factories and five branches nationally,
vice-president of Chryso globally, says despite major role in developing export markets. The 14 distributors on the African continent, and
current challenges that include domestic Group’s products are now available through employs close to 100 people.
unrest, a serious shortage of raw materials, distribution outlets in all the neighbouring “The recently announced acquisition of
and the slow release of new infrastructural states, as well as Ghana, the Indian Ocean the Chryso Group globally by Saint-Gobain
projects by many local authorities, he is islands, Madagascar, Nigeria, Zambia and is another exciting development for the
confident Chryso has the resources and Malawi. Sub-Saharan production facilities Group. I am very confident that our growth
expertise for more major growth in future. were also established in 2015 with the initiatives will be accelerated worldwide by
“Chryso’s impressive growth in the past opening of Chryso East Africa in Kenya, and this development and that Africa will continue
25 years has been driven organically through the Group now has direct representation to be a focus area for expansion.
innovation, technology and expansion into in Namibia. “Locally, the construction industry faces
South Africa’s major industrial hubs. Increasing “South Africa is very advanced when formidable challenges in future and unity will
our presence into the mining and cement it comes to concrete technology and be vital to overcome these obstacles. In this
markets have also aided growth. Chryso has construction methods. We have the skills and regard, the amalgamation of South Africa’s
introduced a variety of new technologies in capabilities to serve areas beyond our borders previously independent cement and concrete
the cement and concrete additive market and and Chryso has shown this by our important associations, now acting in unison as Cement
pioneered the introduction of synthetic fibre contribution to major infrastructural projects & Concrete SA, is welcomed to provide
reinforcing and cement/fly ash/slag activation the industry with intensified resources in
in the cement industry,” Seymore stated. Norman Seymore, terms of lobbying and future development,”
“The products that Chryso supplies CEO of the Chryso Seymore added.
Southern Africa
to the cement industry have assisted this Some of the Chryso SA Group’s major
Group, says the
sector to increase its extender content while Group has the milestones in the past five years include:
maintaining cement performance. This has resources and skills • Major manufacturing investments in
also helped the producers to significantly for further growth 2016 to reduce reliance on imports;
reduce CO2 emissions. Chryso always after its 25th • Establishment of the Centre of Excellence
anniversary.
considers the environment in our product laboratory and research facility at the Jet
development and the pioneering concept of Park head office in 2017;
• Formation of the Chryso SA Group
Communications department in 2017;
• A new Decorative Concrete Systems
division established, also in 2017;
• Cement Exports Business Development
department created in 2018;
• Expansion of the Centre of Excellence
to meet new challenges in aggregates,
concrete aesthetics and cement in 2019;
• Direct operations established in
Windhoek, Namibia in 2020;
• New wet cement chemistry testing
started in 2020; and
• Focus on Innovative Chemistry for
Sustainable Construction Solutions and
Services established this year. CB

Contact: www.za.chryso.com
Polymer synthesis of the rheology of clay enablers is among the high-tech testing
Chryso SA offers clients.

28 NUMBER 166 | SEPTEMBER 2021

INDUSTRY NEWS

Concor’s innovative Paarl Rock

shows the way
Construction is underway at Paarl Rock, the fifth building in
Concor’s 22-hectare Conradie Park development in Cape Town.
When completed this eight-storey structure with 266 architecturally
designed apartments will accommodate home owners.

P
iling for the eight-storey block began in May 2021, marking Horizontal concrete slabs will all be post-tensioned, a current
the start of a one-year building programme, according to Mark efficiency trend which reduces the amount of costly rebar required. The
Schonrock, property development manager at Concor. Paarl Rock planned slab thickness has also been slightly reduced, from 285 mm to
will comprise 266 architecturally designed apartments in an affordable 255 mm. While a relatively small reduction, this will allow a saving of
model for first-time home owners. some 450 m3 of concrete over the planned area of 15,000 m2 of slab
The block is underpinned by 158 continuous flight auger (CFA) work.
piles, which present a quicker solution than bored or driven piles. With “Pouring of slabs will be conducted by a truck-mounted boom
depths of 8 to 11 metres, the piles could be completed in just three placer, which enhances construction efficiency especially where large
weeks, Schonrock says, improving the pace of the project. continuous pours of 200 to 220 m3 are required on this project,” he
“We have also installed two tower cranes – a 55 metre jib and a 45 says.
metre jib – to facilitate our programme of work,” he says. These will lift The Paarl Rock block will include ground floor retail space, two lifts
and move concrete for vertical columns, as well as reinforcing bars for and a roof top deck on the sixth floor looking westwards at Devil’s Peak
slabs and columns, and all formwork around the site. and over the Cape Town central business district towards Signal Hill. To

Current works on site progressing well with the rental stock units.

30 NUMBER 166 | SEPTEMBER 2021

 INDUSTRY NEWS

minimise the cost of long-term maintenance on the outside walls, the day in a specially-designed storage vessel to around 85 to 90 C.
design makes use of face brick – but with a difference. “Tapping into off-grid power in this way means that residents can
“Different colours and shapes of face brick have been specified to save on what they pay in water-heating bills,” he says.
create texture and variety in the façade,” he explains. “Patterns are also The development is also conserving water and reducing water costs
created with rustication, using bricks of different shapes or with varied by supplying its own irrigation needs from a master incoming line of
orientation.” treated effluent – at just five to 10% of the cost of potable water. The
A perforated design is also used for the brick walls in front of drying water quality from this line, which is clean enough to be discharged into
yards, letting through light and air while also giving an attractive texture river systems, is further treated on site and also used for all irrigation
to the building façade. The laying of face bricks requires a somewhat and cleaning purposes.
elevated level of skill and attention, and also takes longer, so the best Concor has been on site at Conradie Park – where the old Conradie
artisans are put onto the rustication work. government hospital closed about a decade ago – for about two and a
Schonrock notes that Cape Town still offers a good pool of half years, preparing the infrastructure for the developments.
bricklaying skills, but the long period of depressed conditions in the Roads have been installed, along with stormwater drains and a
sector is going to be felt in skills supply as building activity improves. dedicated sewage reticulation system. A pump station was installed to
As part of its corporate contribution to skills development, Concor move sewage over the Elsie’s River canal to the main Athlone sewer
conducts a range of training on its Conradie Park site. system and three new electrical substations were constructed.
“Through the National Youth Service programme, for instance, The Conradie Better Living model is one of seven ‘game changer’
we are training six local bricklayer learners,” he says. “Beginning in projects which has been prioritised by the Western Cape Government.
November 2020, they completed a six-month training course and This aims to improve the lives of citizens through the Finance Linked
were then placed with selected sub-contractors to work on the current Individual Subsidy Programme, providing affordable housing situated
project.” near the city’s main arterial routes and job opportunities. CB
Paarl Rock’s innovations include an energy-efficient hot water
system for residents, lowering their cost of living and taking load off Contact: www.concor.co.za, Twitter: @ConcorConstruct
LinkedIn: @concor-construction-pty-ltd, Instagram: @concorconstruct
the national grid.
Facebook: @ConcorConstruction
A centralised hot water generation system on the ground floor
raises the upfront cost but provides many long-term benefits to users.
An on-roof solar generator will assist in ‘over-heating’ water during the

Current rental stock units being constructed, gearing up for first tenanting towards the end of this year.

CONCRETE BETON 31
INDUSTRY NEWS

The CHRYSO EnviroMix range of admixtures allow for reduced environmental impact from concrete mix designs.

Admixtures to reduce contractors’

carbon footprint
A new range of admixtures from CHRYSO will further support South African
contractors in their efforts to transition towards a low-carbon economy.

T
he new CHRYSO® EnviroMix range of tailor-made admixtures A key feature of this admixture range is that it allows better utilisation
allows for reduced environmental impact from concrete mix of mixes that incorporate high volumes of pozzolans such as fly ash.
designs. While CHRYSO® EnviroMix delivers a reduction in CO2 It is able to achieve this while still ensuring superior levels of technical
emissions of up to 50%, CHRYSO® EnviroMix ULC (Ultra Low-Carbon) performance. Among other important benefits are an improved quality
can achieve reductions of even more than 50% in the carbon footprint of concrete – due to a lower water-cement ratio for a given workability
of concrete. – and increased early and ultimate compressive and flexural strengths.

EnviroMix technology provides an opportunity to forge a low carbon CHRYSO supports South African contractors in their efforts to
future. transition to a low carbon economy.

32 NUMBER 166 | SEPTEMBER 2021

 INDUSTRY NEWS INDUSTRY NEWS

As part of this offering, CHRYSO also supplies customers with

dedicated services such as EnviroMix® Impact. This allows the
environmental impact of a concrete mix design to be calculated, so that
formulation strategy can be set up for the customer to meet their specific
carbon-reduction targets. CHRYSO also offers a digital solution for real-
time monitoring of CHRYSO® Maturix concretes, which provides on-
site concrete temperature, strength and maturity, humidity and climate
monitoring.
The last 15 years has seen CHRYSO strengthening its expertise in
the field of concrete admixtures with low-carbon impact. The innovative
technology in the company’s portfolio of cement additives underpins
its specialist knowledge in the chemistry of new low-carbon cements.
Its solutions are based on many scientific collaborations and industrial
partnerships, reinforcing its expertise in these new binders including
geopolymers and calcined clay cements.
The CHRYSO® EnviroMix range also provides superior finishability,
while improving surface quality and reducing cracking potential. The
admixtures provide better workability and pumpability of concrete, as
well as ease of placement and consolidation.
Through these innovations, CHRYSO is developing solutions that
produce the cements of tomorrow, as industry stakeholders search for
technological opportunities to forge a low-carbon future. CB

Contact: www.za.chryso.com
LinkedIn: https://www.linkedin.com/company/chryso-southern-africa

A STRONG FOUNDATION FOR

INFRASTRUCTURE SUCCESS
ROCLA is South Africa’s leading
manufacturer of pre-cast
concrete products.

Surpassing 100 years of

product excellence.

• Pipes
CHRYSO develops solutions that produce the cements of tomorrow.
• Culverts
• Manholes
• Poles
• Retaining walls
• Roadside furniture
• Sanitation

Including other related products within

infrastructure development and related
industries.

Visit us on
www.rocla.co.za
for our nationwide branches

The EnviroMix range provides superior finishability, improves

surface quality and reduces cracking.

CONCRETE BETON 33
INDUSTRY NEWS

Sika’s go-to spalling repair solution

N
orth Grange in Mowbray, is one of UCT’s three tier residence
options, that accommodates 49 students in two- and three-
bedroomed flats. Refurbishment was required on the outside of
North Grange as in some areas the reinforcing was corroding, causing
the concrete to crack and push away, thus exposing the steel. Most of
the deterioration had occurred on the balconies of the weather-facing
side of the building, requiring a spalling repair system to refurbish and
patch up these affected areas.
Paintsmiths Cape Town were asked to specify the products required
for the refurbishment. Sticking with their previously unfailing ‘go-to’
spalling repair solution, they selected Sika MonoTop®-412 NFG and Sika
Armatec®-110 EpoCem®. Based on new innovative technology, Sika
MonoTop®-412 NFG differentiates itself as a 1-component, polymer
modified, fibre reinforced, structural repair mortar, with Sika’s world-
renowned Sika® FerroGard® corrosion inhibitor. Sika MonoTop®-412
NFG is a 3-in-1 advanced repair mortar, resulting in further time and
money savings. Sika Armatec®-110 EpoCem® is a corrosion inhibitor,
used as a bonding primer and reinforcement corrosion protection.
Sika representative Phillip Boshoff was approached by Gavin Horfley
from Paintsmiths Cape Town (Midas), to assist with on-site training
on the concrete repair job. Present at the Sika MonoTop®-412 NFG
and Sika Armatec®-110 EpoCem® on-site training were Gavin from
Paintsmiths, some managers from Elite along with their contractor staff
doing the repair.
To ensure the repair was done correctly, the reinforcing steel had
to be adequately exposed and cleaned to SA 2.5. Then a coating of
the Sika Armatec®-110 EpoCem® was applied, to provide a protective
coating against further corrosion, and where necessary, to act as a
bonding primer to the concrete substrate. This prior to the application
of the patch repair mortar, Sika MonoTop®-412 NFG. Once the
repair mortar had fully cured, the areas were painted with an exterior
decorative paint.
The results of the refurbishment were great and the building looked
proud and new once complete. CB

Contact: https://zaf.sik.com

SIKA CORPORATE PROFILE

Sika is a specialty chemicals company with a leading position in
the development and production of systems and products for
bonding, sealing, damping, reinforcing, and protecting in the
building sector and motor vehicle industry. Sika has subsidiaries
in 100 countries around the world and manufactures in over
300 factories. Its 25,000 employees generated annual sales of
CHF 7.88 billion in 2020.

34 NUMBER 166 | SEPTEMBER 2021

 INDUSTRY NEWS

ARTISANRY IS AN ELITE PROFESSION

A
rtisanry needs to be promoted as an elite profession if South Africa
is going to succeed in developing a large pool of competent skills
required to complete construction projects on time and within
budget.
So says Frans Toua, Chief Executive Officer of Tjeka Training
Matters, a leading provider of construction industry training. The
company’s comprehensive training programmes include high quality
apprenticeship instruction that strives for zero defects on worksites.
“Unfortunately, so many young adults still view artisanry as a
second-choice career,” Toua says. “This is a false perception that all
stakeholders in the construction industry need to help address if we are
going to attract and retain young talent. Artisanry should be promoted
in the same manner that we do other professions that require a degree,
diploma or certificate. Who other than competent tradespeople are
going to construct key infrastructure that will drive economic growth?
A doctor is not going to do it, nor is accountant or a lawyer. They do
not possess these skills.”
Led by a team of built-environment professionals who have an
intricate understanding of the functioning of modern worksites, Tjeka
Training Matters is also a member of leading industry bodies, such as
Master Builders Association North, Master Builders Association Western Skilled apprentices have undergone at least three years of training.
Cape, the Institute of Plumbing South Africa and the South African This included both theoretical and practical instruction before
Forum of Civil Engineering Contractors. This has enabled the private completing a trade test.
Technical Vocational Education and Training college to stay abreast of
the skills requirements of industry. Forging strong partnerships with environment and minimum of 30% and a maximum of 70% workplace
leading suppliers of construction equipment, tools and products has learning. They comprise three types of unit standards, namely
also ensured that the company is always aware of the latest innovation Fundamental, Core and Elective. Elective unit standards are field specific
that it can impart to learners. This has ensured that they are at the and represent a planned and appropriate intervention that has been
cutting-edge of industry when they commence working in their fields. structured according to a qualification. Tjeka Training Matters’ skilled
The skills shortage manifests in poor workmanship, which and experienced site managers, mentors and coaches provide the
compromises the overall quality of final infrastructure. There are many necessary support for the job-learning component of the learnership.
examples in the country where sub-standard workmanship, combined The company also offers short courses to refine and hone existing
with poor leadership capabilities and materials on worksites, has even competencies or as an introduction to its learnerships and skills paths.
resulted in structural collapses. Worryingly, there are still companies that expect to quickly train
It also shows in costly project delays. This is due to having to redo employees when they have been awarded contracts and clients
substandard workmanship or an inability to operate at optimal levels then demand to see formal qualifications of the team appointed to
on building and civil-engineering construction sites because workers are undertake the work. These formal qualifications are important as they
not sufficiently skilled. demonstrate an ability to perform according to the required standard
Skilled apprentices have undergone at least three years of and specification – and, just as importantly, in a safe manner.
training. This includes both theoretical and practical instruction before “There is no getting around the fact that apprenticeship training
completing a trade test that certifies that they are competent to work has to be done correctly and this takes time – in the same way that
in their respective fields. it takes many years for other professionals to qualify and be deemed
Learners who have completed Tjeka Training Matters’ learnerships competent to perform their duties in the world of work. In addition
and skills paths are fit to apply their trades. Considering the quality of to being proficient in their trade, a suitably qualified tradesperson
their training, they are also able to work abroad where there is also a will have a broader view of construction. For example, appropriately
high demand for apprentices. This also supports the company’s mantra trained apprentices will have already set their eyes on building
of only providing training that will enable people to become employed regulations and specifications, as well as understand the importance of
or self-employed and not for just the sake of it. compliance with regulations and standards when they start working,”
Tjeka Training Matters’ Construction Education and Training Toua concludes. CB
Authority-accredited and South African Qualifications Authority-
registered learnerships and skills paths provide a structured learning Contact: www.tjeka.co.za
programme towards a national qualification. The unit-standard-based
training consists of between 30% and 70% theory in a classroom

CONCRETE BETON 35
INDUSTRY NEWS

READYMIX quality key to

construction success
The manufacture and supply of readymix needs to meet not just customer
expectations, but also a range of regulated standards, and contractors need
to ensure their readymix concrete is up to scratch. Amit Dawneerangen,
construction materials general manager for sales and product technical at
AfriSam, says that the company is regularly asked to step in where a supplier
has failed to meet obligations and suggests that it is time to go back to basics.

I
t is no surprise that cost cutting is the order of the day in the construction and product technical at AfriSam. “Our experience at AfriSam – where
sector, but this should not prevent contractors from ensuring that their we are regularly asked to step in where a supplier has failed to meet
readymix concrete is up to scratch. obligations – suggests that it is time to go back to basics.”
“The manufacture and supply of readymix needs to meet not just The basics in the readymix sector, says Dawneerangen, involves an
customer expectations, but also a range of regulated standards,” says intricate balance of meeting South African National Standards (SANS),
Amit Dawneerangen, construction materials general manager for sales while delivering product at a competitive cost. These SANS requirements
cover the manufacture of readymix, and the properties of the input
materials. Complying with these standards implies that readymix
providers have the necessary systems in place and equipment installed
for accurate monitoring of concrete performance.
He notes that South Africa has, over the past two decades, moved
away from on-site batching towards greater use of readymix which
can be produced at larger, centralised plants under highly controlled
conditions. This gives contractors better assurance of quality levels,
and allows the evolution of specialised and complex concrete mixes for
challenging applications.
“The sophisticated technology used by many South African readymix
producers underpins their compliance with the necessary standards,” he
says. “For instance, there needs to be accurate weighing equipment in
the batching plant, and systems to alert management if tolerances are
breeched.”
This equipment must be calibrated regularly – internally and
The end-quality of concrete is largely influenced by the input externally – to ensure accuracy. The standard SANS 878 specifies the
materials including cement, aggregate, sand, water and admixtures. tolerances within which the manufacturing and application of readymix
must take place. For cement itself, there is SANS 50197 which applies,
while standards for aggregate and sand are governed by SANS 1083.
Dawneerangen points to the growing number of ‘independent’
readymix companies who are not formally linked to the producers
of construction materials like cement and aggregate. The difficult
conditions which have prevailed recently in the construction sector
has made it difficult for many to sustain themselves and cost cutting is
affecting product quality.
He emphasises that contractors need to carefully examine the quality
systems in place at any prospective readymix provider before finalising
procurement contracts. Without the assurance that these systems are
being effectively applied, a contractor can expose their projects – and
their business as a whole – to a range of serious risks. CB

Contact: www.afrisam.com
Facebook: @AfriSamSA, Twitter: @AfriSam
While much of Africa still relies on site-batching for construction
LinkedIn: AfriSam
work, the local industry has increasingly used readymix – recognising
the value in its consistency and performance.

36 NUMBER 166 | SEPTEMBER 2021

 INDUSTRY NEWS

Construction industry can emerge stronger after Covid-19

T
he global pandemic has led many of the industry’s top performers • Better financial management of projects to ensure timeous payments
to re-strategize their future paths and realign them with the new and safeguard cashflows throughout the entire construction supply
normal that is slowly emerging from the Covid-19 ashes. chain
As the country enters the third wave, it is becoming painfully obvious • The adoption of new strategies that take into consideration the
that there will be no return to the old ways any time soon, and that new changed landscape of the South African economy
business models will need to be developed in order to keep the industry • Automation of processes in the processing and manufacture of
and the country afloat in the medium and long term. construction materials
This is according to Nico Pienaar of surface mining industry
association, ASPASA, whose members supply the majority of raw “As long as there is constant communication between role-players and
materials used in everyday construction and whose businesses have also everyone knows what is required from their business, industry, suppliers
been severely affected by the pandemic. Minerals mined and worked and customers, then we can all work together to rebuild the industry and
by its members include sand, stone, limestone for cement, dimension uphold the economy. Cooperation and communication can ensure that
stone, clay, ash and a host of other materials used in construction. resources within the industry are preserved and so ensure the success of
future projects.
Nico says that some of the highlights to emerge from “In addition, there will undoubtedly be a strong
the pandemic include: rebound in the industry once we have the pandemic
• The unlocking of several high-profile Government under control and then we need to be ready to supply
infrastructure projects including largescale road, rail all the materials and services that will be required to
harbours and other building contracts enable the swelling project numbers to be completed
• A renewed focus of training and access to a host of on time. Those companies that have planned for this
training courses on digital platforms eventuality will be the ones that will benefit the most,”
• Strong upsurge in the use of technology and social says Nico.
media to communicate with internal and external He concludes that the construction and surface
stakeholders mining industries are among the biggest employers in
• More professional dealings between parties involved the country and that the future success of the industry
in construction projects with an emphasis on terms is a national prerogative – we simply must succeed! CB
and conditions of contracts and tighter specifications
for the supply of quality products and services Nico Pienaar of ASPASA

Securing construction material supplies

B
uilding materials such as sand, aggregates, fly ash and other Some of the main objectives of CASA are to:
components of concrete are key to the success of any construction • Formulate effective joint action plans to achieve the mandate and
project and should be a prime consideration for all involved in the purpose of CASA
industry including professional bodies. • Address the accelerated transformation of the construction industry
This is according to Nico Pienaar of surface mining industry • Engage in education, training and awareness programme
association, ASPASA, which was one of the founding members of the • Unblock relief measures for the industry to remain sustainable
Construction Alliance South Africa (CASA), an organisation that seeks • Identify infrastructure project opportunities in both the public and
to unite all aspects of the construction industry in a common goal of private sector
sustainability of the industry. • Address the regulatory matters which impede the industry
Since its establishment in response to the Covid-19 pandemic and • Address systemic challenges and fast-track intervention
subsequent lockdowns which threated to destroy the industry, the • Promote ethical and social responsibility
alliance has sought to establish firm lines of communication between • Promote the use of innovative construction technologies
role-players, including raw materials suppliers. • Promote research and evidence-based policymaking for the
Most recently, the South African Coal Ash Association (SACAA) has construction industry
joined the alliance representing an abundant source of coal ash that is • Value collaboration, integrity and leadership as guiding forces
increasingly used as a principal construction material in the formulation
of cement, concrete, ground preparation, as a replacement for some “These principals are also at the head of our agenda and ASPASA and
grades of aggregates and even as a replacement for cement. SACAA will play an active role in the alliance to ensure that raw materials
The inclusion of ASPASA and SACAA in the construction industry are available for any construction project that is required anywhere in
supply chain is seen as a critical step towards meeting the country’s the country. Collaboration is at the centre of all industry bodies in the
construction targets. With its overarching reach across all relevant construction industry and the establishment of CASA now has the ability
industry bodies in the industry, CASA will provide raw materials suppliers to knit them together in a cohesive manner with shared goals,” he
under the banner of these associations with a means of communicating concludes. CB
with role players and working towards common goals.
Contact: Nico Pienaar, Tel: (011) 791 3327, Fax: 086 647 8034,
Email: [email protected], Web: www.aspasa.co.za

CONCRETE BETON 37
INDUSTRY NEWS

Managing readymix waste for a

sustainable planet
The management of waste poses various challenges for the readymix
industry, and AfriSam has been following through its commitment to
People, Planet and Performance with a range of innovative solutions.

T
he sector’s sustainability issues include returned concrete, grey As part of its mission to preserve the planet for future generations,
water, concrete spillage and soil contamination. Dealing with AfriSam has, over the years, developed a number of strategies regarding
returned concrete from customer sites has long created an returned concrete.
environmental headache for readymix producers, according to Russell “If we have a quarry site nearby, we are often able to recycle a
Wearne, national operations manager for readymix at AfriSam. considerable proportion of concrete that is returned from a site,” he
says. “It is dumped in a designated, controlled area of the quarry to
harden, and is then crushed and added into our G5 material – subject
to the agreement of the customer.”
With the correct planning, AfriSam has also been able to cast
blocks and bricks from wet returned readymix before it sets. These
have been used extensively on its quarry operations for road markers
and other purposes. Where the planning allows, the readymix has
even contributed to community projects, going into classroom floors of
needy schools, among other applications.
Another potential environmental impact is the slurry residue that
remains in a readymix truck after the product has been off-loaded. This
has to be rinsed out on a daily basis to prevent material hardening on
the inside of the drum.
“The resulting grey water is carefully channelled into settling pits,
from where we can use it in a number of plant activities to conserve
At AfriSam readymix operations, grey water is carefully channelled
water use,” he says. “On certain sites, the residue ‘slush’ is agitated in
into settling pits, from where we can use it in a number of plant
activities to conserve water. a pond, monitored, sampled, and re-used in the batching plant to mix
with the cement, aggregate and sand.”
AfriSam has pioneered the use of covers on the discharge chutes of
its readymix trucks, to avoid minor spillages of concrete on site or on the
road to or from the batching plant.
“In the unlikely event of any spillage, each plant has a clean-up
crew that will respond quickly with the necessary equipment,” he says.
This capacity is also valuable as the country’s environmental regulations
tighten up generally on the impact of construction activities. A closer
focus on possible soil contamination on sites, for instance, means that
suppliers must support the contractor’s environmental compliance
efforts.
“A truck that leaks oil is a source of soil contamination, so we pay
special attention to ensuring this kind of pollution does not occur,” he
says. “If it does, we are in a position to respond timeously and mitigate
the impact.” CB

Contact: www.afrisam.com
Facebook: @AfriSamSA, Twitter: @AfriSam
LinkedIn: AfriSam

AfriSam has pioneered the use of covers on the discharge chutes of

its readymix trucks, to avoid minor spillages of concrete on site or on
the road to or from the batching plant.

38 NUMBER 166 | SEPTEMBER 2021

 INDUSTRY NEWS

SMART MONITORING OF CONCRETE

WITH MATURIX
C
ontractors need to know when their concrete has reached a certain
strength, to move ahead with the next stage of construction, but
this has never been very easy to find out – until now.
Having insight into the strength of concrete helps contractors
determine when the concrete can be walked on or when formwork
can be removed, so that there are no unnecessary delays in the
construction schedule. However, concrete strength can be difficult to
estimate, as it does not always develop at the same speed. Temperature
and weather conditions will affect how fast or slow the strength of a
structure develops.
CHRYSO’s Maturix software solution now makes it possible to
measure the maturity of concrete on site or in precast element production.
Maturix monitors the curing process of concrete, gathering data from
in-situ sensors and processing this information on an intuitive software
platform. It is able to make real-time maturity calculations, as well as
future projections on concrete strength, based on machine learning.
While concrete maturity alone does not show how strong the concrete
CHRYSO’s Maturix software solution now makes it possible to
is, the maturity method can determine the relationship between maturity measure the maturity of concrete on site or in precast element
and strength development. Concrete maturity is a concept that relates production.
temperature, time and strength development. The maturity method is
therefore an easy way to estimate the early-age strength development
of a concrete mix. Maturix achieves this by providing all relevant on a smartphone or computer. Data is continuously transmitted using
insights for concrete monitoring, including temperature, humidity and the Internet of Things (IoT) network Sigfox for accurate real-time data.
ambient climate. The user can track the strength and maturity of the concrete from
Maturix works through a concrete sensor cable which is mounted to anywhere and at any time, and can receive a notification when the
the reinforcement before the wet concrete is poured. The thermocouple curing is complete. They can be notified by SMS, e-mail, app notification
is connected to the Orbit K transmitter and the monitoring is initiated or on a customised dashboard. This facilitates better scheduling on site,
as the user is given exact insights into the
concrete behaviour – allowing the project
workflow and timelines to be adjusted
based on real-time data. This flexibility
helps to streamline the construction
process, saving time and money.
Maturix also makes it easy to document
processes for quality assurance reporting,
as all monitored data is automatically saved
as online reports, which can be shared,
exported and downloaded. CB

Contact: https://za.chryso.com

All monitored data is automatically saved as online reports, which can be shared, exported
and downloaded.

CONCRETE BETON 39
INDUSTRY NEWS

Concrete possibilities: Colossal Concrete

Products acquires Aveng Infraset’s
Brakpan and De Aar plants
W
ith an expanding South African and broader sub-Saharan - our strategic acquisition of the Brakpan and De Aar plants was a
African population, the need to transform the economic really defining moment for us. This is because it represents a golden
landscape and provide greater infrastructure development and opportunity not only to service our long-term vision of diversifying into
manufacturing capabilities for growing yet sustainable economies is different vertical industries; but also as an excellent springboard for our
becoming increasingly vital. planned pan-African expansion,” Mahuma says.
As such, South Africa-based Mahuma Investment Holdings (MIH), “Notably, the Aveng Infraset acquisition (and the establishment
a 100% black women- owned, controlled and managed investment of newly-established and branded Colossal Concrete Products) fits
company, engages in a broad range of industrially-related investment exceptionally well into our strategy of pursuing and investing in existing
activities, particularly within the steel and steel processing and businesses which are related to our infrastructure development goals
manufacturing sectors. – yet operate in a specialised
With an established track and niche market, and
record of a substantial number provide a unique services and
of successfully executed past and solutions offering which can be
current investments - and led by repositioned to service the rest of
well-known industry stalwart the continent,” she asserts.
Gwen Mahuma - the company’s Despite the new name, and
aspirations also include investing falling under the auspices of
in local and pan-African the new company, these world-
businesses which focus on class manufacturing facilities
manufacturing and processing. will ensure ‘business as usual’,
To this end MIH, in a dynamic Mahuma emphasises.
and agile partnership branded “The transaction included
Colossal Concrete Products has, the retention of all staff, the
along with Randvest Capital relevant plant equipment, core
Investments and two other assets and facilities, intellectual
investors - featuring substantial property (IP) and licences for a
Mmapitso Kiewiet, Gwen Mahuma,
experience in the manufacturing wide range of precast rails, poles,
Colossel Concrete MI-Holdings
and industrial sectors - made the masts, pipes, culverts, enclosures
pivotal acquisition of Aveng Infraset’s Brakpan and De Aar facilities for and related specialised product ranges.
their rail, telecommunications, civil engineering and specialised precast To this end, the technical capabilities and know-how remain vested in
concrete manufacturing capabilities and intellectual property (IP). this business, providing the same reliable products which are supported
“Following a professional, smooth and synergistic transaction with by the same, longstanding and experienced technical team with an
Aveng, which is effective from June 1, the two precast concrete facilities encompassing expertise,” she further points out.
will be rebranded under the new company Colossal Concrete Products: Co-investor in the Colossal Concrete Products consortium and the
a proudly black women-owned and controlled precast concrete company’s Chief Operational Officer (COO) and Director Mmapitso
manufacturing company,” explains Colossal Concrete Products Chief Kiewiet agrees: “As Colossal Concrete Products, we will continue to
Executive Officer (CEO) Gwen Mahuma. provide the right solutions to meet industry requirements.
Simultaneously, we will focus on growing our profile and footprint
CONCRETE CONNECTION by strengthening and advancing the sales pipeline, increasing further
Infraset, originally a company within the renowned multibillion- business development and reconnecting with customers – reinvigorating
rand Grinaker Group and later a core asset of JSE-listed international existing relationships and establishing new markets.”
infrastructure and resources company Aveng, has been manufacturing
a diverse range of high-quality, innovative precast concrete products in COLOSSAL OPPORTUNITIES
compliance with South African National Standards using the ISO 9001 As Colossal Concrete houses all the tried and tested Aveng Infraset
quality management system for over 62 years. Precast specialised offerings, and is one of the key manufacturers of local
“Based on Aveng Infraset’s renowned reputation and track record products such as poles and masts, Mahuma and Kiewiet believe that the
– as well as its impressive portfolio of infrastructure and capabilities company - with the Brakpan and De Aar facilities - is well-positioned in

40 NUMBER 166 | SEPTEMBER 2021

 INDUSTRY NEWS

terms of its capabilities and capacities to service new maintenance and Meanwhile, as the steadfast, arterial lifeline of Africa, rail and
rehabilitation projects in various vertical industries. therefore rail infrastructure remains a strategic target market for Colossal
These include the energy, renewable energy, telecommunications, Concrete Products.
infrastructure development in housing, municipal development, and “Considering our pan-African outlook, there are colossal
water and sanitation and rail sectors. opportunities for us to support rail projects across Africa, from Kenya, to
“Notably, the De Aar facility is strategically located in De Aar in the Malawi, Namibia and Swaziland, notwithstanding the new projects and
Northern Cape, which not only serves as one of the most important rail rehabilitation initiatives locally,” Mahuma enthuses.
railway junctions for the lines connecting Cape Town, Johannesburg and Kiewiet agrees, adding that, considering the overall economic
Kimberley; but is central to the current hub of many renewable energy recovery plans and infrastructure expansion strategies, a marked
projects,” Kiewiet says. investment into rehabilitation and repairs of the rail network could
As such, the facility will be pivotal in supplying products for the rail further be enhanced by the need for mining companies’ private sidings
industry; as well as products such as concrete towers for wind turbines to transport product onto the main railway lines.
in the wind farm projects which form part of the local renewable energy “We are therefore confident that rail will remain a relevant
sector. opportunity in our planned strategy and growth trajectory,” Kiewiet says.
“We are optimistic that there is enormous scope for Colossal In a reflection on this cemented acquisition, Mahuma and Kiewiet
Concrete to service this market - and in so doing, to support the retention highlight the overwhelming support received from key stakeholders in
of investment locally, and to create more sustainable employment industry.
opportunities over a substantial period of time - as well as generate “Building on a reputation of trust and long-standing credibility,
additional upstream and downstream manufacturing opportunities,” and with a track record of integrity, Colossal Concrete will leverage off
Kiewiet says. existing and new client and supplier relationships to make a colossal
“Going forward, investment in the provision of energy and the difference to the Southern African manufacturing sector, and ultimately
improvement of our transmission and power generation infrastructure is make a concrete contribution to a more sustainable local economy,”
non-negotiable. With the drive for renewable energy power generation Mahuma concludes. CB
the energy sector remains a critical market to service - and Colossal
Concrete’s technology, coupled with locally-sourced products can be a Contact: www.colossalconcrete.co.za
powerfully differentiated option,” she says.

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INDUSTRY NEWS

PPC launches skills training

for bakkie builders
U
nder normal circumstances, Mikateko Ruth Matshebele and Mpho “We have chosen Motheo Academy to do the training as they have
Thulare would never share a classroom. Matshebele is a 37-year- an exemplary record of providing exceptional, relevant instruction in the
old civil engineering graduate who dreams of running her own built environment. We want to give participants the best opportunity to
company. Thulare is a 24-year-old unemployed construction graduate improve their skills so they can build better lives. To do that, we needed
trying to gain vital experience. to provide them with the best instruction. PPC knows that it is only by
But for the next two weeks, the two will share a makeshift classroom working together that we can build stronger communities,” says Lekula
on South Africa’s first-ever course for bakkie builders, learning the art of .
bricklaying. PPC launched the initiative last week
The short course is a venture launched by cement manufacturer PPC Thirteen students from Gauteng attended the first course which took
to upskill South Africa’s scores of informal builders. place at PPC Cement Hercules factory in Pretoria West.
“PPC is a proudly South African company committed to helping to Participants also receive a financial incentive to help them buy the
build the country.Unemployment, and especially youth unemployment, construction tools they require after the course.
is a huge challenge and it is vital that companies like us do our bit Over 200 bakkie builders from across South Africa will be provided
to bridge the skills mismatch which is undermining South Africa’s with the opportunity to attend the course over the next 8 months.
development and help reduce unemployment levels,” says Njombo The 10-day plastering course will include learning how to plaster
Lekula, PPC’s Southern African Managing Director. walls and screed a floor while the five-day management programme will
He says the initiative is also an attempt to ensure skills transfer in the include learning how to supervise construction teams, health and safety
construction industry. on a construction site and the use and storage of construction materials.
“South Africa is losing valuable skills to other countries, while young All attendees who successfully complete the NQF level 3 (bricklaying
people are choosing not to study construction. It is therefore important and plastering) and 4 (construction management) programme will
that we ensure these skills are not lost, or a once highly sought-after receive South African Qualifications Authority certificates.
construction country is not going to have skills and we will have to Lekula says PPC is targeting builders as it will empower and uplift
import the skills, at great cost, to build our own country.” local communities.
The courses on offer - which will be available across the country “Informal builders are small businesses which play a vital role in
- include bricklaying, plastering and construction management. It building our communities while also providing much-needed direct
incorporates both theory and practical instruction. investment, two objectives which align with those of PPC,” he says.
PPC, South Africa’s largest manufacturer of cement, foots the bill for Matshebele welcomed the initiative which she hopes will provide her
the course. Attendees can either apply to attend or can be nominated by with the skills to either find a job in the construction industry or start her
a retailer or supplier. PPC has partnered with training service provider and own company.
private FET college Motheo Academy, who will provide the instruction. The unemployed civil engineering graduate from Mamelodi East says
when she had heard about the course on radio,
she immediately decided to apply.
“I’m looking for experience,” she says. “I
am hoping that this experience, together with
the degree in civil engineering will either net me
a job or allow me to open my own engineering
and building company, which has always been
a dream of mine.” CB

42 NUMBER 166 | SEPTEMBER 2021

CCSA NEWS

Concrete careers experience

inspired students
T
he two University of KZN students, who benefited from
Cement & Concrete SA’s KZN branch’s “Careers in
Concrete” initiative, say the practical work opportunities
CCSA created at concrete-related enterprises in Durban have
stimulated their interest in their future careers even further.
The two final-year BSc Civil Engineering students,
Kayleen Pillay, and Siyabonga Maduna, spent part of their
recent mid-year vacation gaining hands-on experience at
CCSA member companies, Contest, and Naidu Consulting.
Contest is a leading KZN service provider in concrete testing
and technology, and Naidu Consulting, a respected national
consulting engineering firm.
Commenting after the completion of her Contest
internship, Kayleen said: “Working at Contest provided me
with diverse views of the world of concrete. I experienced
casting and testing of a variety of concrete mixes and visited
construction sites to experience the challenges and solutions
associated with different types of infrastructure.
“My work using a variety of high technology instruments,
such as ground penetrating radar (GPR) sensors, opened
my mind to a range of new possibilities. This internship has
Siyabonga Maduna (UKZN) and Kerusha Ayer (Naidu Consulting) been a great practical way to support the text book methods
studying an engineering drawing. taught at university,” she said.
Siyabonga is equally grateful for the time spent at Naidu
Consulting. He reflected: “I worked in the Structural Division
of the company, focusing on bridges and buildings – an
environment full of professionals who practically experience
the civil engineering theory I am taught at university. This has
inspired me to strive for excellence once in my career.”
He was involved in tender adjudication and site inspections
of different bridge projects while at Naidu Consulting.
“Tender adjudication assesses the competency of tenderers
and is a fundamental and crucial, part of construction. The
site visits helped me understand the construction of bridges
and will positively impact my final study year’s project about
bridge design,” Siyabonga added.
Kevin Volmink, chairperson of the CCSA KZN branch,
said the branch was planning to arrange similar vacation
internships for final year civil engineering students at the
University of KZN in future. A Student Chapter of CCSA has
been established at the university to organise concrete events
for BSc Civil Engineering students and stimulate interest in
concrete-related careers. CB

Kayleen Pillay (UKZN Student) and Donovan Leach (Contest)

inspecting concrete cores.

44 NUMBER 166 | SEPTEMBER 2021

 CCSA NEWS

KZN structural engineer wins Huge economic benefits

CCSA ‘Young Concrete
Researcher’ Award in sound concrete practice
T
he costs and consequences of poor concrete practice are unnecessary

C
ement & Concrete SA (CCSA) threats to the survival of building and construction enterprises in the
has named Dr Benedict Olalusi, current challenging times, says John Roxburgh, senior lecturer at the
lecturer at the University of KZN’s Cement & Concrete SA’s School of Concrete Technology.
School of Civil and Environmental Roxburgh says getting construction projects done properly, on time and
Engineering, as South Africa’s top within budget requires proper education. “But such training is increasingly
Young Concrete Researcher for 2021. neglected – and the costs of bad concrete practice by a construction company,
The new award, made at CCSA’s or by any concrete-related industry, are doing immeasurable harm to the
recent Young Concrete Researchers, economy and causing businesses to collapse. Concrete honey-combing,
Engineers and Technologists’ YCRETS blow-holes, cracks, inadequate steel coverage, low concrete strength, lack
2021 online symposium, recognises of proper curing are but a few consequences that cost thousands of rand to
young researchers who are making a remedy – if indeed remedial measures are possible,” he states.
significant contribution to advancing “The problem is that without the knowledge of where they are going
concrete technology through research wrong, contractors and others involved in concrete operations, inevitably
excellence at an early stage in their repeat the same errors. This naturally adds up to substantial amounts of lost
Dr Benedict Olalusi, of the careers. time and money. A simple way to avoid such disasters is through adequate
University of KZN, has won the Dr Olalusi, 31, is a structural concrete education,” Roxburgh advises.
CCSA 2021 award for Young engineer who holds a PhD Degree in He says companies should select and “champion” a suitable staff
Concrete Researcher. member to become highly competent in concrete practice and technology
Civil Engineering from Stellenbosch
University, based on his research in the field of Structural Reliability and Risk and then use this person to train, advise, mentor and educate colleagues.
Assessment. He obtained his M.Eng degree in Structural Engineering and “This does not only apply to construction companies. Technical sales staff
B.Eng degree in Civil Engineering from the Federal University of Technology should also be fulfilling this role for their clients. However, it is essential to
Akure, Nigeria, and also spent time as international scholar at the Technical channel such a person’s concrete education through a recognised training
University (TU) of Dortmund in Germany on the institution’s 2019 institution such as the School of Concrete Technology which has a track
Gambrinus Fellowship for global cooperation in teaching and research. record spanning several decades.”
The CCSA Young Concrete Researcher for 2021’s research work is The School offers many different levels of concrete education courses
focused on structural reliability and risk analysis, shear in concrete beams, but Roxburgh suggests an essential course to promote sound concrete site
probabilistic safety evaluation of existing design standards, and innovative practice is “SCT20 Concrete Practice”, aimed at supervisory or technical
construction materials and application of machine learning and data mining advisory level. “This course, firstly, equips the participant with all the key
in structural engineering. Dr Olalusi has already won several awards for his fundamentals or ‘concepts’ of concrete and concrete practice and then
research projects from various institutions and has received several research encourages him or her to logically use these concepts to find workable
grants from the SA National Research Foundation (NRF) and international concrete solutions. The result - which is ultimately a vital cost-saving
bodies. measure - is that a supervisor, foreman or sales consultant on returning
With years of industry experience in sectors ranging from civil/structural to work could then help teach fellow workers, or clients, on the correct
engineering, risk consulting and structural software development, he has approach to concrete projects.”
authored and co-authored articles in peer-reviewed conference proceedings Originally a four-day live course, the School of Concrete Technology
and reputable journals, and has been a supervisor for many postgraduate is now allowing students for “SCT20 Concrete Practice” to complete the
students. training through online self-study on a flexitime basis to suit their personal
In accepting the CCSA award, Dr Olalusi said he was highly honoured availability. CB
to win such an important accolade which would inspire him to greater
heights in his research work. “I have received inspiration from my seniors
and my colleagues, for whom I have the most profound respect, and from
whom I have derived the strength to challenge myself to perform better at
each stage,” he stated.
Prof Mike Otieno, of the School of Civil and Environmental Engineering
at the University of the Witwatersrand, who chaired the CCSA Young
Concrete Researcher adjudication panel, said CCSA decided to introduce
the award, scheduled to be part of future YCRETS symposia, to recognise
and appreciate the contributions of young researchers for:
• The advancement of knowledge in the field of concrete;
• Their engagement in activities of industry bodies; and
• Their promotion of a “culture of excellence” among young
researchers. For more information about the course – which carries four CPD points -
“CCSA wanted to encourage both established and young researchers to email [email protected], phone 011 315 0300, or
visit www.cemcon-sa.org.za.
mentor and introduce novice researchers into the concrete community,”
Prof Otieno stated. CB
CONCRETE BETON 45
CCSA NEWS

The quality of the concrete in demolished structures will determine the concrete’s Bryan Perrie, CEO of Cement & Concrete SA, says
suitability for reuse, says CCSA CEO, Bryan Perrie. increased policing to stop illegal dumping of
construction waste is needed.

Recycling and retrofitting of concrete

could provide enormous cost-savings
E
normous economic and environmental but concrete can be recycled for many other • Increased employment opportunities –
benefits could be achieved globally by purposes such as aggregate for building an important element in a country such
placing more emphasis on the recycling products such as bricks, blocks, layer works as South Africa where so many people
and retrofitting of concrete, the most in road construction, or land reclamation. are jobless.
commonly used building material on earth, Recycling reduces the need for virgin materials
says Bryan Perrie, CEO of Cement & Concrete thereby saving resources and the energy Perrie concedes that there are still some
SA (CCSA). required to process them. Crushed concrete challenges to be overcome in the quest for
“Modern civilisation is built on concrete furthermore absorbs carbon dioxide. Precast using higher volumes of recycled concrete.
and its positive social impacts are immense. components from structures can be reused “Included are aspects such as irregularity of
Because of its extensive usage, concrete in new buildings without having to be supply, contamination and lack of consistent
inevitably has a relatively large environmental demolished and recycled. Structures using quality, site sorting, noise and pollution
footprint but this could be reduced by precast elements should, in fact, be designed resulting from recovery and processing on
increasing the volumes of recycled concrete,” for such reuse. site, as well as potential legal aspects.
Perrie states. “In former industrial areas and inner- “But the benefits – particularly for
“At least 10 billion tons of concrete are city precincts, there are many old concrete countries with shrinking economies - by far
used annually – twice as much as any other structures such as unused offices, factories outweigh the challenges. CCSA believes there
building material. This means the potential for and warehouses that can be retrofitted and should be legislation banning construction
recycling is enormous but sadly unacceptably converted into residential space. Effective and demolition waste from landfills, or
high volumes of concrete now end up in building retrofitting usually requires the taxation to limit the volumes of C&DW ending
landfills together with other construction building structure to be left largely intact.” up in landfills. This must be coupled with
and demolition waste (C&DW) – completely increased policing to stop illegal dumping of
ignoring their recycling potential.” The benefits of recycling and retrofitting construction waste. Architects and specifiers
Perrie says the demolition of in-situ, include: also need to increasingly consider the use of
precast and tilt-up reinforced concrete can • Saving of natural resources, including raw recycled concrete or concrete unit reuse when
be achieved relatively easily by modern, materials, energy and water required for designing new buildings,” he adds. CB
cutting, breaking and lifting equipment. Once new structures;
demolition of reinforced concrete has been • Reducing the quantity of solid waste sent Contact: www.cemcon-sa.org.za
completed, the concrete and reinforcing steel to landfill;
can be separated for recycling. • Lowering the energy consumption
“Internationally, the most common usage and pollution that would result from
of recycled concrete currently is in roads, the extraction, manufacturing and
transportation of virgin materials; and

46 NUMBER 166 | SEPTEMBER 2021

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CONCRETE BETON 49
SCT COURSES

ONLINE COURSE DATES 2021

2021
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV

SCT 10 – Introduction to Concrete

18 22 15 26 24 28 19 16 13 18 22

SCT 12 – Mortars, Plasters, Screeds and Masonry

20 24 17 28 26 30 21 18 15 20 24

SCT 13 – Making Concrete Bricks and Blocks

1
21 25 18 29 27 19 16 21 25
22

SCT 15 – Concrete for Batchers and Batch Plant Staff

10

SCT 20 – Concrete Practice

15 19 21 2 4 15

SCT 21 – Concrete Industrial Floors on the Ground

1 25

SCT 22 – Concrete Road Design and Construction

2 26

SCT 30 – Concrete Technology

1 17 12 6 1

SCT 41 – ICT Concrete Technology and Construction: General Principles

Revision Workshop 12-13
Exam 11

SCT 42 – Concrete Technology and Construction: Practical Applications

Revision Workshop 14-15
Exam 12

SCT 50 – Advanced Concrete Technology (2020 - 2021)

Revision Workshop
Exam

www.cemcon-sa.org.za
[email protected]

50 NUMBER 166 | SEPTEMBER 2021

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Bonding

MAIN APPLICATION AREAS MAIN APPLICATION AREAS MAIN APPLICATION AREAS

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tanks • Interior finishing • Structural strengthening
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