MODULE - 6 Dispersion and Scattering of Light

Optics and Optical

Instruments

21
Notes

DISPERSION AND SCATTERING

OF LIGHT

In the previous lesson you have learnt about reflection, refraction and total internal
reflection of light. You have also learnt about image formation by mirrors and
lenses and their uses in daily life. When a narrow beam of ordinary light is refracted
by a prism, we see colour bands. This phenomenon has to be other than reflection
or refraction. The splitting of white light into its constituent colours or wavelengths
by a medium is called dispersion. In this lesson, you will study about this
phenomenon. A beautiful manifestation of this phenomenon in nature is in the
form of rainbow. You will also learn in this lesson about the phenomenon of
scattering of light, which gives sky its blue colour and the sun red colour at
sunrise and sunset. Elementary idea of Raman effect will also be discussed in this
lesson.

OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you should be able to :
z explain dispersion of light;
z derive relation between the angle of deviation (δ), angle of prism (A) and
refractive index of the material of the prism (μ);
z relate the refractive index with wavelength and explain dispersion through a
prism;
z explain formation of primary and secondary rainbows;
z explain scattering of light and list its applications.and; and
z explain Raman effect.

21.1 DISPERSION OF LIGHT

Natural phenomena like rings around planets (halos) and formation of rainbow
etc. cannot be explained by the rectilinear propagation of light. To understand

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such events, light is considered as having wave nature. (You will learn about it in Instruments
the next lesson.) As you know, light waves are transverse electromagnetic waves
which propagate with speed 3 × 108 ms–1 in vacuum. Of the wide range of
electromagnetic spectrum, the visible light forms only a small part. Sunlight
consists of seven different wavelengths corresponding to seven colours. Thus,
colours may be identified with their wavelengths. You have already learnt that
the speed and wavelength of waves change when they travel from one medium to
another. The speed of light waves and their corresponding wavelengths also change Notes
with the change in the medium. The speed of a wave having a certain wavelength
becomes less than its speed in free space when it enters an optically denser medium.
The refractive index μ has been defined as the ratio of the speed of light in vacuum
to the speed of light in the medium. It means that the refractive index of a given
medium will be different for waves having wavelengths 3.8 × 10–7 m and 5.8 ×
10–7 m because these waves travel with different speeds in the same medium. This
variation of the refractive index of a material with wavelength is known as
dispersion. This phenomenon is different from refraction. In free space and even
in air, the speeds of all waves of the visible light are the same. So, they are not
separated. (Such a medium is called a non-dispersive medium.) But in an optically
denser medium, the component wavelengths (colours) travel with different speeds
and therefore get separated. Such a medium is called dispersive medium. Does
this suggest that light will exhibit dispersion whenever it passes through an optically
denser medium. Let us learn about it now.

21.1.1 Dispersion through a Prism

The separation of colours by a medium is not a sufficient condition to observe
dispersion of light. These colours must be widely separated and should not mix
up again after emerging from the dispersing medium. A glass slab (Fig. 21.1) is
not suitable for observing dispersion as the rays of the emergent beam are very
close and parallel to the incident beam
Newton used a prism to demonstrate dispersion
of light. Refer to Fig. 21.2. White light from a
slit falls on the face AB of the prism and light
emerging from face AC is seen to split into
different colours. Coloured patches can be seen
on a screen. The face AC increases the separation
between the rays refracted at the face AB. The
incident white light PQ thus splits up into its
component seven colours : Violet, indigo, blue,
green, yellow, orange and red (VIBGYOR). The
wavelengths travelling with different speeds are
Fig. 21.1 : Passage of light through
refracted through different angles and are thus
a glass slab

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Instruments separated. This splitting of white light into component colours is known as
dispersion. MR and MV correspond to the red and violet light respectively. These
colours on the screen produce the spectrum.
The bending of the original beam PQN along MR and MV etc. is known as
deviation. The angle between the emergent ray and the incident ray is known as
the angle of deviation. Thus δv and δr represent the angles of deviation for violet
Notes light and red light, respectively.

Fig. 21.2 : Dispersion of light by a prism

Read the following example carefully to fix the ideas on variation of the refractive
index with the wavelength of light.
Example 21.1: A beam of light of average wavelength 600nm, on entering a
glass prism, splits into three coloured beams of wavelengths 384 nm, 589 nm and
760 nm respectively. Determine the refractive indices of the material of the prism
for these wavelengths.
Solution : The refractive index of the material of the prism is given by
c
μ =
v
where c is speed of light in vacuum, and v is speed of light in the medium (prism).
Since velocity of a wave is product of frequency and wavelength, we can write
c = vλa and v = vλm

where λa and λm are the wavelengths in air and medium respectively and v is the
frequency of light waves. Thus

vλ a λa
μ = vλ m = λ
m

For 384 nm wavelength, the refractive index is

600 × 10 –9 m
μ1 = = 1.56
384 × 10 –9 m
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For wave length of 589 nm : Instruments
600 × 10 –9 m
μ2 = = 1.02
58.9 × 10 –9 m
and for 760nm wavelength :
600 × 10 –9 m
μ3 = = 0.8
760 × 10 –9 m
Notes
We have seen that the refractive index of a material depends on
z the nature of the material, and
z the wavelength of light.
An interesting outcome of the above example is that the variation in wavelength
(Δλ = λ2–λ1) produces variation in the refractive index (Δμ = μ2–μ1). The ratio
Δμ
is known as the spectral dispersive power of the material of prism .
Δλ

21.1.2 The Angle of Deviation

We would now establish the relation between the angle of incidence i, the angle
of deviation δ and the angle of prism A. Let us consider that a monochromatic
beam of light PQ is incident on the face AB of the principal section of the prism
ABC [Fig.21.3]. On refraction, it goes along QR inside the prism and emerges
along RS from face AC. Let ∠A ≡ ∠BAC be the refracting angle of the prism. We
draw normals NQ and MR on the faces AB and AC, respectively and produce
them backward to meet at O. Then you can easily convince yourself that ∠NQP
= ∠i, ∠MRS = ∠e, ∠RQO = ∠r1, and ∠QRO = ∠r2 are the angle of incidence,
the angle of emergence and the angle of refraction at the faces AB and AC,
respectively. The angle between the emergent ray RS and the incident ray PQ at
D is known as the angle of deviation (δ).

Fig. 21.3 : Refraction through a prism

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Instruments Since ∠MDR = ∠δ, As it is the external angle of the triangle QDR, we can write
∠δ = ∠DQR + ∠DRQ
= (∠i – ∠r1) + (∠e – ∠r2)
or ∠δ = (∠i + ∠e) – (∠r1 + ∠r2) (21.1)
You may recall that the sum of the internal angles of a quadrilateral is equal to
Notes
360º. In the quadrilateral AQOR, ∠AQO = ∠ARO = 900, since NQ and MR are
normals on faces AB and AC, respectively. Therefore
∠QAR + ∠QOR = 1800
or ∠A + ∠QOR = 1800 (21.2)
But in ΔQOR
∠OQR + ∠QRO + ∠QOR = 1800
or ∠r1 + ∠r2 + ∠QOR = 1800 (21.3)
On comparing Eqns. (21.2) and (21.3), we have
∠r1 + ∠r2 = ∠A (21.4)
Combining this result with Eqn. (21.1), we have
∠δ = (∠i + ∠e) – ∠A
Fig. 21.4 : Plot between angle of
or ∠i + ∠e = ∠A + ∠δ (21.5) incidence i and angle
of deviation δ
Angle of Minimum Deviation
If we vary the angle of incidence i, the angle of deviation δ also changes; it
becomes minimum for a certain value of i and again starts increasing as i increases
further (Fig. 21.4). The minimum value of the angle of deviation is called angle
of minimum deviation (δm). It depends on the material of the prism and the
wavelength of light used. In fact, one angle of deviation may be obtained
corresponding to two values of the angles of incidence. Using the principle of
reversibility of light, we find that the second value of angle of incidence corresponds
to the angle of emergence (e). In the minimum deviation position, there is only
one value of the angle of incidence. So we have
∠e = ∠i
Using this fact in Eqn.(21.5) and replacing δ by δm, we have
∠Α + ∠δ m
∠i = (21.6)
2

Applying the principle of reversibility of light rays and under the condition ∠e =
∠i, we can write ∠r1 = ∠r2 = ∠r , say
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On substituting this result in Eqn. (21.4), we get Instruments
∠Α
∠r = (21.7)
2

The light beam inside the prism, under the condition of minimum deviation, passes
symmetrically through the prism and is parallel to its base. The refractive index of
the material of the prism is therefore given by
Notes
⎛ A + δm ⎞
sin ⎜ ⎟
sin i ⎝ 2 ⎠
μ = = A (21.8)
sin r sin
2

The refractive index μ can be calculated using Eqn.(21.8) for a monochromatic

or a polychromatic beam of light. The value of δm is different for different colours.
It gives a unique value of the angle of incidence and the emergent beam is brightest
for this incidence.
For a prism of small angle A, keeping i and r small, we can write
sin i = i, sin r = r, and sin e = e
Hence

sin i i
μ = sin r = r or i = μr1
1 1

sin e e
Also μ = sin r = r or e = μr2
2 2

Therefore,
∠i + ∠e = μ (∠r1 + ∠r2)
Using this result in Eqns. (26.4) and (26.5), we get
μ ∠A = ∠A + ∠δ
or ∠δ = (μ – 1)∠A (21.9)
We know that μ depends on the wavelength of light. So deviation will also depend
on the wavelength of light. That is why δV is different from δR. Since the velocity
of the red light is more than that of the violet light in glass, the deviation of the
red light would be less as compared to that of the violet light.
δV > δR.
This implies that μV > μR. This change in the refractive index of the material with
the wavelength of light is responsible for dispersion phenomenon.

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Instruments 21.1.3 Angular Dispersion and Dispersive Power
The difference between the angles of deviation for any two wavelengths (colours)
is known as the angular dispersion for those wavelengths. The angular dispersion
between the red and violet wavelengths is δV – δR. In the visible part of the
spectrum, the wavelength of the yellow colour is nearly the average wavelength
of the spectrum. The deviation for this colour δY may, therefore, be taken as the
Notes average of all deviations.
The ratio of the angular dispersion to the mean deviation is taken as the
dispersive power (ω) of the material of the prism :

δV – δR
ω = δY

We can express this result in terms of the refractive indices using Eqn. (21.9) :

(μ V – 1) ∠A – (μ R – 1)∠A
ω = (μ V – 1)∠A

μV – μR Δμ
= μ –1 = μ –1 (21.10)
Y

Example 21.2 : The refracting angle of a prism is 30′ and its refractive index is
1.6. Calculate the deviation caused by the prism.
Solution : We know that δ = (μ – 1) ∠A
On substituting the given data, we get

1o 0.6
δ = (1.6 – 1) × = = 0.3o = 18′
2 2

Example 21.3 : For a prism of angle A, the angle of minimum deviation is A/2.
Calculate its refractive index, when a monochromatic light is used. Given A = 60o
Solution : The refractive index is given by

⎛ A + δm ⎞
sin ⎜ ⎟
μ = ⎝ 2 ⎠
sin ( A / 2)

Now δm = A/2 so that

⎛ A + A/2 ⎞ ⎛3 ⎞
sin ⎜ A ⎟ ⎛3 ⎞
sin ⎜ ⎟ sin ⎜ A ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝4 ⎠
μ= = = = 2 = 1.4
sin ( A / 2) ⎛ A⎞ ⎛ A⎞
sin ⎜ ⎟ sin ⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠ ⎝2⎠
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INTEXT QUESTIONS 21.1
1. Most ordinary gases do not show dispersion with visible light. Why?
2. With your knowledge about the relative values of μ for the component colours
of white light, state which colour is deviated more from its original direction?
3. Does dispersion depend on the size and angle of the prism? Notes
4. Calculate the refractive index of an equilateral prism if the angle of minimum
deviation is equal to the angle of the prism.

Rainbow formation
Dispersion of sunlight through suspanded water drops in air produces a
spectracular effect in nature in the form of rainbow on a rainy day. With
Sun at our back, we can see a brighter and another fainter rainbow. The
brighter one is called the primary rainbow and the other one is said to be
secondary rainbow. Sometimes we see only one rainbow. The bows are
in the form of coloured arcs whose common centre lies at the line joining
the Sun and our eye. Rainbow can also be seen in a fountain of water in
the evening or morning when the sun rays are incident on the water drops
at a definite angle.
Primary Rainbow
The primary rainbow is formed by two refractions and a single internal
reflection of sunlight in a water drop. (See Fig. 21.5(a)). Descartes
explained that rainbow is seen through the rays which have suffered
minimum deviation. Parallel rays from the Sun suffering deviation of
137º.29′ or making an angle of 42º.31′ at the eye with the incident ray,
after emerging from the water drop, produce bright shining colours in the
bow. Dispersion by water causes different colours (red to violet) to make
their own arcs which lie within a cone of 43o for red and 41o. for violet
rays on the outer and inner sides of the bow (Fig. 21.5 (b)).

Fig. 21.5 : (a) A ray suffering two refractions and one internal reflection in a drop of water.
Mean angle of minimum deviation is 137º29′, and (b) dispersion by a water drop.

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Instruments Secondary Rainbow
The secondary rainbow is formed
by two refractions and two
internal reflections of light on the
water drop. The angles of
minimum deviations for red and
Notes
violet colours are 231º. and 234º.
respectively, so they subtend a
cone of 51º. for the red and 54º.
for the violet colour. From
Fig.21.6 it is clear that the red
colour will be on the inner and the Fig. 21.6 : Formation of the secondary rainbow
violet colour on the outer side of the bow.
The simultaneous appearance of the primary and secondary rainbows is shown
in Fig.21.7. The space between the two bows is relatively dark. Note that
the secondary rainbow lies above the primary bow.

Fig. 21.7 : Simultaneous formation of the primary and secondary rainbow.

21.2 SCATTERING OF LIGHT IN ATMOSPHERE

On a clear day when we look at the sky, it appears blue. But the clouds appear
white. Similarly, production of brilliant colours when sunlight passes through
jewels and crystals also attracts our attention. You may like to know : How and
why does it happen? These phenomena can be explained in terms of scattering of
light. A solution of dust or particle-free benzene exposed to sunlight gives brilliant
blue colour when looked sideways.

21.2.1 Scattering of Light

This phenomenon involves interaction of radiation with matter. Tiny dust particles
are present in Earth’s atmosphere. When sunlight falls on them, it gets diffused in
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all directions. That is why light reaches even those nooks and corners where it Instruments
normally is not able to reach straight from the source.

Notes

Fig. 21.8 : The scattering of light from milk particles

Let us perform a simple activity.

ACTIVITY 21.1
Take a glass jar or a trough, fill it with water and add a little milk to it. Now allow
a narrow beam of light from a white bulb to fall on it. Observe the light at 90o.
You will see a bluish beam through water. This experiment shows that after
scattering, the wavelenghts of light become a peculiarly different in a given direction
(Fig. 21.14).
The phenomenon of scattering is a two step process : absorption of light by the
scattering particle and then instant re-emission by it in all possible directions.
Thus, this phenomenon is different from reflection. The scattered light does not
obey the laws of reflection. It is important to note that the size of the particle
must be less than the wavelength of light incident on it. A bigger sized particle
will scatter all the wavelengths equally. The intensity of scattered light is given by
Rayleigh’s law of scattering. According to this law, the intensity of scattered
light is inversely proportional to the fourth power of its wavelength:
1
Iα
λ4

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Instruments Here I is intensity and λ is wavelength of the scattered light. Thus, when white
light is incident on the scattering particle, the blue light is scattered the most and
the red light is scattered the least.
Example 21.4 : Waves of wavelength 3934Å, 5890Å and 6867Å are found in the
scattered beam when sunlight is incident on a thin layer of chimeny smoke. Which
of these is scattered more intensely?
Notes
Solution : The intensity of scattered light is given by

1
Iα
λ4
Since 3934Å is the smallest wavelength, it will be scattered most intensely.
On the basis of scattering of light, we can explain why sky appears blue, clouds
appear white and the sun appears red at sunrise as well as at sunset.

C.V. Raman
(1888 – 1970)
Chandra Shekhar Venkat Raman is the only Indian national
to receive Nobel prize (1930) in physics till date. His love
for physics was so intense that he resigned his job of an officer
in Indian finance department and accepted the post of Palit
Professor of Physics at the Department of Physics, Calcutta University. His
main contributions are : Raman effect on scattering of light, molecular
diffraction of light, mechanical theory of bowed strings, diffraction of X-
rays, theory of musical instruments and physics of crystals.
As Director of Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore and later as the founder
Director of Raman Research Institute, he did yeoman’s to Indian science
and put it on firm footings in pre-independence period.

(A) Blue Colour of the Sky

We know that scattering of light by air molecules, water droplets or dust particles
present in the atmosphere can be explained in accordance with Rayleigh’s law.
The shorter wavelengths are scattered more than the longer wavelengths. Thus,
the blue light is scattered almost six times more intensely than the red light as the
wavelength of the blue light is roughly 0.7 times that of the red. The scattered
light becomes rich in the shorter wavelengths of violet, blue and green colours.
On further scattering, the violet light does not reach observe’s eye as the eye is
comparatively less sensitive to violet than blue and other wavelengths in its
neighbourhood. So, when we look at the sky far away from the sun, it appears
blue.

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Example 21.5 : What will be the colour of the sky for an astronant in a spaceship Instruments
flying at a high attitude.
Solution : At a high attitude, in the absence of dust particle and air molecules,
the sunlight is not scattered. So, the sky will appear black.
(B) White colour of the clouds
The clouds are formed by the assembly of small water drops whose size becomes Notes
more than the average wavelength of the visible light (5000Å). These droplets
scatter all the wavelengths with almost equal intensity. The resultant scattered
light is therefore white. So, a thin layer of clouds appears white. What about
dense clouds?
(C) Red colour of the Sun at Sunrise and Sunset
We are now able to understand the red colour of the Sun at sunrise and sunset. In
the morning and evening when the Sun is near the horizon, light has to travel a
greater distance through the atmosphere. The violet and blue wavelengths are
scattered by dust particles and air molecules at an angle of about 90o. The sunlight
thus becomes devoid of shorter wavelengths and the longer wavelength of red
colour reaches the observer (Fig. 21.9). So the Sun appears to us as red.

Fig. 21.9 : Red colour of the sun at sunset and sunrise (blue is scattered away).

At noon, the Sun is overhead and its distance from the observer is comparatively
less. The blue colour is also scattered less. This results in the Sun appearing
white, as a matter of fact, crimson.

21.2.2 Raman effect

When light radiation undergoes scattering from a transparent substance (solid,
liquid or gas) then the frequency of the scattered radiation may be greater or
less than the frequency of the incident radiation. This phenomenon is known
as Raman effect as it was first observed by C. V. Raman in 1926. An analogue

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Instruments of this optical phenomenon was observed earlier by A. H. Compton in
connection with the scattering of X-rays. The spectrum of the scattered radiation
is known as Raman spectrum. This has lines having frequency greater than the
frequency of the incident radiation (known as anti-Stokes’ lines) as also lines
having frequency less than the frequency of the incident radiation (called Stokes’
lines).
Notes A simple explanation of Raman effect can be given as follows. When light
radiation interacts with a substance three possibilities may arise. In the first
possibility, the light radiation interacting with the substance does not undergo
any change of energy. Hence, its frequency remains unchanged. In the second
possibility, the light radiation may impart some of its energy to the substance.
As a result, the energy of the light radiation decreases. This leads to a decrease
in the frequency of the scattered radiation (corresponding to Stokes’ lines). In
the third possibility, the incident radiation may interact with the substance which
is already in the excited state. In the process, the radiation gains energy resulting
into increase in its frequency (corresponding to anti-Stokes’ lines).
Raman effect has lot of applications in various fields. C. V. Raman was awarded
Nobel prize in physics for this discovery in 1930.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 21.2

1. Why dense clouds appear black?
2. Why does the sky appear deep blue after rains on a clear day?
3. Can you suggest an experiment to demonstrate the red colour of the Sun at
sunrise and sunset?
4. The photographs taken from a satellite show the sky dark. Why?
5. What are anti stokes' lines?

WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

z Light of single wavelength or colour is said to be monochromatic but sunlight,
which has several colours or wavelengths, is polychromatic.
z The splitting of light into its constituent wavelengths on entering an optically
denser medium is called dispersion.
z A prism is used to produce dispersed light, which when taken on the screen,
forms the spectrum.
z The angle of deviation is minimum if the angles of incidence and emergence
become equal. In this situation, the beam is most intense for that colour.

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z The angle of deviation and refractive index for a small-angled prism are Instruments
connected by the ralation δ = (μ–1)A.
z The rainbow is formed by dispersion of sunlight by raindrops at definite angles
for each colour so that the condition of minimum deviation is satisfied.
z Rainbows are of two types : primary and secondary. The outer side of the
primary rainbow is red but the inner side is violet. The remaining colours lie
in between to follow the order (VIBGYOR). The scheme of colours gets Notes
reversed in the secondary rainbow.
z The blue colour of the sky, the white colour of clouds and the reddish colour
of the Sun at sunrise and sunset are due to scattering of light. The intensity of
scattered light is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the wavelength
⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜ I α 4 ⎟ . This is called Rayleigh’s law. So the blue colour is scattered more
⎝ λ ⎠
than the red.
z When light radiation undergoes scattering from a transparent substance, then
frequency of scatered radiation may be greater or less than frequency of incident
ratiation. This phenomenon is known as Raman effect.

TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. For a prism, show that i + e = A + δ.
2. Would you prefer small-angled or a large-angled prism to produce dispersion.
Why?
3. Under what condition is the deviation caused by a prism directly proportional
to its refractive index?
4. Explain why the sea water appears blue at high seas.
5. The angle of minimum deviation for a 600 glass prism is 390. Calculate the
refractive index of glass.
6. The deviation produced for red, yellow and violet colours by a crown glass
are 2.84o, 3.28o and 3.72o respectively. Calculate the dispersive power of the
glass material.
7. Calculate the dispersive power for flint glass for the following data : μC =
1.6444, μD= 1.6520 and μF= 1.6637, where C, D & F are the Fraunhofer
nomenclatures.
8. A lens can be viewed as a combination of two prisms placed with their bases
together. Can we observe dispersion using a lens. Justify your answer.
9. Human eye has a convex lens. Do we observe dispersion with unaided eye?

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Instruments
ANSEWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

21.1
1. The velocity of propagation of waves of different wavelengths of visible light
is almost the same in most ordinary gases. Hence, they do not disperse visible
Notes
light. Their refractive index is also very close to 1.
2. Violet, because λr > λv and the velocity of the red light is more than that of the
violet light inside an optically denser medium.
3. No
sin 60º
4. μ = sin 30º = 3 = 1.732

21.2
1. It absorbs sunlight
2. It becomes clear of dust particles and bigger water molecules. The scattering
now takes place strictly according to Rayleigh’s law.
3. We can take sodium thiosulphate solution in a round bottom flask and add a
small quality of sulphuric acid. On illuminating this solution with a high power
bulb, we can see a scenario similar to the colour of the sun at sunrise and
sunset.
4. At very high altitudes no centres (particles) of scattering of sunlight are present.
So the sky appears dark.
5. The spectral lines having frequency greater than the frequency of incident
radiation are known as anti stokes' lines.

Answers to Problems in Terminal Exercise

5. 1.5 6. 0.27
7. 0.03

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