5.

Perception and Sensation The conversion from sensory

stimulus energy to action
Sensation-Sensation is input about
potential/neural impulses is
the physical world obtained by our
known as transduction.
sensory receptors.
Aside from the five senses-
Perception- perception is the
vision, hearing(audition),
process by which the brain
taste(gustation), and
selects, organizes, and interprets
touch(somatosensation), we
these sensations.
also have sensor sensation that
Note: In other words, the senses provides information about
are the physiological basis of balance( the vestibular sense),
perception. Perception of the body position and
same senses may vary from one movement( proprioception and
person to another because each kinesthesia), pain(nociception)
person’s brain interprets stimuli and
differently based on that temperature( thermoception).
individual’s learning, memory,
emotions, and expectations.
ABSOLUTE THRESHOLD-
What does it mean to sense
Refers to the minimum amount
something?
of stimulus energy that must be
Sensory receptors are present for the stimulus to be
specialized neurons that respond detected 50% of the time.
to specific types of stimuli. When
I.e. how dim can a light be or how
sensory information is detected by
soft can a sound be and still be
a sensory receptor, sensation has
detected half of the time.
occurred. For example, light that
enters the eye causes chemical The sensitivity of our sensory
changes in cells that line the back receptors can be quite amazing. It
of the eye. These cells relay has been estimated that on a clear
messages, in the form of action night, the most sensitive sensory
potentials, to the central nervous cells in the back of the eye can
system. detect a candle flame 30 miles
away. Under quiet conditions, the
hair cells (the receptor cells of the  Priming; Priming generally
inner ear) can detect the tick of a relies on supraliminal stimuli,
clock 20 feet away. which means that the
messaging may occur out of
Subliminal messages; Messages that
awareness, but it is still
are presented below the threshold for
perceived messaging.
conscious awareness.
Supraliminal messages are
 A stimulus reaches a perceived by the conscious
physiological threshold mind.
when it is strong enough
Q&A
to excite sensory
receptors and send nerve ___Absolute threshold_____
impulses to the brain: this refers to the minimum amount
is an absolute threshold. of stimulus energy required to
 A message below that be detected 50% of the time.
threshold is said to be Absolute threshold is the
subliminal: we receive it, lightest touch that can be
but we are not consciously detected 50% of the time, the
aware of it. dimmest light, the softest
 Therefore, the message is sound, etc.
sensed, but for whatever
_Transduction_ involves the
reason, it has not been
conversion of sensory stimulus
selected for processing in
energy into neural impulses.
working or short-term
Our sensory organs are
memory.
designed to convert physical
 Nonconscious processes-
energy( light waves, sound
processing that occurs while
waves) into the electrochemical
we are awake but unaware.
signals our brain can process.
 Mere-exposure effects occur
when a novel stimuli is
presented subliminally for GLOSSARY
brief durations. The most
basic form of attitude absolute threshold: minimum
amount of stimulus energy that
exposure is through mere
exposure.
must be present for the stimulus to Signal detection theory: change
be detected 50% of the time in stimulus detection as a function
of current mental state.
just noticeable difference or
difference threshold: difference Subliminal message: message
in stimuli required to detect a presented below the threshold of
difference between the stimuli. As conscious awareness.
an example, imagine yourself in a
very dark movie theater. If an Transduction: conversion from
audience member were to receive sensory stimulus energy to action
a text message on her cell phone potential.
which caused her screen to light
up, chances are that many people Weber’s law: Ernst Weber’s
would notice the change in discovery that the difference
illumination in the theater. threshold is a constant fraction of
However, if the same thing the original stimulus and bigger
happened in a brightly lit arena stimuli require larger differences to
during a basketball game, very be noticed. For example, it will be
few people would notice. The cell much harder for your friend to
phone brightness does not reliably tell the difference between
change, but its ability to be 10 and 11 lbs. (or 5 versus 5.5 kg)
detected as a change in than it is for 1 and 2 lbs.
illumination varies dramatically
WHAT IS PERCEPTION?
between the two contexts.
Perception refers to the way
Mere-exposure effects: the result sensory information is organized,
of developing a more positive interpreted, and consciously
attitude towards a stimulus after experienced. Perception involves
repeated instances of mere both bottom-up and top-down
exposure to it. processing.
Bottom-up processing refers to
Priming: the process by which
sensory information from a
recent experiences increase a
stimulus in the environment driving
trait’s accessibility.
a process. (science-empirical).
Sensation: what happens when
sensory information is detected by
a sensory receptor.
 Attention also plays a significant
role in determining what is sensed
versus what is perceived. You get
involved in an interesting
conversation with a friend, and
you tune out all the background
noise. If someone interrupted you
to ask what song had just finished
With no experience/ prior playing, you would probably be
knowledge, this looks like the unable to answer that question.
number 13. Inattentional blindness; Is the
Top-down processing refers to failure to notice something
knowledge and expectancy driving completely visible because the
a process. ( experience and person was actively attending to
knowledge). something else and did not pay
attention to other things.
Q&A
Decreased sensitivity to an
unchanging stimulus is known as
sensory adaptation.
In this context, the 13 is obviously _Perception occurs when sensory
aB information is organized,
interpreted, and consciously
experienced.

Motivations, Expectations, and

Perception
In this context, it is a 13 indeed. Signal detection theory is the
ability to identify a stimulus when it
Although our perceptions are built is embedded in a distracting
from sensations, not all sensations background. This might also
result in perception. explain why a mother is awakened
Sensory adaptation; We often by a murmur from her baby but not
don’t perceive stimuli that remain by other sounds that occur while
relatively constant over prolonged she is asleep. In fact, the original
periods of time. work of the researcher who
developed signal detection theory that people living in societies with
was focused on improving the lots of straight lines and hard angles
sensitivity of air traffic controllers (like buildings, sidewalks, etc.) are
to plane blips. more susceptible to this illusion.

The Müller-Lyer illusion: The SELF-CHECK Q and A

lines appear to be different You walk by the same billboard on
lengths, but they are actually the the way to school each day but
same length. have never actually looked at it.
When asked to guess which
billboard it was from a selection of
billboards, you somehow identify
the right one because you
subliminally processed the image.

Note: In the Müller-Lyer illusion, VISION

lines appear to be different lengths
Anatomy of the Visual System
although they are identical. (a)
Arrows at the ends of lines may The eye is the major sensory
make the line on the right appear organ involved in vision. There are
longer, although the lines are the several parts of the eye from the
same length. (b) When applied to front to the back side, including
a three-dimensional image, the the cornea, pupil, iris, lens, retina,
line on the right again may appear fovea, and optic nerve. The
longer although both black lines cornea, pupil, iris, and lens are
are the same length. situated toward the front of the
eye. At the back are the retina,
Q and A
fovea, and optic nerve.
Failure to notice something
Parts of the Eye
completely visible because of a lack
of attention is called -inattentional Cornea: The transparent covering
blindness_. over the eye. It serves as a barrier
between the inner eye and the
If you live in a city with lots of outside world, and it is involved in
buildings, walls, and straight lines, focusing light waves that enter the
you will probably perceive the lines in eye. Light waves are transmitted
the Müller-Lyer illusion as being-- across the cornea and enter the
different lengths--Research has shown eye through the pupil.
Pupil: The small opening through bright light conditions. Cones are
which light passes and the size of very sensitive to acute detail and
the pupil can change as a function provide tremendous spatial
of light waves as well as emotional resolution. They are also directly
arousal. When light levels are low, involved in our ability to perceive
the pupil will become dilated or color.
expanded, to allow more light to
While cones are concentrated in
enter the eye. When light levels
the fovea, where images tend to
are high, the pupil will constrict, or
be focused, rods, another type of
become smaller, to reduce the
photoreceptor, are located
amount of light that enters the eye.
throughout the remainder of the
Iris: The colored portion of the retina. Rods are specialized
eye. It is connected to the muscles photoreceptors that work well in
that control the pupil size. low light conditions, and while they
lack the spatial resolution and
Lens: The lens is a curved,
color function of the cones, they
transparent structure that serves
are involved in our vision in dimly
to provide additional focus for light
lit environments as well as in our
entering the eye. The lens is
perception of movement on the
attached to muscles that can
periphery of our visual field.
change its shape to aid in focusing
light that is reflected from near or If your rods do not transform light
far objects. into nerve impulses as easily and
efficiently as they should, you will
Retina: The light-sensitive lining of
have difficulty seeing in dim light,
the eye( yellow) located at the
a condition known as night
back of the eye.
blindness.
Fovea: Part of the retina is a small
There are 3x more rods than
indentation in the back of the eye.
cones.
In a normal-sighted individual, the
lens will focus images perfectly on Optic nerve: Rods and cones are
the fovea. The fovea consists connected( via several
of densely packed specialized interneurons) to retinal ganglion
photoreceptor cells, known as cells. Axons from the retinal
cones, which are light-detecting ganglion cells converge and exit
cells. Another type of through the back of the eye to
photoreceptor is rods. form the optic nerve. The optic
nerves carries visual information
The cones are specialized types of
from the retina to the brain. There
photoreceptors that work best in
is a point in the visual field called
the blind spot. Even when light focus and brightest color
from a small object is focused on perception.
the blind spot, we do not see it.
The optic nerve is the bundle of
We are not consciously aware of
neurons that leaves the eyeball
our blind spots for two reasons:
and connects to the brain.
First, each eye gets a slightly
different view of the visual field: What is the function of the
therefore, the blind spots do not lens?
overlap. Second, our visual
The lens sits behind the pupil and
system fills in the blind spot
can change shape to direct the
although we cannot respond to
available light onto the retina.
visual information that occurs in
that portion of the visual field, we The optic nerve from each eye
are also not aware that information merges just below the brain at a
is missing. point called the optic chiasm. The
optic chiasm is an X-shaped
structure that sits just below the
cerebral cortex at the front of the
brain. At the point of the optic
chiasm, information from the
right visual field (which comes
from both eyes) is sent to the
left side of the brain, and
information from the left visual
field is sent to the right side of
the brain.
Q and A
What is the function of the iris?
The iris changes the size of the
pupil. The iris is the circle of
muscles at the front of the eye that
controls how much light enters via
the pupil.
What is the function of the
retina?
It contains photoreceptor cells.
The fovea contains the bulk of our Once inside the brain, visual
cones and is the area of sharpest information is sent via a number of
structures to the occipital lobe at by the eye that was sewn
the back of the brain for closed.
processing. Visual information
Q and A
might be processed in parallel
pathways which can generally be The _fovea_is a small indentation
described as the “what pathway” of the retina that contains cones.
(the ventral pathway) and the
_cones_operate best under bright
“where/how” pathway (the dorsal
light conditions.
pathway).
The “what pathway/ventral What area of the eye controls
pathway” is involved in object the size of the pupil?
recognition and identification, Iris
while the “where/how
pathway/dorsal pathway” is What part of the eye contains
involved with location in space and photoreceptor cells?
how one might interact with a Retina specifically rods and
particular visual stimulus. For cones
example, when you see a ball
rolling down the street, the “what
pathway” identifies what the object Amplitude and Wavelength
is, and the “where/how pathway”
identifies its location or movement Light enters your eyes as a wave.
in space. It is important to understand some
Note: Specific brain cells respond basic properties of waves to see
to lines with specific orientations how they impact what we see.
called ocular dominance, and they Two physical characteristics of a
map the ways those cells are wave are amplitude and
arranged in areas of the visual wavelength.
cortex known as columns and The amplitude of a wave is the
hypercolumns. height of a wave as measured
- Neural connections that from the highest point on
exist at birth can be lost if the wave (peak or crest) to the
they are deprived of sensory lowest point on the wave
input. ( related to cat eyes (trough).
being sewn shut). If kittens
were deprived of input from
one eye, other areas of their
visual cortex filled in the
area that was normally used
Note: The amplitude or height of a For instance, honeybees can see
wave is measured from the peak light in the ultraviolet range), and
to the trough. The wavelength is some snakes can detect infrared
measured from peak to peak. radiation in addition to more
Wavelength refers to the length of traditional visual light cues.
a wave from one peak to the next.
Wavelength is directly related to
the frequency of a given
waveform.
Frequency refers to the number
of waves that pass a given point in
a given time period and is often Light that is visible to humans
expressed in terms of hertz (Hz), makes up only a small portion of
or cycles per second. Longer the electromagnetic spectrum.
wavelengths will have lower
frequencies, and shorter
wavelengths will have higher In humans, light waves is
frequencies. associated with the perception of
LIGHT WAVES color. Within the visible spectrum,
our experiences of red is
The visible spectrum is the associated with longer
portion of the larger wavelengths. (An easy way to
electromagnetic spectrum that we remember this is the mnemonic
can see. ROYGBIV: red, orange, yellow,
The electromagnetic green, blue, indigo, violet. The
spectrum encompasses all of the amplitude of light waves is
electromagnetic radiation that associated with associated with
occurs in our environment and our experiences of brightness, or
includes gamma rays, x-rays, intensity of color, with larger
ultraviolet light, visible light, amplitude appearing amplitude.
infrared light, microwaves, and
radio waves. The visible spectrum
in humans is associated with
wavelengths that range from
380 to 740 nm—a very small
distance since a nanometer (nm)
is one-billionth of a meter. Other
species can detect other portions
of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Different wavelengths of light are A wavelength is measured by the
associated with our perception of _distance_between one wave peak
different colors. and the next wave peak.
The shortest visible wavelengths The hue that we perceive( red,
are what we normally think of as green, etc.) depends on the
the coolest or coldest wavelength of the light, whereas
colors(blues), and the longer the brightness of the light
wavelengths move progressively depends on the amplitude.
toward warmer/hotter colors(reds).
Q and A
COLOR AND DEPTH
Which of the following correctly PERCEPTION
matches the pattern in our perception
COLOR VISION
of color as we move from short
wavelengths to long wavelengths? According to the Young-
Helmholtz trichromatic theory of
Yellow to orange to red
color vision, all colors in the
The visible spectrum includes light spectrum can be produced by
that ranges from about _400- combining red, green, and blue.
700nm_ Shorter than 400 nm The three types of cones are each
moves and longer than 700nm receptive to one of the colors.
moves into infrared. Normal-sighted individuals have
three different types of cones that
The electromagnetic spectrum
mediate color vision. Each of
includes __infrared light, x-rays,
these cones is maximally sensitive
and radio waves_.
to slightly different wavelengths of
The property that differentiates the light.
part of the electromagnetic Opponent-theory theory-
spectrum that we can see from the According to this theory, color is
part we cannot see is coded in opponent pairs: black-
_Wavelength_. Wavelength is the white, yellow-blue, and green-red.
peak-to-peak distance of a wave. The basic idea is that some cells
The human eye is able to detect of the visual system are excited by
electromagnetic energy with one of the opponent colors and
wavelengths from about 400 to inhibited by the other.
700 nanometers. This range is One of the implications of
called the visible spectrum. opponent-theory processing is that
we do not experience greenish-
reds or yellowish-blues as colors.
Another implication is that this popular hypothesis suggests that
leads to the experience of seeing in color allowed our
negative afterimages. When ancestors to differentiate ripened
color is involved in the stimulus, fruits and vegetables more easily.
the color pairings identified in the
Perceiving purple is a result of
opponent-process theory lead to a
negative afterimage. receiving messages from two types of
cells: those that perceive red and
But these two theories—the
those that perceive blue.
trichromatic theory of color vision
and the opponent-process theory Trichromatic theory- The Young
—are not mutually exclusive. Helmholtz trichromatic theory
Research has shown that they indicates that if the brain is perceiving
apply to different nervous system information primarily from red and
levels. blue cones, purple is what is
The trichromatic theory applies to perceived.
visual processing on the retina: Neurons in the retina are excited
the cones are responsive to three by one color but inhibited by
different wavelengths that another color.
represent red, blue, and green.
However, once the signal moves Opponent-process
past the retina on its way to the There are three types of cone
brain, the cells respond in a way cells, one for each primary color.
consistent with opponent-
process theory. Trichromatic- The Young-
Helmholtz trichromatic theory is
Q and A based on three types of color
If you were to stare at a green dot receptors, short waves(blue),
for a relatively long period of time medium waves( green), and long
and then shift your gaze to a blank waves(red).
white screen, you would see a
_red_ negative afterimage.
Opponent-process theory Our ability to perceive spatial
relationships in three-dimensional
Color is not a physical property of (3-D) space is known as depth
our environment. What function (if perception. With depth
any) do you think color vision perception, we can describe things
serves? as being in front, behind, above,
Color vision probably serves below, or to the side of other
multiple adaptive purposes. One things.
Our world is three-dimensional, so Q and A
it makes sense that our mental _binocular_ depth cues require the
representation of the world has use of both eyes.
three-dimensional properties. We
use a variety of cues in a visual
scene to establish our sense of Vestibulo(vestibular-body
depth. Some of these motion and position)-
are binocular cues, which means ocular(visual)
that they rely on the use of both reflex: coordination of motion
eyes. One example of a binocular information with visual information
depth cue is binocular disparity, that allows you to maintain your
the slightly different view of the gaze on an object while you move.
world that each of our eyes
receives. synesthesia: the blending of two
or more sensory experiences, or
Generally, you pick up on depth in the automatic activation of a
these images even though the secondary (indirect) sensory
visual stimulus is 2-D. When we experience due to certain aspects
do this, we are relying on a of the primary (direct) sensory
number of monocular cues, or stimulation. The most common
cues that require only one eye. If type is grapheme-color
you think you can’t see depth with synesthesia. About 1 in 200
one eye, note that you don’t bump individuals experience a sensation
into things when using only one of color associated with specific
eye while walking—and we have letters, numbers, or words: the
more monocular cues than number 1 might always be seen
binocular cues. as red, the number 2 as orange,
An example of a monocular cue etc. But the more fascinating
would be what is known as linear forms of synesthesia blend
perspective. Linear perspective sensations from entirely different
refers to the fact that we perceive sensory modalities, like taste and
depth when we see two parallel color or music and color: the taste
lines that seem to converge in an of chicken might elicit a sensation
image. Some other monocular of green, for example, and the
depth cues are interposition, the timbre of violin a deep purple.
partial overlap of objects, the SELF CHECK Q & A
relative size and closeness of
images to the horizon, relative Light energy with very low
size, and the variation between amplitude would be perceived as
light and shadow. dim. Brightness is directly related
to the amplitude, or height, of a the stapes (or stirrup). The inner
light wave. This means the higher ear contains the semi-circular
the amplitude, the brighter the light canals, which are involved in
is to be perceived to be. balance and movement (the
Therefore, low-amplitude light vestibular sense), and the
energy is perceived as being dim. cochlea. The cochlea is a fluid-
And, Light energy with a very high filled, snail-shaped structure that
amplitude would be perceived as contains the sensory receptor cells
very bright. (hair cells) of the auditory system.
Using the different images that
each eye receives in order to
perceive depth is called using
_binocular__ cues.
The opponent-process theory is
supported by afterimages.
Note: The ear is divided into
Afterimages are a product of the
outer(pinna and tympanic
activation of ganglion cells which
membrane), middle(the three
are adjacent to the light-sensitive
ossicles; malleus, incus, and
cells of the retina.
stapes), and inner( cochlea and
basilar membrane) divisions.
HEARING HOW WE HEAR
Our auditory system converts Sound waves travel along the
pressure into meaningful sounds. auditory canal and strike the
tympanic membrane, causing it to
ANATOMY OF THE AUDITORY vibrate. This vibration results in
SYSTEM movement of the three ossicles.
The ear can be separated into As the ossicles move, the stapes
multiple sections. The outer ear presses into a thin membrane of
includes the pinna, which is the the cochlea known as the oval
visible part of the ear that window. As the stapes presses
protrudes from our heads, the into the oval window, the fluid
auditory canal, and the tympanic inside the cochlea begins to move,
membrane, or eardrum. The which in turn stimulates hair cells,
middle ear contains three tiny which are auditory receptor cells
bones known as the ossicles, of the inner ear embedded in the
which are named the malleus (or basilar membrane. The basilar
hammer), incus (or anvil), and membrane is a thin strip of
tissue within the cochlea. recognition and localization is
Sitting on the basilar membrane processed in parallel streams.
is the organ of Corti, which runs
Q&A
the entire length of the basilar
membrane from the base (by Which correctly describes the
the oval window) to the apex process of hearing?
(the “tip” of the spiral). The
Pinna- auditory canal-tympanic
organ of Corti includes three
membrane-cochlea-ossicles-
rows of outer hair cells and one
cochlea-auditory nerve
row of inner hair cells. The hair
cells sense the vibrations by way
of their tiny hairs, or stereocilia.
SOUND WAVES
The outer hair cells seem to
function to mechanically amplify The frequency of a sound wave
the sound-induced vibrations, is associated with our
whereas the inner hair cells form perception of that sound’s
synapses with the auditory nerve pitch. High-frequency sound
and transduce those vibrations waves are perceived as high-
into action potentials, or neural pitched sounds, while low-
spikes, which are transmitted frequency sound waves are
along the auditory nerve to higher perceived as low-pitched sounds.
centers of the auditory pathways. The audible range of sound
frequencies is between 20 and
The activation of hair cells is a
20,000 Hz, with the greatest
mechanical process: the
sensitivity to those frequencies
stimulation of the hair cell
that fall in the middle of this range.
ultimately leads to activation of the
cell. As hair cells become As was the case with the visible
activated, they generate neural spectrum, other species show
impulses that travel along the differences in their audible ranges.
auditory nerve to the brain. For instance, chickens have a very
Auditory information is shuttled to limited audible range, from 125 to
the inferior colliculus, the medial 2000 Hz. Mice have an audible
geniculate nucleus of the range from 1000 to 91000 Hz, and
thalamus, and finally to the the beluga whale’s audible range
auditory cortex in the temporal is from 1000 to 123000 Hz. Our
lobe of the brain for processing. pet dogs and cats have audible
Like the visual system, there is ranges of about 70–45000 Hz and
also evidence suggesting that 45–64000 Hz, respectively.
information about auditory
The loudness of a given sound is amplitude of the wave. A 1000 Hz
closely associated with the sound wave, on the other hand,
amplitude of the sound wave. would vary dramatically in terms of
Higher amplitudes are associated perceived loudness as the
with louder sounds. Loudness is amplitude of the wave increased.
measured in decibels (dB), a
Of course, different musical
logarithmic unit of sound intensity.
instruments can play the same
There is a potential for hearing
musical note at the same level of
damage from about 80 dB to 130
loudness, yet they still sound quite
dB. These are the sounds of
different. This is known as the
a food processor, a power
timbre of a sound. Timbre refers
lawnmower, a heavy truck(25 feet
to a sound’s purity, and it is
away), a subway train (20 feet
affected by the complex interplay
away), live rock music, and a
of frequency, amplitude, and
jackhammer. About one-third of all
timing of sound waves.
hearing loss is due to noise
exposure, and the louder the
sound, the shorter the exposure
Q and A
needed to cause hearing damage.
Listening to music through The stimuli for hearing, or audition,
earbuds at maximum are sound waves, which have
volume( around 100-105 decibels) several physical characteristics.
can cause noise-induced hearing The physical characteristics of
loss after 15 minutes of exposure. amplitude or height of sound
Although listening to music at waves is transformed into the
maximum volume may not seem subjective experience of loudness,
to cause damage, it increases the which is measured in units called
risk of age-related hearing loss. decibels. The frequency(cycles
The threshold for pain is about per second) of sound waves is
130 dB, a jet plane taking off, or a transformed into the subjective
revolver firing at close range. experience of pitch, which for
humans range from 20 to 20,000
Although wave amplitude is
Hertz(HZ), the unit of measure for
generally associated with
frequency.
loudness, there is some
interaction between frequency and The quality of a sound is affected
amplitude in our perception of by the frequency, amplitude, and
loudness within the audible range. timing of the sound wave is known
For example, a 10 Hz sound wave as
is inaudible no matter the
Timbre- Timbre depends on the
interplay of timing, frequency, and
SOUND LOCALIZATION
amplitude.
Each pinna interacts with incoming
PITCH, PERCEPTION AND sound waves differently,
HEARING LOSS depending on the sound’s source
Pitch Perception relative to our bodies. This
interaction provides a monaural
Theories that have been proposed cue that is helpful in locating
to account for pitch perception. sounds that occur above or below
The temporal theory of pitch and in front or behind us. The
perception asserts that frequency sound waves received by your two
is coded by the activity level of a ears from sounds that come from
sensory neuron. This would mean directly above, below, in front, or
that a given hair cell would fire behind you would be identical;
action potentials related to the therefore, monaural cues are
frequency of the sound wave. essential
While this is a very intuitive
explanation, we detect such a
broad range of frequencies (20– Binaural cues, on the other hand,
20,000 Hz) that the frequency of provide information on the location
action potentials fired by hair cells of a sound along a horizontal axis
cannot account for the entire by relying on differences in
range. patterns of vibration of the
eardrum between our two ears. If
Place theory of pitch perception a sound comes from an off-center
suggests that different portions of location, it creates two types of
the basilar membrane are binaural cues: interaural level
sensitive to sounds of different differences and interaural timing
frequencies. More specifically, the differences. Interaural level
base of the basilar membrane difference refers to the fact that a
responds best to high frequencies sound coming from the right side
and the tip of the basilar of your body is more intense in
membrane responds best to low your right ear than in your left ear
frequencies. Therefore, hair cells because of the attenuation of the
that are in the base portion would sound wave as it passes through
be labeled as high-pitch receptors, your head.
while those in the tip of the basilar
membrane would be labeled as Interaural timing
low-pitch receptors. difference refers to the small
difference in the time at which a Which of the following is most
given sound wave arrives at each likely if a sound source is to your
ear. Certain brain areas monitor left?
these differences to construct
The sound will sound slightly
where along a horizontal axis a
louder in the left ear than in the
sound originates.
right ear.

Q and A
HEARING LOSS
Cues that require two ears are
Deafness is the partial or complete
referred to as binaural cues.
inability to hear.
Which theory holds that the pitch
Congenital deafness- Born deaf
we hear is determined by the
particular location on the location Conductive hearing loss- Hearing
where the hair cells vibrate the loss due to a problem delivering
most? sound energy to the cochlea.
Causes for conductive hearing
Place theory
loss include blockage of the ear
When you hear a tone of 200 Hz, canal, a hole in the tympanic
the hair cells in the cochlea begin membrane, problems with the
vibrating 200 times per second. ossicles, or fluid in the space
This is the idea behind the between the eardrum and cochlea.
temporal theory of learning. i.e. failure in the vibration of the
eardrum and/or movement of the
Temporal theory cannot be used
ossicles.
to account for why we hear higher-
pitched sounds because individual Sensorineural hearing loss is the
neurons cannot fire fast enough. most common form of hearing
loss. Sensorineural hearing loss
Cocking your head would be most
can be caused by many factors,
useful for detecting the location of
such as aging, head or acoustic
a sound.
trauma, infections and
Which of the following best diseases( such as measles or
describes how you perceive a mumps), medications,
16,000 Hz tone? environmental effects such as
noise exposure( noise-induced
hearing loss, tumors, and
A specific section of the basilar toxins( such as those found in
membrane will fire maximally to certain solvents and metals.
signal the pitch of the tone.
It can be caused by prolonged Research indicates that
exposure to loud noises, which sensorineural hearing loss is
can cause damage to the hair usually caused by exposure to
cells within the cochlea. loud noise.
One disease that results in
sensorineural hearing loss is
GLOSSARY
Ménière’s disease.
binaural cue: two-eared cue to
Ménière’s disease results in a
localize sound.
degeneration of inner ear
structures that can lead to hearing
cochlear implant: an electronic
loss, tinnitus(constant ringing or
device that consists of a
buzzing), vertigo( a sense of
microphone, a speech processor,
spinning), and an increase in
and an electrode array to directly
pressure within the inner ear.
stimulate the auditory nerve to
Cochlear implants are electronic transmit information to the brain.
devices that consist of a
microphone, a speech processor, conductive hearing loss: failure
and an electrode array. The in the vibration of the eardrum
device receives incoming sound and/or movement of the ossicles.
information and directly stimulates
the auditory nerve to transmit interaural level difference sound
information to the brain. coming from one side of the body
is more intense at the closest ear
DEAF CULTURE
because of the attenuation of the
ASL- American Sign Language sound wave as it passes through
has no verbal component and is the head.
entirely based on visual signs and
gestures. interaural timing difference:
a small difference in the time at
Q and A
which a given sound wave arrives
Hearing aids might be effective for at each ear.
treating conductive hearing loss
Ménière’s disease: results in a
Hearing loss resulting from
degeneration of inner ear
damage to the bones of the middle
structures that can lead to hearing
ear is called conductive hearing
loss, tinnitus, vertigo, and an
loss.
increase in pressure within the
inner ear
monaural cue: one-eared cue to vibrations into impulses that travel
localize sound. to the auditory nerve.
Hearing aids are ineffective in
place theory of pitch
perception: different portions of treating _sensorineural hearing
the basilar membrane are loss__, which is caused by
sensitive to sounds of different damage to the hair cells in the
frequencies. cochlea that impairs the
transmission of signals about
sensorineural hearing loss sound to the brain.
failure to transmit neural signals The vibration of the tympanic
from the cochlea to the brain. membrane causes the ossicles to
move.
temporal theory of pitch
perception: sound frequency is
coded by the activity level of a The fact that the base of the
sensory neuron. basilar membrane responds best
to high frequencies supports the
vertigo: spinning sensation place theory of hearing.
The _temporal theory_______
SELF CHECK Q & A best explains how we hear at low
frequencies.
Pitch is determined by the
frequency of sound waves.
The most visible part of the ear is
the pinna.
Congenital deafness is
something someone is born
with.

OTHER SENSES
The temporal theory best explains
how we perceive low TASTE AND SMELL
frequencies. Taste(gustation) and
smell(olfaction) are called
chemical senses because both
The organ of Corti on the have sensory receptors that
__basilar membrane_within the respond to molecules in the food
__cochlea______ changes we eat or in the air we breathe.
 the overlap between the frontal
and temporal lobes.
TASTE
Synesthesia- smell color and
Besides the four basic groupings associate red with math.
of taste: sweet, salty, sour, and
bitter. Research demonstrates SMELL
that we have at least six taste
Olfactory receptor cells are
groupings. Umami is our fifth
located in a mucous membrane
taste. Umami is actually a
at the top of the nose. Small
Japanese word that roughly
hair-like extensions from these
translates to yummy, and it is
receptors serve as the sites for
associated with a taste for
odor molecules dissolved in the
monosodium glutamate.
mucus to interact with chemical
Molecules from the food and receptors located on these
beverages we consume dissolve extensions.
in our saliva and interact with taste
Once an odor molecule has bound
receptors on our tongue and in our
a given receptor, chemical
mouth and throat. Taste buds are
changes within the cell result in
formed by groupings of taste
signals being sent to the olfactory
receptor cells with hair-like
bulb: a bulb-like structure at the
extensions that protrude into the
tip of the frontal lobe where the
central pore of the taste bud.
olfactory nerves begin. From the
Taste buds have a life cycle of ten olfactory bulb, information is sent
days to two weeks, so even to regions of the limbic system and
destroying some by burning your to the primary olfactory cortex,
tongue won’t have any long-term which is located very near the
effect; they just grow right back. gustatory cortex.
Taste molecules bind to receptors
on this extension(taste buds) and
cause chemical changes within
the sensory cell that result in
neural impulses being
transmitted to the brain via
different nerves, depending on
where the receptor is located.
Taste information is transmitted to
the medulla, thalamus, and limbic
system, and to the gustatory NOTE: Olfactory receptors are
cortex, which is tucked underneath hair-like parts that extend from the
olfactory bulb into the mucous just as it does for the odor of a
membrane of the nasal cavity. single molecule.
Pheromones- chemical
messages sent by another
Olfactory receptors are complex
individual. Pheromonal
proteins called G protein-
communication often involves
coupled receptors (GPCRs).
providing information about the
These structures are proteins that
reproductive status of a potential
weave back and forth across the
mate.
membranes of olfactory cells
seven times, forming structures
outside the cell that sense odorant
Q and A
molecules and structures inside
the cell that activate the neural Chemical messages often sent
message ultimately conveyed to between two members of a
the brain by olfactory neurons. species to communicate
something about reproductive
There are about 350 olfactory
status are called _pheromones.
functional genes in humans,
each gene expresses a Which taste is associated with
particular kind of olfactory monosodium glutamate?
receptor.
Umami
All olfactory receptors of a
How do we experience the
given kind project to structures
sensation of taste when we, for
called glomeruli (paired clusters
example, drink a glass of sour
of cells found on both sides of
lemonade?
the brain).
As we drink the lemonade, its
For a single molecule, the pattern
chemicals, which are the stimuli
of activation across the glomeruli
for taste, break down into
paints a picture of the chemical
molecules that mix with saliva and
structure of the molecule.
stimulate the taste buds. As the
Thus, the olfactory system can receptors for taste, the taste buds
identify a vast array of chemicals produce nerve impulses that
present in the environment. Most eventually reach areas in the
of the odors we encounter are brain’s parietal lobe. The brain
actually mixtures of chemicals then transforms these nerve
(e.g., bacon odor). The olfactory impulses into sensations of taste.
system creates an image for the
mixture and stores it in memory
Small note: a food’s flavor chemoreceptors, responding to
represents an interaction of certain types of chemicals either
both gustatory(taste) and applied externally or released
olfactory(smell) information. within the skin (such as histamine
from an inflammation).

TOUCH AND PAIN

A number of receptors are The experience of pain usually
distributed throughout the skin to starts with the activation
respond to various touch-related of nociceptors—receptors that
stimuli. These receptors include fire specifically to potentially
Meissner’s corpuscles, Pacinian tissue-damaging stimuli. Most of
corpuscles, Merkel’s disks, and the nociceptors are subtypes of
Ruffini corpuscles. either chemoreceptors or
mechanoreceptors. When tissue is
Meissner’s corpuscles respond damaged or inflamed, certain
to pressure and lower frequency chemical substances are released
vibrations, from the cells, and these
and Pacinian corpuscles detect substances activate the
transient pressure and higher chemosensitive nociceptors.
frequency vibrations. Mechanoreceptive nociceptors
have a high threshold for
Merkel’s disks respond to light activation—they respond to
pressure, mechanical stimulation that is so
while Ruffini corpuscles detect intense it might damage the
stretch. tissue. Sensory information
collected from the receptors and
The different types of information free nerve endings travels up the
activate specific receptors that spinal cord and is transmitted to
convert the stimulation of the skin regions of the medulla, thalamus,
to electrical nerve impulses, a and ultimately to the
process called transduction. somatosensory cortex, which is
There are three main groups of located in the postcentral gyrus of
receptors in our the parietal lobe.
skin: mechanoreceptors, Terms
responding to mechanical stimuli,
such as stroking, stretching, or Adequate stimulus-the type of
vibration of the skin; stimulus that the receptor is
thermoreceptors responding to specialized to receive and respond
cold or hot temperatures; and to.
 Q and A
Glabrous is the hairless skin
What skin receptors are activated
found on our palms and the soles
while holding hands?
of our feet. This skin has a higher
density of receptors of a more Mechanoreceptors report
complex range, which reflects the sensation of pressure.
fact that we use these areas of our
What skin receptors are activated
body to actively explore our
surroundings and to discriminate most when you grab a hot cup of
tactile properties of objects we’re coffee?
interacting with. Thermoreceptors report
sensations of temperature.
Low-threshold
mechanoreceptors- If Tyson, a track athlete, likes to
mechanoreceptors that respond to apply a menthol rub to his legs
a stimulus that is so light it doesn’t after a hard workout. What skin
threaten to damage the tissue receptors are activated by the
around it. high-threshold cream?
mechanoreceptors respond to Chemoreceptors- monitor the
stimulation of higher intensity and levels of particular chemicals
are a type of nociceptor. present on the skin.

Receptive field is the space of

skin or tissue in which stimulation Generally speaking, pain can be
will elicit a response in the considered to be neuropathic or
receptor. Smaller receptive fields inflammatory in nature.
make the receptor more sensitive Pain that signals some type of
to details. tissue damage is known
as inflammatory pain.
Speed adaptation-slowly In some situations, pain results
adapting mechanoreceptors from damage to neurons of either
continue to fire action potentials the peripheral or central nervous
during sustained stimulation. system. As a result, pain signals
Rapidly adapting that are sent to the brain get
mechanoreceptors continue to fire exaggerated. This type of pain is
action potentials in response to known as neuropathic pain.
stimulus onset and offset (i.e. to Multiple treatment options for pain
stimuli changes) and help detect relief range from relaxation
stimulus movement on the skin. therapy to the use of analgesic
medications to deep brain via thin C-pain or Aδ-fibers to the
stimulation. The most effective insular cortex and other brain
treatment option for a given regions involved in the processing
individual will depend on a number of emotion and interoception. The
of considerations, including the experience of stepping on a pin is,
severity and persistence of the in other words, composed by two
pain and any medical and/or separate signals: one
physiological conditions. discriminatory signal allowing us to
Some individuals are born without localize the touch stimulus and
the ability to feel pain. This very distinguish whether it’s a blunt or a
rare genetic disorder is known sharp stab; and one affective
as congenital insensitivity to signal that lets us know that
pain (or congenital analgesia). stepping on the pin is bad. It is
While those with congenital common to divide pain into
analgesia can detect differences in sensory–discriminatory and
temperature and pressure, they affective–motivational aspects.
cannot experience pain. This distinction corresponds, at
FEELING PAIN least partly, to how this information
travels from the peripheral to the
When you step on a pin, this central nervous system and how it
activates a host of is processed in the brain.
mechanoreceptors, many of which
are nociceptors. You may have MOTIVATION-DECISION MODEL
noticed that the sensation AND DESCENDING
changes over time. First, you feel MODULATION OF PAIN
a sharp stab that propels you to Motivation-decision model of
remove your foot, and only then pain- According to this model, the
you feel a wave of more aching brain automatically and
pain. The sharp stab is signaled continuously evaluates the pros
via fast-conducting A-fibers, and cons of any situation-weighing
which project to the impending threats and available
somatosensory cortex. This part of rewards. Anything more important
the cortex is somatotopically for survival than avoiding the pain
organized—that is, the sensory activates the brain’s descending
signals are represented according pain modulatory system—a top-
to where in the body they stem down system involving several
from. The unpleasant ache you parts of the brain and brainstem,
feel after the sharp pin stab is a which inhibits nociceptive
separate, simultaneous signal sent signaling so that the more
from the nociceptors in your foot
important actions can be attended
to.

THE VESTIBULAR SENSE

The vestibular sense contributes
to our ability to maintain balance
and body position. The major
sensory organs( utricle, saccule,
and three semicircular glands)
of this system are located in the
inner ear next to the cochlea.
The major sensory organs of the
The vestibular organs are fluid- vestibular system are located next
filled and have hair cells, similar to to the cochlea in the inner ear.
the ones found in the auditory These include the utricle, saccule,
system, which respond to and the three semicircular
movement of the head and canals(posterior, superior, and
gravitational forces. horizontal).
When these hair cells are In addition to maintaining balance,
stimulated, they send signals to the vestibular system collects
the brain via the vestibular nerve. information critical for controlling
Although we may not be movement and the reflexes that
consciously aware of our move various parts of our bodies
vestibular system’s sensory to compensate for changes in
information under normal body position. Therefore,
circumstances, its importance is both proprioception (perception
apparent when we experience of body position)
motion sickness and/or dizziness and kinesthesia (perception of
related to inner ear infections. the body’s movement through
space) interact with information
provided by the vestibular system.
They both travel to the brain via
the spinal column.
ALL THREE
Name: Vestibular Sense
Definition- Sensory system that depiction of what we’d look like if
contributes to balance and the each of our parts grew in
sense of spatial orientation. proportion to how much we sense
with them.
Application: You have an ear
infection and frequently feel dizzy.
Or if you were to experience
Q and A
vertigo, you might feel your entire
body was spinning in space and Which of the following is involved
be unable to work. in maintaining balance and body
posture? Vestibular system-
Name: Proprioception- The sense
though connected to our auditory
of the position of parts of the body.
structures, is responsible for
Focuses on the body’s cognitive
balance and posture.
awareness of movement.
SELF CHECK Q and A
Application: You step off a curb
and know where to put your foot. When the brain receives
You push an elevator button and nociceptive signals from the body,
control how hard you have to they can be blocked by the brain’s
press down with your fingers. descending pain modulatory
system_. Depending on motivation
Name: Kinesthesia- Awareness of
and expected reward, the brain
the position and movement of the
can trigger the release of
parts of the body using sensory
endorphins to block or reduce pain
organs in joints and muscles.
signaling.
Kinesthesia is a key component
in muscle memory and hand- Deondre is working on his swing
eye coordination. It is at baseball practice and is
more behavioral than focusing on keeping his elbow out
proprioception. high and his arm turned with his
shoulders back. This awareness of
Application: You are aware of your
his own movement through space
arm movement while swinging a
is called _kinesthesia__.
golf club. Focuses on the body’s
movements and not on equilibrium
or balance.
__Nociceptors_____ fire in
Term response to any potential tissue-
damaging stimuli.
Homunculus; Latin for little man,
in psych refers to a kind of
sensory map of the human body, a
Smelling the lingering scent of the __olfactory bulb__.This is the one
fish you reheated in the sense that does not synapse
microwave is an example of through the thalamus, which
__olfaction_. may contribute to smell’s unique
ability to evoke emotion and
memory.
Because taste and smell have
sensory receptors that respond to
molecules, they are considered
_chemical senses_______.
Our other senses do not rely on
chemical reactions.
Joanna is competing on
Jeopardy!. She doesn't have to
think about the distance between
her finger and the buzzer and
knows just how hard to press
because of _proprioception- This
sense allows us to know where
the parts of our body are without
thinking about it.
Pain that results from damage to
neurons of the peripheral or
central nervous system is called
_neuropathic pain_. This kind of
pain sometimes occurs in cancer
patients or those with damage to
the major nerve pathways of the
body.
Which sense relies on the organs
of the inner ear to help maintain
balance and body posture? The
vestibular sense PERCEPTION
Olfactory receptor cells pick up Seeing something is not the same
odor molecules which activate as making sense of what you see.
electrical impulses that send GESTALT PRINCIPLES OF
messages to the brain via the PERCEPTION- Wertheimer, and
his assistants Wolfgang Kohler We might also use the principle
and Kurt Koffka of similarity to group things in our
visual fields. According to this
Gestalt psychology: The word
principle, things that are alike tend
gestalt literally means form or
to be grouped together.
patterns, but its use reflects the
idea that the whole is different Two additional Gestalt principles
from the sum of its parts. are the law of continuity (or good
continuation) and closure. The
In other words, the brain creates
law of continuity suggests that we
a perception that is more than
are more likely to perceive
simply the sum of available
continuous, smooth-flowing lines
sensory inputs, and it does so in
rather than jagged, broken lines.
predictable ways. Gestalt
The principle of closure states that
psychologists translated these
we organize our perceptions into
predictable ways into principles by
complete objects rather than as a
which we organize sensory
series of parts.
information.
Pattern perception, or our ability
One Gestalt principle is the
to discriminate among different
figure-ground relationship.
figures occurs by following the
According to this principle, we
principles described.
tend to segment our visual world
into figure and ground. The figure Perceptual hypotheses: Educated
is the object or person that is the guesses that we make while
focus of the visual field, while the interpreting sensory information.
ground is the background. These hypotheses are informed by
Presumably, our ability to interpret a number of factors, including our
sensory information depends on personalities, experiences, and
what we label as figure and what expectations.
we label as ground in any
GLOSSARY
particular case, although this
assumption has been called into closure: organizing our
question. perceptions into complete objects
rather than as a series of parts
Another Gestalt principle for
organizing sensory stimuli into figure-ground relationship:
meaningful perception segmenting our visual world into
is proximity. This principle figure and ground
asserts that things that are close
Gestalt psychology: field of
to one another tend to be grouped
psychology based on the idea that
together.
the whole is different from the sum events is constrained to the
of its parts perception of each sensory
modality independently. Rather,
good continuation: (also,
we perceive a unified world,
continuity) we are more likely to
regardless of the sensory modality
perceive continuous, smooth-
through which we perceive it.
flowing lines rather than jagged,
broken lines The first class—multimodal
phenomena—concerns the
pattern perception: ability to
binding of inputs from multiple
discriminate among different
sensory modalities and the effects
figures and shapes
of this binding on perception. The
perceptual hypothesis: educated second class—crossmodal
guess used to interpret sensory phenomena—concerns the
information influence of one sensory modality
on the perception of another.
proximity: things that are close to
one another tend to be grouped Speech Reading- lip reading.
together Being good at it.
similarity: things that are alike Q and A
tend to be grouped together.
If you are conversing in a noisy
environment, it is helpful to watch
the mouth of the person speaking
MULTI-MODAL PERCEPTION
to you.
sensory modalities: a type of
In the McGurk illusion, what you
sense; for example, vision or
see overrides what you hear.
audition.
Multimodal Phenomena: Concern
stimuli that generate
unimodal: of or pertaining to a
simultaneous( or nearly
single sensory modality.
simultaneous) information in more
Multimodal: Of pertaining to than one sensory modality.
more than one sensory Speech is a classic example of
modality. this kind of stimulus Cross-modal
Phenomena--- Crossmodal
BEHAVIORAL EFFECTS OF
phenomena are distinguished from
MULTIMODAL PERCEPTION
multimodal phenomena in that
Our intuitions about perception are they concern the influence one
consistent with this; it does not sensory modality has on the
seem as though our perception of perception of another.
Visual Influence on Auditory multimodal: of or pertaining to
Localization multiple sensory modalities
A famous (and commonly multimodal perception: the effects
experienced) crossmodal illusion that concurrent stimulation in more
is referred to as “the ventriloquism than one sensory modality has on
effect.” When a ventriloquist the perception of events and
appears to make a puppet speak, objects in the world
she fools the listener into thinking
multimodal phenomena: effects
that the location of the origin of the
that concern the binding of inputs
speech sounds is at the puppet’s
from multiple sensory modalities
mouth. In other words, instead of
localizing the auditory signal rubber hand illusion: the false
(coming from the mouth of a perception of a fake hand as
ventriloquist) to the correct place, belonging to a perceiver, due to
our perceptual system localizes it multimodal sensory information
incorrectly (to the mouth of the
sensory modalities: a type of
puppet).
sense; for example, vision or
GLOSSARY audition
crossmodal phenomena: effects unimodal: of or pertaining to a
that concern the influence of the single sensory modality.
perception of one sensory
modality on the perception of
another ILLUSIONS
double flash illusion: the false Depth Illusion
perception of two visual flashes
Ponzo Illusion:
when a single flash is
accompanied by two auditory If two lines are the same length on
beeps. my retina, but different distances
from me, the more distant line
integrated: the process by which
must be in reality longer. You
the perceptual system combines
experience a world that “makes
information arising from more than
sense” rather than a world that
one modality
reflects the actual objects in front
McGurk effect: an effect in which of you.
conflicting visual and auditory
Qand A
components of a speech stimulus
result in an illusory perception Psychologists use illusion to:
explore what people experience
and what parts of the brain are depending on its relative size
involved in perception. compared to nearby objects.
Ponzo Illusion: Plays on
converging lines and convinces
your brain that a more distant line
in an image must be longer than a
line that appears close.

Checkerboard Illusion: This

phenomenon makes two squares
on a checkerboard appear as
different shades despite being the
same color based on the presence
Benary Cross: This phenomenon of a shadow.
makes to objects of the same
color appear to be different
shades on whether their
backgrounds are light or dark.

PSYCH IN REAL LIFE

Counterbalance: If there is any
advantage (e.g., getting better
over time with practice) or
disadvantage (e.g., getting tired of
Ebbinghaus Illusion: This putting), counterbalancing assures
phenomenon makes objects that both conditions are equally
appear larger or smaller exposed to the positive or
negative effects of which task the size of the holes projected
goes first or second. around the golf hole
Manipulation check: term for a Psychologists use illusions to:
dependent variable that is used to explore what people experience,
determine if your independent what parts of the brain are
variable is actually working. involved in perception, and how to
alter the illusion.
Q&A
What field of psychology includes
When surrounded by larger
the following concepts: figure-
circles, a center circle will appear
ground relationships, law of
smaller than if surrounded by
similarity, and proximity? Gestalt
smaller circles.
perspective was one of the earliest
According to Gestalt psychology, in modern psychology and has
the whole is different from the sum continued to be influential as we
of its parts. study issues of perception and
illusion.
The idea that we perceive the
world while utilizing a combination At a football game, your friend
of senses is known as multi-modal from ten rows down yells at you to
perception. bring them some of your popcorn.
At first, you couldn’t understand
Austin has never met one of his
what they were asking, but once
work colleagues, having only
you saw their mouth, you could
interacted online or on the phone.
make out the request. This is
He’s still able to pick out his
consistent with the: with the
coworkers at a conference in a
results of the Sumby and Pollack
room full of people because of the
study on the audiovisual
cross-modal relationship between
advantage. These researchers
auditory speech and visual
found the difference to be the
information.
biggest when there was significant
What happened when the auditory interference.
participants were asked to draw
If your eyes see someone saying
the size of the hole in Jessica
“ball” but the word you hear is
Witt’s research? They drew the
“doll”, the struggle to make sense
hole smaller than the actual hole
of that information in your brain is
size if surrounded by larger circles
consistent with __the McGurk
Which was the independent effect. Sometimes the thing we
variable in Jessica Witt’s study? hear when the visual and audible
information do not match is
something unique that is not what
was heard or seen, but rather
somewhere in between.

2. Psychosocial Theory of
Development
Erik Erikson (1902–1994), another
stage theorist, modified Freud’s
theory and renamed it
psychosocial development theory.
Erikson’s theory emphasizes the
social rather than sexual nature of
our development. While Freud
believed that personality is shaped
only in childhood, Erikson
proposed that personality
development takes place all
through the lifespan. Erikson
suggested that how we interact
with others affects our sense of mistrust; their baby may see the
self, or what he calls ego identity. world as unpredictable.
Erikson proposed that we are 2. As toddlers (ages 1–3 years)
motivated by a need to achieve begin to explore their world, they
competence in certain areas of our learn that they can control their
lives. According to psychosocial actions and act on the
theory, we experience eight stages environment to get results. They
of development over our lifespan, begin to show clear preferences
from infancy through late for certain elements of the
adulthood. At each stage, there is environment, such as food,
a conflict, or task, that we need to toys, and clothing. A toddler’s
resolve. Successful completion of main task is to resolve the issue of
each developmental task results in autonomy versus shame and
a sense of competence and a doubt, by working to establish
healthy personality. Failure to independence. This is the “me do
master these tasks leads to it” stage. For example, we might
feelings of inadequacy. observe a budding sense of
autonomy in a 2-year-old child
The stages
who wants to choose her clothes
1. According to Erikson, trust is the and dress herself. Although her
basis of our development during outfits might not be appropriate for
infancy (birth to 12 months). the situation, her input in such
Therefore, the primary task of this basic decisions has an effect on
stage is trust versus mistrust. her sense of independence. If
Infants are dependent upon their denied the opportunity to act on
caregivers, so caregivers who are her environment, she may begin to
responsive and sensitive to their doubt her abilities, which could
infant’s needs help their baby to lead to low self-esteem and
develop a sense of trust; their feelings of shame.
baby will see the world as a safe,
3. Once children reach the
predictable place. Unresponsive
preschool stage (ages 3–6 years),
caregivers who do not meet their
they are capable of initiating
baby’s needs can engender
activities and asserting control
feelings of anxiety, fear, and
over their world through social
interactions and play. According to life?” Along the way, most
Erikson, preschool children must adolescents try on many different
resolve the task of initiative versus selves to see which ones fit.
guilt. By learning to plan and Adolescents who are
achieve goals while interacting successful at this stage have a
with others, preschool children can strong sense of identity and are
master this task. Those who do able to remain true to their
will develop self-confidence and beliefs and values in the face of
feel a sense of purpose. Those problems and other people’s
who are unsuccessful at this stage perspectives. What happens to
—with their initiative misfiring or apathetic adolescents, who do not
stifled—may develop feelings of make a conscious search for
guilt. How might over-controlling identity, or those who are
parents stifle a child’s initiative? pressured to conform to their
parents’ ideas for the future?
4. During the elementary school
These teens will have a weak
stage (ages 6–12), children face
sense of self and experience role
the task of industry versus
confusion. They are unsure of
inferiority. Children begin to
their identity and confused about
compare themselves to their peers
the future.
to see how they measure up.
They either develop a sense of 6. People in early adulthood (i.e.,
pride and accomplishment in 20s through early 40s) are
their schoolwork, sports, social concerned with intimacy versus
activities, and family life, or they isolation. After we have developed
feel inferior and inadequate a sense of self in adolescence, we
when they don’t measure up. are ready to share our life with
others. Erikson said that we must
5. In adolescence (ages 12–18),
have a strong sense of self before
children face the task of identity
developing intimate relationships
versus role confusion. According
with others. Adults who do not
to Erikson, an adolescent’s main
develop a positive self-concept in
task is developing a sense of self.
adolescence may experience
Adolescents struggle with
feelings of loneliness and
questions such as “Who am I?”
emotional isolation.
and “What do I want to do with my
7. When people reach their 40s, been. They face the end of their
they enter the time known as lives with feelings of bitterness,
middle adulthood, which extends depression, and despair.
to the mid-60s. The social task of
middle adulthood is generativity
versus stagnation. Generativity
involves finding your life’s work
and contributing to the
development of others, through
activities such as volunteering,
mentoring, and raising children.
Those who do not master this task
may experience stagnation,
having little connection with others
and little interest in productivity
and self-improvement.
8. From the mid-60s to the end of
life, we are in the period of
development known as late
adulthood. Erikson’s task at this
stage is called integrity versus
despair. He said that people in late
adulthood reflect on their lives and
feel either a sense of satisfaction
or a sense of failure. People who
feel proud of their
accomplishments feel a sense of
integrity, and they can look back
on their lives with few regrets.
However, people who are not
successful at this stage may feel
as if their life has been wasted.
They focus on what “would have,”
“should have,” and “could have”
Stag Age Developmental
Description
e (years) Task

Trust (or mistrust) that basic

1 0–1 Trust vs. mistrust needs, such as nourishment
and affection, will be met

Autonomy vs. Develop a sense of

2 1–3
shame/doubt independence in many tasks

Take initiative on some

activities—may develop guilt
3 3–6 Initiative vs. guilt
when unsuccessful or
boundaries overstepped.

Develop self-confidence in
Industry vs.
4 7–11 abilities when competent or
inferiority
sense of inferiority when not.

Identity vs. Experiment with and develop

5 12–18
Confusion identity and roles

Intimacy vs. Establish intimacy and

6 19–29
isolation relationships with others

Generativity vs. Contribute to society and be

7 30–64
stagnation part of a family

Assess and make sense of life

Integrity vs.
8 65– and the meaning of
despair
contributions

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
Cognitive Theory of Development
Jean Piaget is another stage theorist
who studied childhood development.
Instead of approaching development comparable to what they already
from a psychoanalytical or know. Accommodation describes
psychosocial perspective, Piaget when they change their schemata
focused on children’s cognitive based on new information. This
growth. He believed that thinking is a process continues as children
central aspect of development and that interact with their environment.
children are naturally inquisitive.
For example, 2-year-old Blake
However, he said that children do not learned the schema for dogs
think and reason like adults. His because his family has a Labrador
theory of cognitive development retriever. When Blake sees other
holds that our cognitive abilities dogs in his picture books, he says,
develop through specific stages, “Look mommy, dog!” Thus, he has
which exemplifies the discontinuity assimilated them into his schema
for dogs. One day, Blake sees a
approach to development. As we
sheep for the first time and says,
progress to a new stage, there is a “Look mommy, dog!” Having a
distinct shift in how we think and basic schema that a dog is an
reason. animal with four legs and fur,
Blake thinks all furry, four-legged
Piaget said that children develop creatures are dogs. When Blake’s
schemata to help them understand mom tells him that the animal he
the world. Schemata are concepts sees is a sheep, not a dog, Blake
(mental models) that are used to must accommodate his schema
help us categorize and interpret for dogs to include more
information. By the time children information based on his new
experiences. Blake’s schema for
have reached adulthood, they
dogs was too broad since not all
have created schemata for almost furry, four-legged creatures are
everything. When children learn dogs. He now modifies his
new information, they adjust their schema for dogs and forms a new
schemata through two processes: one for sheep.
assimilation and accommodation. Like Freud and Erikson, Piaget
First, they assimilate new thought development unfolds in a
information or experiences in series of stages approximately
associated with age ranges. He
terms of their current proposed a theory of cognitive
schemata: assimilation is when development that unfolds in four
they take in information that is stages: sensorimotor,
preoperational, concrete old. In this stage, children can use
operational, and formal symbols to represent words,
operational. images, and ideas, which is why
1. The first stage is the children in this stage engage in
sensorimotor stage, which lasts pretend play. A child’s arms might
from birth to about 2 years old. become airplane wings as he
During this stage, children learn zooms around the room, or a child
about the world through their with a stick might become a brave
senses and motor behavior. knight with a sword.
Young children put objects in their
mouths to see if the items are Children also begin to use
edible, and once they can grasp language in the preoperational
objects, they may shake or bang stage, but they cannot understand
them if they make sounds. adult logic or mentally manipulate
Between 5 and 8 months old, the information (the
child develops object permanence, term operational refers to logical
which is the understanding that manipulation of information, so
even if something is out of sight, it children at this stage are
still exists. considered to be pre-operational).
Children’s logic is based on their
In Piaget’s view, around the same own personal knowledge of the
time, as children develop object world so far, rather than on
permanence, they also begin to conventional knowledge.
exhibit stranger anxiety, which is a
fear of unfamiliar people. For example, Dad gave a slice of
pizza to 10-year-old Keiko and
Stranger anxiety results when a another slice to her 3-year-old
child is unable to assimilate the brother, Kenny. Kenny’s pizza
stranger into an existing schema; slice was cut into five pieces, so
therefore, she can’t predict what Kenny told his sister that he got
her experiences with that stranger more pizza than she did. Children
will be like, which results in a fear in this stage cannot perform
response. mental operations because they
2. Piaget’s second stage is the have not developed an
preoperational stage, which is understanding of conservation,
from approximately 2 to 7 years which is the idea that even if you
change the appearance of (concrete) events; they have a firm
something, it is still equal in size grasp on the use of numbers and
as long as nothing has been start to employ memory strategies.
removed or added. They can perform mathematical
operations and understand
During this stage, we can also
transformations, such as addition
expect to display egocentrism,
is the opposite of subtraction, and
which means that the child is not
multiplication is the opposite of
able to take the perspective of
division. In this stage, children
others. A child at this stage thinks
also master the concept of
that everyone sees, thinks, and
conservation: Even if something
feels just as they do. Let’s look at
changes shape, its mass, volume,
Kenny and Keiko again. Keiko’s
and number stay the same. For
birthday is coming up, so their
example, if you pour water from a
mom takes Kenny to the toy store
tall, thin glass to a short, fat glass,
to choose a present for his sister.
you still have the same amount of
He selects an Iron Man action
water. Remember Keiko and
figure for her, thinking that if he
Kenny and the pizza? How did
likes the toy, his sister will too. An
Keiko know that Kenny was wrong
egocentric child is not able to infer
when he said that he had more
the perspective of other people
pizza?
and instead attributes his own
perspective. At some point during Children in the concrete
this stage and typically between 3 operational stage also understand
and 5 years old, children come to the principle of reversibility,
understand that people have which means that objects can be
thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that changed and then returned back
are different from their own. This is to their original form or condition.
known as the theory of Take, for example, water that you
mind (TOM). poured into the short, fat glass:
You can pour water from the fat
3. Piaget’s third stage is the
glass back to the thin glass and
concrete operational stage,
still have the same amount (minus
which occurs from about 7 to 11
a couple of drops).
years old. In this stage, children
can think logically about real
4. The fourth and last stage in how they handle emotionally
Piaget’s theory is the formal charged issues.
operational stage, which is from
GLOSSARY
11 to adulthood. Whereas children
in the concrete operational stage assimilation: adjustment of a
are able to think logically only schema by adding information
similar to what is already known.
about concrete events, children in
the formal operational stage can Accommodation: adjustment of a
also deal with abstract ideas and schema by changing a scheme to
hypothetical situations. Children in accommodate new information
this stage can use abstract different from what was already
thinking to solve problems, look at known.
alternative solutions, and test
Concrete operational
these solutions. In adolescence, a
stage: the third stage in Piaget’s
renewed egocentrism occurs. For theory of cognitive development;
example, a 15-year-old with a very from about 7 to 11 years old,
small pimple on her face might children can think logically about
think it is huge and incredibly real (concrete) events.
visible, under the mistaken
impression that others must share conservation: the idea that even
if you change the appearance of
her perceptions.
something, it is still equal in size,
5. The fifth stage which many volume, or number as long as
developmental psychologists nothing is added or removed
egocentrism: preoperational
agree on, not Piaget’s called
child’s difficulty in taking the
Postformal. In postformal thinking, perspective of others
decisions are made based on formal operational stage: final
situations and circumstances, and stage in Piaget’s theory of
logic is integrated with emotion as cognitive development; from age
adults develop principles that 11 and up, children are able to
depend on contexts. One way that deal with abstract ideas and
hypothetical situations.
we can see the differences
between an adult in post-formal Object permanence: idea that
thought and an adolescent in even if something is out of sight, it
formal operations is in terms of still exists.
 human development is rooted in
Preoperational stage: second one’s culture. A child’s social
stage in Piaget’s theory of world, for example, forms the
cognitive development; from ages
basis for the formation of language
2 to 7, children learn to use
symbols and language but do not and thought. The language one
understand mental operations and speaks and the ways a person
often think illogically. thinks about things are dependent
on one’s cultural
Reversibility: understanding that background. Vygotsky also
objects can be changed and then considered historical influences as
returned back to their original form
key to one’s development. He was
or condition
Schema: (plural = schemata) interested in the process of
concept (mental model) that is development and the individual’s
used to help us categorize and interactions with their
interpret information. environment.

Sensorimotor stage: the first Theory of development

stage in Piaget’s theory of A major task beginning in
cognitive development; from birth
childhood and continuing into
through age 2, a child learns about
the world through senses and adolescence is discerning right
motor behavior. from wrong. Psychologist
Lawrence Kohlberg extended
Theory-of-mind: the upon the foundation that Piaget
understanding that people have built regarding cognitive
thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that development. Kohlberg believed
are different from our own.
that moral development, like
cognitive development, follows a
MORAL DEVELOPMENT series of stages. To develop this
Sociocultural Theory of theory, Kohlberg posed moral
Development dilemmas to people of all ages,
and then he analyzed their
Lev Vygotsky was a Russian answers to find evidence of their
psychologist who proposed a particular stage of moral
sociocultural theory of development.
development. He suggested that
 Theory and Women’s
Development, Gilligan criticized
her former mentor’s theory
because it was based only on
upper-class white men and boys.
She argued that women are not
deficient in their moral reasoning
—she proposed that males and
females reason differently. Girls
and women focus more on staying
connected and the importance of
Many psychologists agree with
interpersonal relationships.
Kohlberg’s theory of moral
Therefore, in the Heinz dilemma,
development but point out that
many girls and women respond
moral reasoning is very different
that Heinz should not steal the
from moral behavior. Sometimes
medicine. Their reasoning is that if
what we say we would do in a
he steals the medicine, is
situation is not what we actually do
arrested, and is put in jail, then he
in that situation. In other words,
and his wife will be separated, and
we might “talk the talk,” but not
she could die while he is still in
“walk the walk.”
prison.
How does this theory apply to
MORAL REASONING IN
males and females? Kohlberg felt
INFANTS
that more males than females
move past stage four in their moral Kohlberg found that children
development. He went on to note tended to make choices based on
that women seem to be deficient avoiding punishment and gaining
in their moral reasoning abilities. praise. But children are at a
These ideas were not well disadvantage compared to adults
received by Carol Gilligan, a when they must rely on language
research assistant of Kohlberg, to convey their inner thoughts and
who consequently developed her emotional reactions, so what they
own ideas of moral development. say may not adequately capture
In her groundbreaking book, In a the complexity of their thinking.
Different Voice: Psychological
 specialized, forming different
organs and body parts. In
the germinal stage, the mass
STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT IN of cells has yet to attach
CHILDHOOD itself to the lining of the
1. Germinal Stage(Week 1-2)- mother’s uterus. Once it
A mother and father’s DNA is does, the next stage begins.
passed on to the child at the 2. Embryonic Stage(Weeks 3-
moment of conception. 8)- After the zygote divides
Conception occurs when for about 7–10 days and has
sperm fertilizes an egg and 150 cells, it travels down the
forms a zygote. A zygote fallopian tubes and implants
begins as a one-cell itself in the lining of the
structure that is created uterus. Upon implantation,
when a sperm and egg this multi-cellular organism is
merge. The genetic makeup called an embryo. Now
and sex of the baby are set blood vessels grow, forming
at this point. During the first the placenta.
week after conception, the The placenta is a structure
zygote divides and connected to the uterus that
multiplies, going from a one- provides nourishment and
cell structure to two cells, oxygen from the mother to
then four cells, then eight the developing embryo via
cells, and so on. This the umbilical cord. Basic
process of cell division is structures of the embryo
called mitosis. Mitosis is a start to develop into areas
fragile process, and fewer that will become the head,
than one-half of all zygotes chest, and abdomen. During
survive beyond the first two the embryonic stage, the
weeks After 5 days of heart begins to beat, and
mitosis, there are 100 cells, organs form and begin to
and after 9 months there are function. The neural tube
billions of cells. As the cells forms along the back of the
divide, they become more embryo, developing into the
spinal cord and brain.
3. Fetal Stage(Weeks 9-40)- Around 36 weeks, the fetus
When the organism is about is almost ready for birth. It
nine weeks old, the embryo weighs about 6 pounds and
is called a fetus. At this is about 18.5 inches long,
stage, the fetus is about the and by week 37 all of the
size of a kidney bean and fetus’s organ systems are
begins to take on the developed enough that it
recognizable form of a could survive outside the
human being as the ‘tail’ mother’s uterus without
begins to disappear. From 9- many of the risks associated
12 weeks, the sex organs with premature birth. The
begin to differentiate. At fetus continues to gain
about 16 weeks, the fetus is weight and grow in length
approximately 4.5 inches until approximately 40
long. Fingers and toes are weeks. By then, the fetus
fully developed, and has very little room to move
fingerprints are visible. By around and birth becomes
the time the fetus reaches imminent.
the sixth month of
development (24 weeks), it
weighs up to 1.4 pounds.
Hearing has developed, so
the fetus can respond to
sounds. The internal organs,
such as the lungs, heart,
stomach, and intestines,
have formed enough that a
fetus born prematurely at
this point has a chance to
survive outside of the
mother’s womb. Throughout Prenatal care- Medical care
the fetal stage, the brain during pregnancy that
continues to grow and monitors the health of both
develop, nearly doubling in the mother and the fetus.
size from weeks 16 to 28.
 may have poor judgment,
A teratogen is any poor impulse control, higher
environmental agent— rates of ADHD, learning
biological, chemical, or issues, and lower IQ scores.
physical—that causes These developmental
damage to the developing problems and delays persist
embryo or fetus. There are into adulthood. Based on
different types of teratogens. studies conducted on
Alcohol and most drugs animals, it also has been
cross the placenta and affect suggested that a mother’s
the fetus. Alcohol is not safe alcohol consumption during
to drink in any amount pregnancy may predispose
during pregnancy. Alcohol her child to like alcohol.
use during pregnancy is the
leading preventable cause of Smoking is also considered
intellectual development a teratogen because nicotine
disorder (intellectual travels through the placenta
disability) in children in the to the fetus. When the
United States. Excessive mother smokes, the
maternal drinking while developing baby
pregnant can cause fetal experiences a reduction in
alcohol spectrum disorders blood oxygen levels.
with lifelong consequences According to the Centers for
for the child ranging in Disease Control and
severity from minor to major. Prevention, smoking while
Fetal alcohol spectrum pregnant can result in
disorders (FASD) are a premature birth, low-birth-
collection of birth defects weight infants, stillbirth, and
associated with heavy sudden infant death
consumption of alcohol syndrome (SIDS).
during pregnancy. Physically,
children with FASD may Heroin, cocaine,
have a small head size and methamphetamine, almost
abnormal facial features. all prescription and most
Cognitively, these children over-the-counter
medications are also are present in babies whose
considered brains are developing
teratogens. Babies born with and usually disappear
a heroin addiction need around 4-5 months old.
heroin just like an adult
addict. The child will need to Some newborn reflexes
be gradually weaned from The rooting reflex is the
the heroin under medical newborn’s response to
supervision; otherwise, the anything that touches her
child could have seizures cheek: When you stroke a
and die. baby’s cheek, she naturally
Q. The time during fetal turns her head in that
growth when specific parts direction and begins to suck.
or organs develop is known The sucking reflex is the
as critical period. automatic, unlearned,
sucking motions that infants
INFANCY do with their mouths.
The average newborn
weighs approximately 7.5 The grasping reflex- If you
pounds. Although small, a put your finger into a
newborn is not completely newborn’s hand, you will
helpless because their witness the grasping reflex,
reflexes and sensory in which a baby
capacities help him interact automatically grasps
with the environment from anything that touches their
the moment of birth. All palms.
healthy babies are born
with newborn reflexes: The Moro reflex- Is the
inborn automatic responses newborn’s response when
to particular forms of she feels like she is falling.
stimulation. Reflexes help The baby spreads her arms,
the newborn survive until it is pulls them back in, and
capable of more complex usually cries.
behaviors—these reflexes PHYSICAL
are crucial to survival. They DEVELOPMENT
In infancy, toddlerhood, and the average boy weighs 85
early childhood, the body’s pounds.
physical development is We are born with all of the
rapid. On average, brain cells that we will ever
newborns weigh between 5 have—about 100–200 billion
and 10 pounds, and a neurons (nerve cells) whose
newborn’s weight typically function is to store and
doubles in six months and transmit information.
triples in one year. By 2 However, the nervous
years old the weight will system continues to grow
have quadrupled, so we can and develop. Each neural
expect that a 2-year-old pathway forms thousands of
should weigh between 20 new connections during
and 40 pounds. The average infancy and toddlerhood.
length of a newborn is 19.5 This period of rapid neural
inches, increasing to 29.5 growth is called blooming.
inches by 12 months and Neural pathways continue to
34.4 inches by 2 years old. develop through puberty.
During infancy and The blooming period of
childhood, growth does not neural growth is then
occur at a steady rate. followed by a period of
Growth slows between 4 and pruning, where neural
6 years old: During this time connections are reduced. It
children gain 5–7 pounds is thought that pruning
and grow about 2–3 inches causes the brain to function
per year. Once girls reach more efficiently, allowing for
8–9 years old, their growth mastery of more complex
rate outpaces that of boys skills. Blooming occurs
due to a pubertal growth during the first few years of
spurt. This growth spurt life, and pruning continues
continues until around 12 through childhood and into
years old, coinciding with the adolescence in various
start of the menstrual cycle. areas of the brain.
By 10 years old, the average The size of our brains
girl weighs 88 pounds, and increases rapidly. For
 example, the brain of a 2- instance, babies first learn to hold
year-old is 55% of its adult their heads up, then to sit with
size, and by 6 years old the assistance, and then to sit
unassisted, followed later by
brain is about 90% of its
crawling and then walking.
adult size. During early
Motor skills refer to our ability to
childhood (ages 3–6), the move our bodies and manipulate
frontal lobes grow rapidly. objects.
Recalling our discussion of Fine motor skills focus on the
the 4 lobes of the brain muscles in our fingers, toes, and
earlier in this book, the eyes, and enable coordination of
frontal lobes are small actions (e.g., grasping a toy,
associated with planning, writing with a pencil, and using a
spoon).
reasoning, memory, and
Gross motor skills focus on large
impulse control. Therefore,
muscle groups that control our
by the time children reach arms and legs and involve larger
school age, they are movements (e.g., balancing,
developmentally capable of running, and jumping).
controlling their attention and As motor skills develop, there are
behavior. Through the certain developmental milestones
elementary school years, the that young children should
frontal, temporal, occipital, achieve. For each milestone, there
is an average age, as well as a
and parietal lobes all grow in
range of ages in which the
size. The brain growth spurts milestone should be reached. An
experienced in childhood example of a developmental
tend to follow Piaget’s milestone is sitting. On average,
sequence of cognitive most babies sit alone at 7 months
development so that old. Sitting involves both
significant changes in neural coordination and muscle strength,
and 90% of babies achieve this
functioning account for milestone between 5 and 9
cognitive advances. months old. In another example,
Motor development occurs in an babies on average can hold up
orderly sequence as infants move their head at 6 weeks old, and
from reflexive reactions (e.g., 90% of babies achieve this
sucking and rooting) to more between 3 weeks and 4 months
advanced motor functioning. For old. If a baby is not holding up his
head by 4 months old, he is
showing a delay. If the child is Just as there are physical
displaying delays on several milestones that we expect
milestones, that is reason for children to reach, there are
concern, and the parent or also cognitive milestones. It is
caregiver should discuss this with helpful to be aware of these
the child’s pediatrician. Some milestones as children gain new
developmental delays can be abilities to think, solve problem
identified and addressed through problems, and communicate. For
early intervention. example, infants shake their head
Age “no” around 6–9 months, and they
Physical Personal/Social respond to verbal requests to do
(years)
things like “wave bye-bye” or “blow
a kiss” around 9–12 months.
Kicks a Remember Piaget’s ideas about
ball; walks Plays alongside object permanence? We can
2 up and other children; expect children to grasp the
down copies adults concept that objects continue to
stairs exist even when they are not in
sight by around 8 months old.
Because toddlers (i.e., 12–24
Climbs Takes turns; months old) have mastered object
and runs; expresses many permanence, they enjoy games
3
pedals emotions; dresseslike hide and seek, and they
tricycle self realize that when someone leaves
the room they will come back.
Prefers social play
Toddlers also point to pictures in
Catches
to solo play; books and look in appropriate
4 balls; uses
knows likes and places when you ask them to find
scissors
interests objects.
Preschool-age children (i.e., 3–5
years old) also make steady
Hops and
Distinguishes realprogress in cognitive
swings; development. Not only can they
5 from pretend; likes
uses fork
to please friends count, name colors, and tell you
and spoon their name and age, but they can
also make some decisions on their
own, such as choosing an outfit to
Table 1. Developmental Milestones, Ages 2–5 Years
wear. Preschool-age children
understand basic time concepts babies begin to coo almost
and sequencing (e.g., before and immediately. Cooing is a one-
after), and they can predict what syllable combination of a
will happen next in a story. They consonant and a vowel sound
also begin to enjoy the use of (e.g., coo or ba). Interestingly,
humor in stories. Because they babies replicate sounds from their
can think symbolically, they enjoy own languages. A baby whose
pretend play and inventing parents speak French will coo in a
elaborate characters and different tone than a baby whose
scenarios. One of the most parents speak Spanish or Urdu.
common examples of their After cooing, the baby starts to
cognitive growth is their babble. Babbling begins with
blossoming curiosity. Preschool- repeating a syllable, such as ma-
age children love to ask “Why?” ma, da-da, or ba-ba. When a baby
An important cognitive change is about 12 months old, we expect
occurs in children this age. Recall her to say her first word for
that Piaget described 2–3-year- meaning, and to start combining
olds as egocentric, meaning that words for meaning at about 18
they do not have an awareness of months.
others’ points of view. Between 3 During the early childhood years,
and 5 years old, children come to children’s vocabulary increases at
understand that people have a rapid pace. This is sometimes
thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that referred to as the “vocabulary
are different from their own. This is spurt” and has been claimed to
known as the theory of mind involve an expansion in
(TOM). Children can use this skill vocabulary at a rate of 10–20 new
to tease others, persuade their words per week. Recent research
parents to purchase a candy bar, may indicate that while some
or understand why a sibling might children experience these spurts,
be angry. When children develop it is far from universal. It has been
TOM, they can recognize that estimated that 5-year-olds
others have false beliefs. understand about 6,000 words,
Children communicate information speak 2,000 words, and can
through gesturing long before they define words and question their
speak, and there is some meanings. They can rhyme and
evidence that gesture usage name the days of the week.
predicts subsequent language Seven-year-olds speak fluently
development. In terms of and use slang and clichés.
producing spoken language,
What accounts for such dramatic
language learning by children? EMOTIONAL AND SOCIAL
Behaviorist B. F. Skinner thought DEVELOPMENT
that we learn language in Attachment is a long-standing
response to reinforcement, such connection or bond with others.
as through parental approval or Building on the work of Harlow
through being understood. For and others, John Bowlby
example, when a two-year-old developed the concept of
child asks for juice, he might say, attachment theory. He defined
“me juice,” to which his mother attachment as the affectional bond
might respond by giving him a cup or tie that an infant forms with the
of apple juice. mother. An infant must form this
Noam Chomsky (1957) criticized bond with a primary caregiver in
Skinner’s theory and proposed order to have normal social and
that we are all born with an innate emotional development. In
capacity to learn language. addition, Bowlby proposed that
Chomsky called this mechanism a this attachment bond is very
language acquisition device powerful and continues throughout
(LAD). Who is correct? Both life. He used the concept of
Chomsky and Skinner are right. a secure base to define a healthy
Remember that we are a product attachment between parent and
of both nature and nurture. child.
Researchers now believe that A secure base is a parental
language acquisition is partially presence that gives the child a
inborn and partially learned sense of safety as he explores his
through our interactions with our surroundings. Bowlby said that
linguistic environment. two things are needed for a
GLOSSARY healthy attachment: The caregiver
cognitive empathy: ability to take must be responsive to the child’s
the perspective of others and to physical, social, and emotional
feel concern for others. needs; and the caregiver and child
must engage in mutually enjoyable
reinforcement: feedback that interactions.
strengthens future behavior. In the Strange Situation, the
mother (or primary caregiver) and
theory of mind: that children the infant (age 12-18 months) are
come to understand that people placed in a room together. There
have thoughts, feelings, and are toys in the room, and the
beliefs different from their own. caregiver and child spend some
time alone in the room. After the behavior, but then they reject the
child has had time to explore her attachment figure’s attempts to
surroundings, a stranger enters interact with them. These children
the room. The mother then leaves do not explore the toys in the
her baby with the stranger. After a room, as they are too fearful.
few minutes, she returns to During separation in the Strange
comfort her child. Situation, they became extremely
Based on how the infants/toddlers disturbed and angry with the
responded to the separation and parent. When the parent returns,
reunion, Ainsworth identified three the children are difficult to comfort.
types of parent-child attachments: Resistant attachment is the result
secure, avoidant, and resistant. A of the caregivers’ inconsistent
fourth style, known as level of response to their child.
disorganized attachment, was Finally, children with disorganized
later described. attachment behaved oddly in the
The most common type of Strange Situation. They freeze,
attachment—also considered the run around the room in an erratic
healthiest—is called secure manner, or try to run away when
attachment. the caregiver returns (Main &
In this type of attachment, the Solomon, 1990). This type of
toddler prefers his parent over a attachment is seen most often in
stranger. The attachment figure is kids who have been abused.
used as a secure base to explore Research has shown that abuse
the environment and is sought out disrupts a child’s ability to regulate
in times of stress. Securely their emotions.
attached children were distressed Types of Parenting
when their caregivers left the room A child’s self-concept develops
in the Strange Situation as a result of brain maturation
experiment, but when their and language.
caregivers returned, the securely Authoritative style: The parent
attached children were happy to gives reasonable demands and
see them. Securely attached consistent limits, expresses
children have caregivers who are warmth and affection, and listens
sensitive and responsive to their to the child’s point of view. Parents
needs. set rules and explain the reasons
In cases of resistant attachment behind them. They are more
(also called ambivalent or flexible and willing to make
anxious-ambivalent/resistant), exceptions to the rules in certain
children tend to show clingy cases. Authoritative parenting is
the most encouraged in modern and sometimes referred to as
American society. neglectful. They don’t respond to
Authoritarian style: The parent the child’s needs and make
places high value on conformity relatively few demands. This could
and obedience. The parents are be because of severe depression
often strict, tightly monitor their or substance abuse, or other
child, and express little warmth. factors such as the parents’
This style can create anxious, extreme focus on work. These
withdrawn, and unhappy kids; parents may provide for the child’s
However, it is important to point basic needs, but little else. The
out that authoritarian parenting is children raised in this parenting
as beneficial as the authoritative in style are usually emotionally
some ethnic groups. withdrawn, fearful, and anxious,
Permissive Style: The kids run the perform poorly in school, and are
show and anything goes. at an increased risk of substance
Permissive parents make few abuse.
demands and rarely use As you can see, parenting styles
punishment. They tend to be very influence childhood adjustment,
nurturing and loving and may play but could a child’s temperament
the role of a friend rather than likewise influence
parent. Children raised by parenting? Temperament refers
permissive parents tend to lack to innate traits that influence how
self-discipline, and the permissive one thinks, behaves, and reacts
parenting style may also with the environment. Children
contribute to other risky behaviors with easy temperaments
such as alcohol abuse, and risky demonstrate positive emotions,
sexual behavior, especially among adapt well to change, and are
female children, and increased capable of regulating their
disruptive behavior by male emotions. Conversely, children
children. However, there are some with difficult temperaments
positive outcomes associated with demonstrate negative emotions
children raised by permissive and have difficulty adapting to
parents. They tend to have higher change and regulating their
self-esteem, better social skills, emotions. Difficult children are
and report lower levels of much more likely to challenge
depression. parents, teachers, and other
Uninvolved Style: With the caregivers. Therefore, it’s possible
uninvolved style of parenting, the that easy children (i.e., social,
parents are indifferent, uninvolved, adaptable, and easy to soothe)
tend to elicit warm and responsive
parenting while demanding, secure
irritable, and withdrawn children attachment: characterized by the
evoke irritation in their parents or child using the parent as a secure
cause their parents to withdraw. base from which to explore
GLOSSARY secure base: parental presence
attachment: long-standing that gives the infant/toddler a
connection or bond with others. sense of safety as he explores his
authoritarian parenting surroundings
style: parents place a high value temperament: innate traits that
on conformity and obedience, are influence how one thinks,
often rigid, and express little behaves, and reacts with the
warmth to the child environment
authoritative parenting uninvolved parenting
style: parents give children style: parents are indifferent,
reasonable demands and uninvolved, and sometimes
consistent limits, express warmth referred to as neglectful; they don’t
and affection, and listen to the respond to the child’s needs and
child’s point of view. make relatively few demands.
avoidant
attachment: characterized by
child’s unresponsiveness to DEVELOPMENT IN
parent, does not use the parent as ADOLESCENCE AND
a secure base, and does not care ADULTHOOD
if parent leaves Adolescence- Adolescence is the
disorganized attachment: period of development that begins
characterized by the child’s odd at puberty and ends at emerging
behavior when faced with the adulthood, or into the mid- to late
parent; type of attachment seen 20s. In the United States,
most often with kids that are adolescence is seen as a time to
abused. develop independence from
permissive parenting parents while remaining
style: parents make few demands connected to them. The typical
and rarely use punishment age range of adolescence is from
resistant 12 to 18 years, and this stage of
attachment: characterized by the development also has some
child’s tendency to show clingy predictable physical, cognitive,
behavior and rejection of the and psychosocial milestones.
parent when she attempts to PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
interact with the child
Several physical changes occur The adolescent brain also remains
during puberty, such as under development. Recall from
adrenarche and gonadarche, the your earlier study, that the brain
maturing of the adrenal glands consists of six regions: temporal
and sex glands, respectively. Also, lobe, brain stem, cerebellum,
during this time, primary and occipital lobe (includes the visual
secondary sexual characteristics cortex), parietal lobe, and the
develop and mature. frontal lobe. The frontal lobe
Primary sexual characteristics are consists of the prefrontal cortex,
organs specifically needed for premotor cortex, and motor cortex.
reproduction, like the uterus in The prefrontal lobe lies just behind
females and testes in males. the forehead. Up until puberty,
Secondary sexual characteristics brain cells continue to bloom in the
are physical signs of maturation frontal region. Adolescents engage
that do not directly involve sex in increased risk-taking behaviors
organs, such as the development and emotional outbursts possibly
of breasts and hips in girls, and because the frontal lobes of their
the development of facial hair and brains are still developing (Recall
a deepened voice in boys. Girls that this area is often called the
experience menarche, the “CEO of the brain”, as it is
beginning of menstrual periods, responsible for judgment, impulse
usually around 12-13 years old, control, and planning. It is still
and boys experience maturing into early adulthood, up
spermarche, the first ejaculation, until around age 25.
around 13-14 years old. Brain maturity occurs when there
During puberty, both sexes is a growth of new neural
experience a rapid increase in connections and the pruning of
height (i.e., growth spurt). For used neurons and connections.
girls, this begins between 8 and 13 According to recent research, the
years old, with adult height brain region tends to develop from
reached between 10 and 16 years the back to the front of the brain.
old. Boys begin their growth spurt Also, myelin continues to grow
slightly later, usually between 10 around axons and neurons to help
and 16 years old, and reach their transmission between the various
adult height between 13 and 17 regions of the brain.
years old. Both nature (i.e., genes) COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
and nurture (e.g., nutrition, During adolescence, teenagers
medications, and medical move beyond concrete thinking
conditions) can influence height. and become capable of abstract
thought. Recall that Piaget refers adolescence: period of
to this stage as formal operational development that begins at
thought. Teen thinking is also puberty and ends at early
characterized by the ability to adulthood
consider multiple points of view, adrenarche: maturing of the
imagine hypothetical situations, adrenal glands
debate ideas and opinions (e.g., emerging adulthood: newly
politics, religion, and justice), and defined period of lifespan
form new ideas. development from 18 years old to
Marcia’s four identity statuses the mid-20s; young people are
in Adolescence taking longer to complete college,
Foreclosure occurs when an get a job, get married, and start a
individual commits to an family
identity without exploring gonadarche: maturing of the sex
options. glands
menarche: beginning of
Identity diffusion occurs when
menstrual period; around 12–13
adolescents neither explore nor
years old
commit to any identities.
primary sexual
Moratorium is a state in which characteristics: organs
adolescents are actively specifically needed for
exploring options but have not reproduction
yet made commitments. secondary sexual
Identity achievement occurs characteristics: physical signs of
when individuals have explored sexual maturation that do not
different options and then made directly involve sex organs
identity commitments. spermarche: first male ejaculation
ADULTHOOD
Emerging Adulthood Adulthood begins around 20 years
old and has three distinct stages;
The next stage of development
early, middle, and late.
is emerging adulthood. This is a
relatively newly defined period of Early Adulthood: 20 to early 40s,
lifespan development spanning our physical maturation is
from 18 years old to the mid-20s, complete, although our height and
characterized as an in-between weight may increase slightly. In
time where identity exploration is young adulthood, our physical
focused on work and love. abilities are at their peak, including
muscle strength, reaction time,
GLOSSARY
sensory abilities, and cardiac and knowledge. Measures of
functioning. crystallized intelligence include
Middle Adulthood: Extends from vocabulary tests, solving number
the 40s to the 60s. Physical problems, and understanding
decline is gradual. The skin loses texts.
some elasticity, and wrinkles are COGNITIVE SIGNS OF AGING
among the first signs of aging. Cognitive Signs of Aging
Visual acuity decreases during this decreased processing speed;
time. Women experience a slower thinking
gradual decline in fertility as they
decreased working memory;
approach the onset of
less ability to hold multiple
menopause, the end of the
things in mind
menstrual cycle, around 50 years
old. Both men and women tend to increased crystallized
gain weight: in the abdominal area intelligence: greater ability to
for men and in the hips and thighs use acquired knowledge and
for women. Hair begins to thin and experience
turn gray. increased reliance on memory
Late Adulthood: Is considered to cues
extend from the 60s on. This is the increased focus on efficient
last stage of physical change. The processes.
skin continues to lose elasticity, PSYCHOSOCIAL SIGNS OF
reaction time slows further, and AGING
muscle strength diminishes. Smell, Fewer relationships
taste, hearing, and vision, so Deeper relationships
sharp in our twenties, decline Considerations of integrity
significantly. The brain may also versus despair
no longer function at optimal
- Thinking about their
levels, leading to problems like
legacy, assessing whether
memory loss, dementia, and
they measured up to
Alzheimer’s disease in later years.
expectations.
Fluid Intelligence: Refers to
Increased happiness and life
information processing abilities,
satisfaction.
such as logical reasoning,
remembering lists, spatial ability, DEATH AND DYING
and reaction time. Hospice- Hospice aims to help
Crystallized provide a death with dignity and
intelligence encompasses pain management in a humane
abilities that draw upon experience and comfortable environment,
which is usually outside of a more year so I can take that trip
hospital setting. In 1974, Florence with my grandchildren. They’re too
Wald founded the first hospice in young to understand what’s
the US. Today, hospice provides happening and why I can’t take
care for 1.65 million Americans them’’.
and their families. Because of Depression- He becomes sad
hospice care, many terminally ill about his impending death. ‘I can’t
people are able to spend their last believe this is how I’m going to
days at home. die. I’m in so much pain. What’s
Cicely Sanders created the first going to become of my family
modern hospice in England in when I’m gone?’’
1967. Acceptance- The final stage is
Elizabeth Kubler-Ross (1969) acceptance. This stage is usually
described the process of an reached in the last few days or
individual accepting their own weeks before death. He
death. She proposed the five recognizes that death is inevitable.
stages of grief: ‘I need to get everything in order
Denial- The person receives news and say all of my goodbyes to the
that he is dying, and either does people I love’’.
not take it seriously or tries to
escape the reality of the situation.
He might say something like
‘Cancer could never happen to
me. I take good care of myself.
This has to be a mistake.
Anger- He realizes time is short,
and he may not have a chance to
accomplish what he wanted in life.
‘It’s not fair. I promised my
grandchildren that we would go to
Disney World, and now I’ll
never have the chance to take
the’’.
Bargaining- In this stage, he tries
to delay the inevitable by
bargaining or pleading for extra
time, usually with God, family
members, or medical care
providers. ‘God, just give me one
 (2) students with high self-
efficacy, or belief in their abilities,
were more likely to seek help, and
(3) students that reach out more
frequently did better in their
courses than students who did not
ask for help.

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING-
Ivan Pavlov
Classical conditioning- Learning
by association. In classical
conditioning, organisms learn to
associate events that repeatedly
BEHAVIORAL( John B Watson happen together, and researchers
Founder of Behaviorism) study how a reflexive response to
LEARNING( Ivan Pavlov) a stimulus can be mapped to a
different stimulus- by training an
Note; Experiments conducted by
association between two stimuli.
Ivan Pavlov greatly contributed to
John B Watson's founding of
Behaviorism. What is Learning?
Learning Hacks Reflexes are a motor or neural
Metacognition- This means being reaction to a specific stimulus in
aware of your learning. It means the environment. They tend to be
you know when you are learning simpler than instincts and involve
something and when you aren’t the activity of specific body parts,
quite getting it. This skill allows us systems(e.g. the knee-jerk reflex
to know when we need to ask for and the contraction of the pupil in
help. bright light) and involve more
primitive centers of the central
Kitsantas and Chow's studies
nervous systems( e.g. the spinal
results,
cord and the medulla).
They found that:
Instincts are innate behaviors that
(1) students are more likely to are triggered by a broader range
reach out for help in an online of events, such as maturation and
environment because students the change of seasons. They are
perceive it as lower risk than if more complex patterns of
they had to reach out for help in behavior, involve movement of the
person, organism as a whole(e.g. sexual
activity and migration, and involve and cognitive layers to all the
higher brain activity. basic associative processes, both
Both are unlearned behaviors that conscious and unconscious.
organisms are born with. In classical conditioning, also
Both reflexes and instincts help an known as Pavlovian
organism adapt to its environment conditioning, organisms learn to
and do not have to be learned. associate events—or stimuli—that
E.g. babies are born with repeatedly happen together. We
a sucking reflex; they do not need experience this process
to be taught. throughout our daily lives. For
Learning like reflexes and instincts example, you might see a flash of
allows an organism to adapt to its lightning in the sky during a storm
environment. But unlike instincts and then hear a loud boom of
and reflexes, learned behaviors thunder. The sound of the thunder
involve change and experience. naturally makes you jump (loud
noises have that effect by reflex).
Definition:
Because lightning reliably predicts
Learning is a relatively the impending boom of thunder,
permanent change in behavior you may associate the two and
or knowledge that results from jump when you see lightning.
experience. Learning acquires Psychological researchers study
knowledge and skills through this associative process by
experience. focusing on what can be seen and
Types of Learning measured—behaviors.
Our minds have a natural Researchers ask if one stimulus
tendency to connect events that triggers a reflex, can we train a
occur closely together or in different stimulus to trigger that
sequence. same reflex?
Associative Learning: Occurs In operant conditioning,
when an organism makes organisms learn, again, to
connections between stimuli or associate events—a behavior and
events that occur together in the its consequence (reinforcement
environment. Associative learning or punishment). A pleasant
is central to all three basic learning consequence encourages more of
processes i.e. classical that behavior in the future,
conditioning tends to involve whereas a punishment deters the
unconscious processes, operant behavior. Imagine you are
conditioning tends to involve teaching your dog, Hodor, to sit.
conscious processes, and You tell Hodor to sit and give him a
observational learning adds social
treat when he does. After repeated born knowing how to do, such as
experiences, Hodor begins to swimming and surfing. Learned
associate the act of sitting with behaviors are not automatic; they
receiving a treat. He learns that occur as a result of practice or
the consequence of sitting is that repeated experience in a situation.
he gets a doggie biscuit.
Conversely, if the dog is punished CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
when exhibiting a behavior, it
Classical conditioning is a
becomes conditioned to avoid that
process by which we learn to
behavior (e.g., receiving a small
associate stimuli and
shock when crossing the boundary
consequently, to anticipate events.
of an invisible electric fence).
Ivan Pavlov discovered Classical
Observational learning is the
conditioning by accident, he was a
process of watching others and
physiologist not a psychologist in
then imitating what they do. A lot
Russia.
of learning among humans and
other animals comes from Pavlov’s area of interest was the
observational learning. digestive system of dogs. In his
studies with dogs, Pavlov
Q and A
measured the amount of saliva
Two forms of associative learning produced in response to various
are _classical conditioning- one foods. Over time, Pavlov observed
learns to associate a stimuli to an that the dogs began to salivate not
event that will occur _and operant only at the taste of food, but also
conditioning-one learns to at the sight of food, at the sight of
associate a consequence to a an empty food bowl, and even at
given behavior_ the sound of the laboratory
In _classical conditioning stimulus assistants’ footsteps. Salivating to
or experience occurs before the food in the mouth is reflexive, so
behavior and then gets paired with no learning is involved. However,
the behavior. dogs don’t naturally salivate at the
What is the difference between a sight of an empty bowl or the
reflex and a learned behavior? sound of footsteps.
A reflex is a behavior that humans To explore this phenomenon in an
are born knowing how to do, such objective manner, Pavlov
as sucking or blushing; these designed a series of carefully
behaviors happen automatically in controlled experiments to see
response to stimuli in the which stimuli would cause the
environment. Learned behaviors dogs to salivate. He was able to
are things that humans are not train the dogs to salivate in
response to stimuli that clearly had elicit a response. Prior to
nothing to do with food, such as conditioning, the dogs did not
the sound of a bell, a light, and a salivate when they just heard the
touch on the leg. Through his tone because the tone had no
experiments, Pavlov realized that association for the dogs. Quite
an organism has two types of simply this pairing means:
responses to its environment: (1) Tone of Bell (Neutral Stimulus +
unconditioned (unlearned) Meat Powder (Unconditioned
responses, or reflexes, and (2) Stimulus ) = Salivation
conditioned (learned) ( Unconditioned Response)
responses. When Pavlov paired the tone with
Pavlov Experiments the meat powder over and over
In Pavlov’s experiments, the dogs again, the previously neutral
salivated each time meat powder stimulus (the tone) also began to
was presented to them. The meat elicit salivation from the dogs.
powder in this situation was Thus, the neutral stimulus became
an unconditioned stimulus the conditioned stimulus (CS),
(UCS): a stimulus that elicits a which is a stimulus that elicits a
reflexive response in an organism. response after repeatedly being
The dogs’ salivation was paired with an unconditioned
an unconditioned response stimulus. Eventually, the dogs
(UCR): a natural (unlearned) began to salivate to the tone
reaction to a given stimulus. alone, just as they previously had
Before conditioning, think of the salivated at the sound of the
dogs’ stimulus and response like assistants’ footsteps. The behavior
this: caused by the conditioned
Meat powder (Unconditioned stimulus is called
Stimulus)= the conditioned response (CR).
Salivation (Unconditioned In the case of Pavlov’s dogs, they
Response) had learned to associate the
In classical conditioning, a neutral tone (Conditioned Stimulus)
stimulus is presented with being fed, and they began
immediately before an to salivate (Conditioned
unconditioned stimulus. Pavlov Response) in anticipation of
would sound a tone (like ringing a food.
bell) and then give the dogs the Tone of Bell (Conditioned
meat powder. The tone was the Stimulus) → Salivation (Condition
neutral stimulus (NS), which is a ed Response)
stimulus that does not naturally
 In Pavlov’s work with dogs, the
‘psychic secretions’--were
conditioned responses.
High-order( or second-order)
conditioning, when the conditioned
stimulus serves to conditioned
another stimulus. Doctor’s
office-----nausea but now Doctor’s
office and syringe-----nausea.

Note: Before conditioning, an

unconditioned stimulus (food)
produces an unconditioned
response (salivation), and a
neutral stimulus (bell) does not
produce a response. During
conditioning, the unconditioned
stimulus (food) is presented
repeatedly just after the
presentation of the neutral
stimulus (bell). After
conditioning, the neutral
stimulus alone produces a
conditioned response
(salivation), thus becoming a In higher-order conditioning, an
conditioned stimulus. established conditioned stimulus is
paired with a new neutral stimulus(
Q and A the second-order stimulus), so that
In the Classic Pavlov experiment, eventually new stimulus elicits the
the unconditioned stimulus is the conditioned stimulus, without the
food, the conditioned stimulus is initial conditioned stimulus being
the tone, the unconditioned present.
response is the salivation, and the Q and A
conditioned response is the
salivation. A researcher is testing young
children to see if they can learn to
A stimulus that does not initially associate a red circle with an
implicit a response in an organism event that the child enjoys. She
is a(n) neutral response. sets up an experiment where a toy
bear dances. The infants
predictably love the toy bear and
stare at it when it makes noise and to elicit the conditioned response.
dances. She then trains the child The neutral stimulus is becoming
by showing a big red circle on a the conditioned stimulus. At the
screen in front of the child and, end of the acquisition phase,
immediately after that, the bear learning has occurred and the
appears and dances off to the neutral stimulus becomes a
side. The bear is only visible right conditioned stimulus capable of
after the red circle appears and eliciting the conditioned response
the child must turn their head to by itself.
see the bear. PROCESSES IN CLASSICAL
In this study, the unconditioned CONDITIONING
stimulus is the dancing bear, the Acquisition: The initial period of
unconditioned response is learning, when an organism learns
the baby turns head, the to connect a neutral stimulus and
conditioned stimulus is the red an unconditioned stimulus. During
circle, and the conditioned acquisition, the neutral stimulus
response is the baby turns head. begins to elicit the conditioned
The neutral stimulus is the red response, and eventually, the
circle and the response to the neutral stimulus becomes a
neutral stimulus is the baby does conditioned stimulus capable of
not turn head. eliciting the conditioned response
If the sound of your toaster by itself.
popping up toast causes your Taste aversion: Is a type of
mouth to water, what are the conditioning in which an interval of
Unconditioned stimulus( UCS), several hours may pass between
Conditioned Stimulus( CS), and the conditioned
Conditioned Response(CR) stimulus(something ingested) and
The food being toasted is the the unconditioned
UCS; the sound of the toaster stimulus(nausea or illness). Here’s
popping up is the CS; salivating to how it works
the sound of the toaster is the CR. Between classes, you and a friend
How does a neutral stimulus grab a quick lunch from a food cart
become a conditioned stimulus? on campus. You share a dish of
This occurs through the process of chicken curry and head off to your
acquisition. A human or an animal next class. A few hours later, you
learns to connect a neutral feel nauseous and become ill.
stimulus and an unconditioned Although your friend is fine and
stimulus. During the acquisition you determine that you have
phase, the neutral stimulus begins intestinal flu (the food is not the
culprit), you’ve developed a taste
aversion; the next time you are at
a restaurant and someone orders
curry, you immediately feel ill.
While the chicken dish is not what
made you sick, you are
experiencing taste aversion:
you’ve been conditioned to be
averse to food after a single, Note: This is the curve of
unpleasant experience. acquisition, extinction, and
spontaneous recovery. The rising
Some theories suggest this may curve shows the conditioned
be an evolutionary response to response getting stronger through
help organisms quickly learn to the repeated pairing of the
avoid harmful food. conditioned stimulus and the
Rescorla-Wagner Model- unconditioned
Mathematical formula that could stimulus(acquisition). Then the
be used to calculate the probability curve decreases, which shows
that an association would be how the conditioned response
learned given the ability of a weakens when only the
conditioned stimulus to predict the conditioned response is
occurrence of a conditioned presented(extinction). After a
stimulus and other factors. break or pause from conditioning,
Extinction- Is the decrease in the the conditioned response
conditioned response when the reappears(spontaneous recovery).
unconditioned stimulus is no Stimulus discrimination: When an
longer presented with the organism learns to respond
conditioned stimulus. When differently to various stimuli that
presented with the conditioned are similar. For example, between
stimulus alone, the dog, cat, or sounds that predict a threatening
other organism would show a event and sounds that do not—so
weaker response, and finally no that they can respond
response. appropriately (such as running
Spontaneous recovery: The return away if the sound is threatening).
of a previously extinguished With the Pavlovian experiment,
conditioned response following a the dogs only salivated to that
rest response. E.g seeing pictures specific bell sound( conditioned
of your old crush after not seeing stimulus), all other sounds were
them for a while might bring back ignored.
some feelings.
Stimulus generalization: The Discrimination. John does not
opposite of stimulus have the same reaction to other
discrimination. The more similar a restaurants that are similar to, but
stimulus is to the conditioned different from the original
stimulus, the more likely the restaurant where he got sick from
organism is to give the conditioned eating a burger (hence the
response. For instance, if the discrimination).
electric mixer sounds very similar
to the electric can opener, Tiger A CS and UCS are associated so
may come running after hearing its the CS now produces a CR
sound. But if you do not feed her without presentation of the UCS. If
following the electric mixer sound, a new stimulus that is similar to
and you continue to feed her the CS also produces the CR, we
consistently after the electric can have an example of
opener sound, she will quickly _generalization_. When a new
learn to discriminate between the stimulus is similar to an existing
two sounds (provided they are conditioned stimulus and produces
sufficiently dissimilar that she can the conditioned response, we call
tell them apart). this generalization.
Q and A Dave has been working with a
Pavlov conditions a dog to salivate therapist to give up smoking. He
when he rings a bell. Now he has learned to stop having
changes the bell to one with a cravings when he sees someone
much deeper tone and the dog about to light up a cigarette and
salivates, even though the bell is thinks he is free. Then he goes to
different from the original one. a party, sees a guy about to light
Responding to a new stimulus as up, and experiences strong
if it were the original Conditioned cravings. What is going on?
Stimulus is Spontaneous recovery which is
__generalization______. the reappearance of an
extinguished response.
John got terribly sick after eating a
Note: John B Watson and his
burger at a local fast-food chain.
assistant Rosaline Rayner
He cannot even drive past that
performed the fucked-up
restaurant without feeling
experiment with little Albert at
nauseous. Oddly enough, he can John Hopkins University where he
eat at and pass several other fast- was a department chair. He only
food burger joints and not feel ill. gave his Mom a dollar btw.
What is most likely happening
More Q and A
here?
In Watson and Rayner’s consequences we receive for the
experiments, Little Albert was behavior: the reinforcements and
conditioned to fear a white rat, and punishment. His idea that learning
then he began to be afraid of other is the result of consequences is
furry white objects. This based on the law of effect, which
demonstrates Stimulus was first proposed by psychologist
generalization. If other objects that Edward Thorndike. According to
resemble the feared white rat the law of effect, behaviors that
generate a fear response, Albert is are followed by consequences that
showing a generalized fear of furry are satisfying to the organism are
white objects, not just the acquired more likely to be repeated, and
fear. behaviors that are followed by
Extinction occurs when _the unpleasant consequences are less
conditioned stimulus is presented likely to be repeated. An example
repeatedly without being paired of the law of effect is in
with an unconditioned stimulus._ employment. One of the reasons
(and often the main reason) we
show up for work is because we
get paid to do so.
OPERANT CONDITIONING-B.F
THE SKINNER
SKINNER
BOX/EXPERIMENT
Operant conditioning-
Skinner began conducting
Emphasizes reinforcement for
scientific experiments on animals
behaviors. In Operant
(mainly rats and pigeons) to
conditioning. The motivation for a
determine how organisms learn
behavior happens after the
through operant. He placed these
behavior is demonstrated. An
animals inside an operant
animal or human receives a
conditioning chamber, which has
consequence( reinforcer or
come to be known as a “Skinner
punisher) after performing a
box” A Skinner box contains a
specific behavior.
lever (for rats) or disk (for pigeons)
In Operant Conditioning, that the animal can press or peck
organisms learn to associate a for a food reward via the
behavior and its consequences. A dispenser. Speakers and lights
pleasant consequence makes that can be associated with certain
behavior more likely to be behaviors. A recorder counts the
repeated in the future. number of responses made by the
animal.
B.F. Skinner- Believed that
behavior is motivated by the
 response. Now let’s combine
these four terms: positive
reinforcement, negative
reinforcement, positive
punishment, and negative
Note: B.F. Skinner developed punishment.
operant conditioning for Positive Reinforcement:
systematic study of how behavior Something is added to increase
is strengthened or weakened the likelihood of a behavior. i.e. a
according to their consequences. desirable stimulus is added to
In a Skinner box, a rat presses a increase a behavior. Positive
lever in an operant chamber to reinforcement as a learning tool is
receive a food reward. extremely effective. It has been
Reinforcement and Punishment found that one of the most
effective ways to increase
In discussing operant conditioning, achievement in school districts
we use several everyday words— with below-average reading
positive, negative, reinforcement, scores was to pay the children to
and punishment—in a specialized read.
manner. In operant conditioning,
positive and negative do not mean Negative Reinforcement:
good and bad. Something is removed to increase
Instead, positive means you are the likelihood of a behavior. i.e. an
adding something, undesirable stimulus is removed to
and negative means you are increase a behavior. For example,
taking something away. car manufacturers use the
principles of negative
Reinforcement means you are reinforcement in their seatbelt
increasing a behavior, systems, which go “beep, beep,
and punishment means you are beep” until you fasten your
decreasing a behavior. seatbelt. The annoying sound
Reinforcement can be positive or stops when you exhibit the desired
negative, and punishment can behavior, increasing the likelihood
also be positive or negative. All that you will buckle up in the
reinforcers (positive or future.
negative) increase the
likelihood of a behavioral Positive Punishment: Something
response. is added to decrease the likelihood
of a behavior. i.e. you add an
All punishers (positive or undesirable stimulus to decrease
negative) decrease the a behavior. An example
likelihood of a behavioral
of positive punishment is the annoying beeping sound in
scolding a student to get the your car and increases the
student to stop texting in class. In likelihood that you will wear your
this case, a stimulus (the seatbelt). Punishment is designed
reprimand) is added in order to to reduce a behavior (e.g., you
decrease the behavior (texting in scold your child for running into
class). the street in order to decrease the
Negative Punishment: unsafe behavior.)
Something is removed to SHAPING- Instead of rewarding
decrease the likelihood of a only the target behavior, in
behavior. i.e. You remove a shaping, we reward successive
pleasant stimulus to decrease a approximations of a target
behavior. For example, when a behavior. Shaping is needed
child misbehaves, a parent can because it is extremely unlikely
take away a favorite toy. In this that an organism will display
case, a stimulus (the toy) is anything but the simplest of
removed in order to decrease the behaviors spontaneously.
behavior. In shaping, behaviors are broken
Note: Skinner was a strong down into many small, achievable
proponent of using operant steps. The specific steps used in
conditioning principles to influence the process are the following:
student’s behavior at school. In Reinforce any response that
addition to the Skinner box, he resembles the desired behavior.
also invented what he called a Then reinforce the response that
teaching machine that was more closely resembles the
designed to reward small steps in desired behavior. You will no
learning. longer reinforce the previously
Q and A reinforced response. Next, begin
__Negative punishment______ is to reinforce the response that
when you take away a pleasant even more closely resembles the
stimulus to stop a behavior. desired behavior. Continue to
What is the difference between reinforce closer and closer
negative reinforcement and approximations of the desired
punishment? behavior. Finally, only reinforce the
desired behavior.
In negative reinforcement, you are
taking away an undesirable An important part of shaping is
stimulus in order to increase the stimulus discrimination. Recall
frequency of a certain behavior Pavlov’s dogs—he trained them to
(e.g., buckling your seat belt stops respond to the tone of a bell, and
not to similar tones or sounds. the cool lake would be innately
This discrimination is also reinforcing—the water would cool
important in operant conditioning the person off (a physical need),
and in shaping behavior. as well as provide pleasure.
Q and A Second reinforcers- A secondary
Rewarding successive reinforcer has no inherent value
approximations toward a target and only has reinforcing qualities
behavior is _shaping_. when linked with a primary
What is shaping and how would reinforcer. Praise, linked to
you use shaping to teach a dog to affection, is one example of a
roll over? secondary reinforcer, as when you
called out “Great shot!” every time
Shaping is an operant conditioning
Joaquin made a goal. Another
method in which you reward closer
example, money, is only worth
and closer approximations of the
something when you can use it to
desired behavior. If you want to
buy other things—either things
teach your dog to roll over, you
that satisfy basic needs (food,
might reward him first when he
water, shelter—all primary
sits, then when he lies down, and
reinforcers) or other secondary
then when he lies down and rolls
reinforcers. If you were on a
onto his back. Finally, you would
remote island in the middle of the
reward him only when he
Pacific Ocean and you had stacks
completes the entire sequence:
of money, the money would not be
lying down, rolling onto his back,
useful if you could not spend it.
and then continuing to roll over to
his other side. Q and A
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY Which of the following is not an
REINFORCERS example of a primary reinforcer?
Ans: Money
Primary reinforcers are
reinforcers that have innate The purpose of punishment is to
reinforcing qualities. These kinds decrease a behavior.
of reinforcers are not learned. The purpose of reinforcement is to
Water, food, sleep, shelter, sex, increase a behavior.
and touch among others are Positive punishments work by
primary reinforcers. Pleasure is adding an adverse stimulus to
also a primary reinforcer. decrease a behavior.
Organisms do not lose their drive Negative reinforcement works by
for these things. For most people, removing an adverse stimulus to
jumping in a cool lake on a very increase a behavior.
hot day would be reinforcing and
Positive reinforcements work by time between reinforcements,
adding a stimulus in order to which is set and unchanging.
increase a behavior. Variable refers to the number of
Negative punishment works by responses or amount of time
removing a stimulus in order to between reinforcements, which
decrease a behavior. varies or changes.
REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULES Interval means the schedule is
Continuous reinforcement- based on the time between
When an organism receives a reinforcements,
reinforcer each time it displays a and ratio means the schedule is
behavior. This reinforcement based on the number of
schedule is the quickest way to responses between
teach someone a behavior, and it reinforcements.
is especially effective in training a Reinforcements Schedules
new behavior. Let’s look back at Fixed Interval: Reinforcement is
the dog that was learning to sit delivered at predictable times(.e.g.
earlier in the module. Now, each after 5, 10, 15, and 20 minutes).
time he sits, you give him a treat.
Result: Moderate response rate
Timing is important here: you will
with significant pauses after
be most successful if you present
reinforcement.
the reinforcer immediately after he
sits so that he can make an Example: Hospital patient uses
association between the target patient-controlled, doctor-timed
behavior (sitting) and the pain relief.
consequence (getting a treat). Variable Interval: Reinforcement
Partial reinforcement- Also is delivered at unpredictable time
referred to as intermittent intervals( e.g. after 5,7,10, and 20
reinforcement, the person or minutes).
animal does not get reinforced Results: Moderate yet steady
every time they perform desired response rate.
behavior. There are several Example: Checking Facebook.
different types of partial Fixed ratio: Reinforcement is
reinforcement schedules. These delivered after a predictable
schedules are described as either number of responses( e,g., after
fixed or variable and as either 2,4,6,8, and 8 responses)
interval or ratio. Result: High response rate with
Fixed refers to the number of pauses after reinforcement.
responses between
reinforcements, or the amount of
Example: Piecework- factory someone from the quality control
worker getting paid for every x division comes to Manuel’s
number of items delivered. restaurant. If the restaurant is
Variable Ratio: Reinforcement is clean and the service is fast,
delivered after an unpredictable everyone on that shift earns a $20
number of responses( e.g. after bonus. Manuel never knows when
1,4,5, and 9 responses). the quality control person will
Result: High and steady response show up, so he always tries to
rate. keep the restaurant clean and
ensures that his employees
Example: Gambling
provide prompt and courteous
service. His productivity regarding
Definitions prompt service and keeping a
A fixed interval reinforcement clean restaurant are steady
schedule is when behavior is because he wants his crew to earn
rewarded after a set amount of the bonus.
time. For example, June With a fixed ratio reinforcement
undergoes major surgery in a schedule, there are a set number
hospital. During recovery, she is of responses that must occur
expected to experience pain and before the behavior is rewarded.
will require prescription Carla sells glasses at an eyeglass
medications for pain relief. June is store, and she earns a
given an IV drip with a patient- commission every time she sells a
controlled painkiller. Her doctor pair of glasses. She always tries to
sets a limit: one dose per hour. sell people more pairs of glasses,
June pushes a button when including prescription sunglasses
the pain becomes difficult, and she or a backup pair, so she can
receives a dose of medication. increase her commission. She
Since the reward (pain relief) only does not care if the person really
occurs on a fixed interval, there is needs the prescription sunglasses,
no point in exhibiting the behavior Carla just wants her bonus. The
when it will not be rewarded. quality of what Carla sells does
With a variable interval not matter because her
reinforcement schedule, the commission is not based on
person or animal gets the quality; it’s only based on the
reinforcement based on varying number of pairs sold. This
amounts of time, which are distinction in the quality of
unpredictable. Say that Manuel is performance can help determine
the manager at a fast-food which reinforcement method is
restaurant. Every once in a while most appropriate for a particular
situation. Fixed ratios are better variable ratio schedule, people
suited to optimize the quantity of keep trying and hoping that the
output, whereas a fixed interval, in next time they will win big. This
which the reward is not quantity- is one of the reasons that
based, can lead to a higher quality gambling is so addictive—and
of output. so resistant to extinction.
In a variable ratio reinforcement Q and A
schedule, the number of Slot machines reward gamblers
responses needed for a reward with money according to which
varies. This is the most powerful reinforcement schedule? Variable
partial reinforcement schedule. ratio- a variable reinforcement is
An example of the variable ratio unpredictable and addictive
reinforcement schedule is because each input scenario may
gambling. Imagine that Sarah— require a different amount(ratio) of
generally a smart, thrifty woman— buttons to produce a win.
visits Las Vegas for the first time. Ben has a job with a landscape
She is not a gambler, but out of service. He works about 35 hours
curiosity, she puts a quarter into each week. He is always paid on
the slot machine, and then Friday afternoon, and his salary is
another, and another. Nothing always the same. Ans: Fixed
happens. Two dollars in quarters Interval Ben’s interval is always a
later, her curiosity is fading, and week. This is not determined by
she is just about to quit. But then, how many days he works or how
the machine lights up, bells go off, many shrubs he plants; the
and Sarah gets 50 quarters back. interval is always the same. If
That’s more like it! Sarah gets some Fridays he got paid and
back to inserting quarters with other Fridays he didn’t, his
renewed interest, and a few schedule would be variable, but
minutes later she has used up all Ben’s schedule is very regular.
her gains and is $10 in the hole.
Erma sells hotdogs for one dollar
Now might be a sensible time to
each in the stands at the local
quit. And yet, she keeps putting
professional baseball stadium. For
money into the slot machine
every hotdog she sells, she puts
because she never knows when
25 cents in her pocket and 75
the next reinforcement is coming.
cents in her boss’s change purse.
She keeps thinking that with the
Ans: Continuous. Every time Erma
next quarter, she could win $50, or
makes a sale, she is rewarded
$100, or even more. Because the
with 25 cents.
reinforcement schedule in most
types of gambling has a
Sue makes simple fabric dolls for obvious reinforcement of the
a local craft store. The store only behavior or associations that are
takes the dolls in sets of 25. For learned.
every 25 dolls she delivers, the According to Albert Bandura,
store pays her $10. Ans: Fixed learning can occur by watching
ratio. others and then modeling what
Henry is observing beetles for his they do or say. This is known as
biology project. They return to observational learning. There are
their nest at unpredictable specific steps in the process of
intervals all day long, so Henry modeling that must be followed if
keeps a close watch all day. learning is to be successful. These
Which reinforcement schedule is steps include attention, retention,
this? Ans: Variable Interval, Henry reproduction, and motivation.
can’t predict when the beetles will Latent Learning: It occurs without
return to their nest, so they are any obvious reinforcement of the
returning at a variable interval behavior or associations that are
which Henry must observe all day. learned. Latent learning is not
Shelter, sex, and touch are readily apparent to the researcher
examples of primary reinforcers. because it is not shown
Sean wants to teach his dog to behaviorally until there is sufficient
turn the light on. What would be motivation. This type of learning
the best way to train his dog, broke the constraints of
utilizing the idea of shaping? What behaviorism, which stated that
might he do that using the concept processes must be directly
of shaping? observable and that learning was
Reward his dog when the dog the direct consequence of
looks at the light switch, when she conditioning to stimuli.
touches the light switch, when she In the experiments, Tolman placed
pushes it, and when she turns it hungry rats in a maze with no
on by command. reward for finding their way
Reinforcement differs from through it. He also studied a
punishment in that: reinforcement comparison group that was
is any outcome that leads to an rewarded with food at the end of
increase in a behavior and the maze. As the unreinforced rats
punishment is an outcome that explored the maze, they
leads to a decrease in a behavior. developed a cognitive map: a
mental picture of the layout of the
OTHER TYPES OF LEARNING
maze. After 10 sessions in the
Latent learning is a form of maze without reinforcement, food
learning that occurs without any
was placed in a goal box at the know: Edward Tolman
end of the maze. As soon as the experimented with rats around a
rats became aware of the food, maze.
they were able to find their way In Tolman’s study, the independent
through the maze quickly, just as variable was the presence of food
quickly as the comparison group, at the end of the maze.
which had been rewarded with The dependent variable in this
food all along. This is known as study was: the number of errors
latent learning: learning that made while running through the
occurs but is not observable in maze.
behavior until there is a reason to
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING-
demonstrate it.
Albert Bandura
Latent learning also occurs in
In observational learning, we
humans. Children may learn by
learn by watching others and then
watching the actions of their
imitating or modeling what they do
parents but only demonstrate it at
or say.
a later date when the learned
material is needed. For example, Bandura and other researchers
suppose that Ravi’s dad drives proposed a brand of
him to school every day. In this behaviorism called social
way, Ravi learns the route from his learning theory- which took
house to his school, but he’s never cognitive processes into account.
driven there himself, so he has not According to Bandura, pure
had a chance to demonstrate that behaviorism could not explain why
he’s learned the way. One morning learning can take place in the
Ravi’s dad has to leave early for a absence of external reinforcement.
meeting, so he can’t drive Ravi to He felt that internal mental states
school. Instead, Ravi follows the must also have a role in learning
same route on his bike that his and that observational learning
dad would have taken in the car. involves much more than imitation.
This demonstrates latent learning. Bandura identified three kinds of
Ravi had learned the route to models: live, verbal, and symbolic.
school but had no need to A live model demonstrates a
demonstrate this knowledge behavior in person, as when Ben
earlier. stood up on his surfboard so that
Latent learning is learning that is Julian could see how he did it.
not reinforced and not A verbal instructional model does
demonstrated until there is not perform the behavior, but
motivation to do so. Names to instead explains or describes the
behavior, as when a soccer coach
tells his young players to kick the This is known as vicarious
ball with the side of the foot, not reinforcement.
with the toe. On the other hand, if you observed
A symbolic model can be fictional the model being punished, you
characters or real people who would be less motivated to copy
demonstrate behaviors in books, her. This is called vicarious
movies, television shows, video punishment.
games, or Internet sources. Bandura researched modeling
Q and A behavior, particularly children’s
A person who performs a behavior modeling of adults’ aggressive and
that serves as an example is violent behaviors. He conducted
called a –model, a model conveys an experiment with a five-foot
information to the learner, with or inflatable doll that he called a
without conscious effort. Bobo doll. In the experiment,
Of course, we don’t learn a children’s aggressive behavior
behavior simply by observing a was influenced by whether the
model. teacher was punished for her
behavior. In one scenario, a
Bandura described specific steps
teacher acted aggressively with
in the process of modeling that
the doll, hitting, throwing, and
must be followed if learning is to
even punching the doll, while a
be successful: attention, retention,
child watched. There were two
reproduction, and motivation. First,
types of responses by the children
you must be focused on what the
to the teacher’s behavior. When
model is doing—you have to pay
the teacher was punished for her
attention. Next, you must be able
bad behavior, the children
to retain, or remember, what you
decreased their tendency to act as
observed; this is retention. Then,
she had. When the teacher was
you must be able to perform the
praised or ignored (and not
behavior that you observed and
punished for her behavior), the
commit to memory; this is
children imitated what she did, and
reproduction. Finally, you must
even what she said. They
have motivation. You need to want
punched, kicked, and yelled at the
to copy the behavior, and whether
doll.
or not you are motivated depends
on what happened to the model. If What are the implications of this
you saw that the model was study? Bandura concluded that we
reinforced for her behavior, you watch and learn and that this
will be more motivated to copy her. learning can have both prosocial
and antisocial effects. Prosocial
(positive) models can be used to in a room with the doll and other
encourage socially acceptable toys, they __kicked and threw the
behavior. Parents in particular doll__.
should take note of this finding. If Which is the correct order of steps
you want your children to read, in the modeling process?
then read to them. Let them see attention, retention, reproduction,
you reading. Keep books in your motivation
home. Talk about your favorite
What is the effect of prosocial
books. If you want your children to
modeling and antisocial modeling?
be healthy, then let them see you
eat right and exercise, and spend Prosocial modeling can prompt
time engaging in physical fitness others to engage in helpful and
activities together. The same holds healthy behaviors, while antisocial
true for qualities like kindness, modeling can prompt others to
courtesy, and honesty. The main engage in violent, aggressive, and
idea is that children observe and unhealthy behaviors.
learn from their parents, even their THE BOBO DOLL EXPERIMENT
parents’ morals, so be consistent Bandura studied the impact of an
and toss out the old adage “Do as adult’s behavior on the behavior of
I say, not as I do,” because children who saw them. One of
children tend to copy what you do his independent variables was
instead of what you say. whether or not the adult was
The antisocial effects of hostile or aggressive toward the
observational learning are also Bobo doll, so for some children,
worth mentioning. In fact, about the adults acted aggressively
30% of abused children become (treatment condition) and for
abusive parents. We tend to do others, they did not (control
what we know. Abused children, condition 1) and for yet other
who grow up witnessing their children there were no adults at all
parents deal with anger and (control condition 2). He was also
frustration through violent and interested to learn if the sex of the
aggressive acts, often learn to child and/or the sex of the adult
behave in that manner model influenced what the child
themselves. Sadly, it’s a vicious learned.
cycle that’s difficult to break. Based on Badura’s data boys
Q and A on average showed more physical
In Bandura’s Bobo doll study, aggression towards the Bobo doll.
when the children who watched Boys were more likely to show
the aggressive model were placed physical aggression if they had
seen a male model and girls were
more likely to show aggression to
a male model also.
More Q and A
Learning that does not reveal itself
until it is needed is called latent
learning.
The basic idea behind
observational learning is that;
Learning can occur by watching
others and modeling what they do
or say.