Introduction to Information Technology: Your Digital World

Using Information Technology, 10e

8
© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Introduction to Information Technology: Your Digital World

Chapter Topics
8.1 Managing Files
8.2 Database Management Systems
8.3 Database Models
8.4 Data Mining
8.5 Databases & the Digital Economy
8.6 Information Systems in Organizations
8.7 Artificial Intelligence

2
Using Information Technology, 10e © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Introduction to Information Technology: Your Digital World

8.1 Managing Files

3
Using Information Technology, 10e © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Introduction to Information Technology: Your Digital World

How Data Is Organized: The Data Storage

Hierarchy
The data storage hierarchy consists of the
levels of data stored in a computer database:
bits, characters (bytes), fields, records, and
tables (files).
• A database is a logically organized collection
of related data/files designed and built for a
specific purpose
• File (table): collection of related records
• Records (row): collections of related
fields
• Field (column): unit of data
containing 1 or more characters
• Character [Byte]: a letter
number or special character
made of bits
• Bit: 0 or 1
4
Using Information Technology, 10e © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Introduction to Information Technology: Your Digital World

The Key Field

• Key Field (primary key) – the field that uniquely identifies a record
• Often an identifying number, such as social security number or a student
ID number
• Keys are used to sort records in different ways
• Primary keys must be unique make records distinguishable from one
another
• Foreign keys appear in other tables and usually refer to primary keys in
particular tables; they are used to relate one table to another (to cross-
reference data)

5
Using Information Technology, 10e © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Introduction to Information Technology: Your Digital World

8.2 Database
Management Systems

6
Using Information Technology, 10e © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Introduction to Information Technology: Your Digital World

Database Management System (DBMS)

• DBMS is software written specifically to control the structure of a database and
access to the data (store, retrieve, and run queries on data).
• A DBMS serves as an interface between an end-user and a database, allowing
users to create, read, update, and delete data in the database.

7
Using Information Technology, 10e © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Introduction to Information Technology: Your Digital World

DBMS Benefits
1. Reduced data redundancy (redundant data is stored in multiple places, which
causes problems keeping all the copies current)
2. Speed—Modern DBMSs are much faster than manual data-organization systems
3. Improved data integrity—The data is accurate, consistent, and up to date
4. Timeliness—The data can be supplied in a timely fashion—when people need it.
5. Ease of sharing—The data in a database is usually shared over a network by an
entire organization.
1. Ease of data maintenance—DBMS offers backup utilities, and standard
procedures for data inserting, updating, and deletion.
6. Forecasting capabilities—DBMSs can hold massive amounts of data that can be
studied, and compared in order to forecast behaviors in markets and to support
the decision making process.
7. Increased security—Although various departments may share data, access to
specific information can be limited to selected users—called authorization
control.
8
Using Information Technology, 10e © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Introduction to Information Technology: Your Digital World

Three Database Components

1. Data Dictionary
• A document or file that stores the data definitions and descriptions of
the structure of data used in the database. It contains the metadata,
data that describes other data, such as the field name, the data type
2. DBMS Utilities
• Programs that allow you to maintain the database by creating, editing,
deleting data, records, and files. It enable you to monitor the types of
data being input and to sort your database by key fields.
3. Report Generator
• Program for producing on-screen or printed readable documents from
all or part of a database. the format of the report in advance—row
headings, column headings, page headers, and so on.

9
Using Information Technology, 10e © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Introduction to Information Technology: Your Digital World

8.3 Database Models

10
Using Information Technology, 10e © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Introduction to Information Technology: Your Digital World

DATABASE MODELS

1. Hierarchical Database
• Fields or records are arranged in related groups resembling a
family tree with child (low-level) records subordinate to
parent (high-level) records.
• The hierarchical database model was one of the first models
to be widely used.

11
Using Information Technology, 10e © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Introduction to Information Technology: Your Digital World

DATABASE MODELS

2. Network Database
• Similar to a hierarchical database but more flexible-- each child
record can have more than one parent record because different
relationships may be established between different branches of
data.
• The network database model was created to represent a more
complex data relationship effectively, improve database
performance, and impose a database standard.

12
Using Information Technology, 10e © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Introduction to Information Technology: Your Digital World

DATABASE MODELS

3. Object-Oriented Database
• An object-oriented database management system supports the
modeling and creation of data as objects, software written in
small, reusable chunks, as elements within database files.
• An object consists of:
• Data in any form, including audio, graphics, and video
• Instructions on the action to be taken with the data.

13
Using Information Technology, 10e © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Introduction to Information Technology: Your Digital World

DATABASE MODELS
4. Relational Database
• Data stored in tables (relations, or files) of rows (tuples, or
records) and columns (attributes, or fields)
• More flexible than previous models; built with SQL
• Example for large systems is Oracle
• Example for microcomputers is Microsoft Access
• Users employ SQL (structured query language) to create, modify,
maintain, and query the database

14
Using Information Technology, 10e © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Introduction to Information Technology: Your Digital World

DATABASE MODELS
5. Multidimensional Database
• A multidimensional database (MDB) models data as facts,
dimensions, or numerical measures for use in the interactive
analysis of large amounts of data for decision-making purposes.
• Online analytical processing (OLAP) software, which can quickly
provide answers to complex/ multidimensional database queries.

15
Using Information Technology, 10e © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Introduction to Information Technology: Your Digital World

8.4 Data Mining

16
Using Information Technology, 10e © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Introduction to Information Technology: Your Digital World

DATA MINING

• Data mining is the computer-assisted process of sifting through

and analyzing vast amounts of data to extract hidden patterns
and meaning and to discover new knowledge.
• Data mining is sorting through large amounts of data to identify
patterns and establish relationships
• Data and meta-data (data about the data) are transported to a
data warehouse after some data fusion and data cleansing
processes
• Data warehouse is a special database of cleaned-up data and
meta-data

17
Using Information Technology, 10e © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Introduction to Information Technology: Your Digital World

Data Mining

18
Using Information Technology, 10e © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Introduction to Information Technology: Your Digital World

8.5. Databases & the

Digital Economy

19
Using Information Technology, 10e © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Introduction to Information Technology: Your Digital World

E-Commerce (Electronic Commerce)

• The buying and selling of products and services through computer networks
• Examples of some e-tailers (electronic retailers):
• amazon.com sells books and almost everything else
• priceline.com sells airline tickets and hotel rooms
• dell.com sells computers and other electronic items
• Types of E-Commerce
• Business-to-Business (B2B)
• A business sells to other businesses using the internet or a private
network
• Business-to-Consumer (B2C)
• A business sells goods or services directly to consumers
• Consumer-to-Consumer (C2C)
• Consumers sell goods or services directly to other consumers with
the help of a third party, such as eBay 20
Using Information Technology, 10e © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Introduction to Information Technology: Your Digital World

E-Commerce (Electronic Commerce)

• Innovative e-tailer technologies make online

shopping easier
• 360-degree images
• Allow you to see all sides of an item
• Order tracking
• Codes are assigned to items being shipped that allow
customers to track shipping progress via the internet
• Shop bots
• Programs that help users search for a particular product or
service and then provide price comparisons

21
Using Information Technology, 10e © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Introduction to Information Technology: Your Digital World

8.6 Information Systems

in Organizations

22
Using Information Technology, 10e © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Introduction to Information Technology: Your Digital World

The Qualities of Good Information

• Correct and verifiable: This means information must be accurate and

checkable.
• Complete yet concise: Complete means information must include all
relevant data.
• Concise means it includes only relevant data.
• Cost-effective: This means the information is efficiently obtained and
understandable.
• Current: Current means timely yet also time-sensitive, based on
historical, present, or future information needs.
• Accessible: This means the information is quickly and easily
obtainable.

23
Using Information Technology, 10e © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Introduction to Information Technology: Your Digital World

Type of Information Systems

24
Using Information Technology, 10e © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Introduction to Information Technology: Your Digital World

Type of Information Systems

• Office information systems (OISs), also called office automation
systems (OASs), combine various technologies to reduce the manual
labor required in operating an efficient office environment and to
increase productivity.
• All office functions—dictation, typing, filing, copying, fax, microfilm
and records management, telephone calls, and switchboard
operations—are candidates for integration into the network.

25
Using Information Technology, 10e © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Introduction to Information Technology: Your Digital World

Type of Information Systems

• Transaction Processing Systems (TPS) is a computer-based information
system that keeps track of the transactions needed to conduct business.
• The transactions can be handled via batch processing/offline processing
—that is, the data is gathered and processed in batches at periodic
intervals. Or they may be handled via real-time processing/online
transaction processing (OLTP) —that is, each transaction is processed
immediately as it is entered

26
Using Information Technology, 10e © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Introduction to Information Technology: Your Digital World

Type of Information Systems

• Management information system (MIS) is a computer-based information
system that uses data recorded by a TPS as input into programs that
produce routine reports as output.
• Types of report such as Summary reports, Exception reports, Periodic
reports, Demand reports, etc.

27
Using Information Technology, 10e © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Introduction to Information Technology: Your Digital World

Type of Information Systems

• Decision Support Systems (DSS) is a computer-based information system that
provides a flexible tool for analysis and helps managers focus on the future.
• A DSS aims to produce collected information known as business intelligence,
gathering data from a wide range of sources in a way that can be interpreted
by humans and used to support business better decision making.

28
Using Information Technology, 10e © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Introduction to Information Technology: Your Digital World

Type of Information Systems

• Executive Support Systems (ESS) is an easy-to-use DSS made especially for
strategic managers; it specifically supports strategic decision making.
• The ESS includes capabilities for analyzing data and doing what-if scenarios.
ESSs also have the capability to browse through summarized information on
all aspects of the organization and then zero in on (“drill down” to) detailed
areas the manager believes require attention.

29
Using Information Technology, 10e © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Introduction to Information Technology: Your Digital World

8.7 Artificial Intelligence

30
Using Information Technology, 10e © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Introduction to Information Technology: Your Digital World

Artificial Intelligence (AI)

• Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a group of related technologies used to develop
software and machines that emulate human qualities such as learning,
reasoning, communicating, seeing, and hearing
CONVENTIONAL AI: BASED ON MACHINE COMPUTATIONAL INTELLIGENCE: BASED
LEARNING ON HEURISTICS
Conventional AI attempts to mimic human Computational intelligence relies less on
intelligence through logic and symbol formal logical systems and more on
manipulation, as well as statistics. experimental and trial-and error methods.
Machine Learning Technique, Environmental Heuristics, Pattern Recognition, Reasoning
mapping, Case statement, Statistic Analysis
Machine learning, which is the Heuristics, or rules of thumb, for solving a
development of techniques that allow a problem, rather than hard-and-fast formulas
computer to simulate learning by generating or algorithms.
rules from raw data fed into it i.e. expert Fuzzy logic recognizes more than simple
system true and false values. It works with ranges of
values, solving problems in a way that more
resembles human logic or experience. 31
Using Information Technology, 10e © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Introduction to Information Technology: Your Digital World

Strong VS Weak AI

32
Using Information Technology, 10e © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Introduction to Information Technology: Your Digital World

Artificial Intelligence (AI) Area

• AI Areas include: Expert systems, Natural language processing, Pattern
recognition, Robotics

33
Using Information Technology, 10e © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Introduction to Information Technology: Your Digital World

Artificial Intelligence (AI) Area

• Expert Systems, or knowledge-based system, is a set of interactive computer
programs that helps users solve problems that would otherwise require the
assistance of a human expert.
• Three components of an expert system:
• Knowledge base: an expert system’s database of knowledge about a particular
subject
• Inference engine: the software that controls the search of the expert system’s
knowledge base and produces conclusions
• User interface: the display screen for the user to interact with the expert system

34
Using Information Technology, 10e © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Introduction to Information Technology: Your Digital World

Artificial Intelligence (AI) Area

• Natural language processing
• Allows users to interact with a system
using normal language.
• The study of ways for computers to
recognize and understand human
language.
• Pattern recognition
• Involves a camera and software that
identify visual patterns by mapping
them against similar patterns stored in
a database, i.e. facial-recognition
software.
35
Using Information Technology, 10e © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Introduction to Information Technology: Your Digital World

Artificial Intelligence (AI) Area

• Robotics
• The development and study of machines that can
perform work that is normally done by people
• Commonly found in factories and also in situations
where people would be in danger
• Nuclear inspections
• Checking for land mines and bombs

36
Using Information Technology, 10e © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Introduction to Information Technology: Your Digital World

ARTIFICIAL LIFE, THE TURING TEST,

& THE SINGULARITY
Turing Test
• In 1950 Allen Turing predicted computers would eventually be
able to mimic human thinking
• Turing test determines whether the computer is human
• Judge is in another location and doesn’t see
the computer
• Judge converses via a computer terminal with
two entities: one a person and one a
computer
• Judge must determine who is the person and
who is the computer
• If the computer can fool the judge, it is said to
be intelligent
• No computer system has yet passed the
Turing test
37
Using Information Technology, 10e © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.