n this unit.

we shali compare the developmeni enperience of the developed vapitalist

ounties wit the contemporary strategies ana pertormane to highliglht the historical
elevance ot the deveiopment process This comparison will help us'to appreciate some of the
in-built coptradictions. like growth vs. ustice. rural vs. urban or organised vs. unorganised
activitues. which we come across in the underdeveloped counyies, in general, and in our
country, in pariicular.

Later. we shaiB follow the comparison by a discussion of the problems of development like
unemploymnent. inequality. poverty and illiteracy. which have been persistent. Ifyou study
the content of the media. then. I am sure. you will see these problems are being reflected in
them. In fact, it is with these problems of development that the media are often concerned
much more than any other aspects of deveiopment. These problems have been incladed with
a hope that tihey would provide you with adequate ability to relate them to the sources, and help
you to iind possible sol:tions.

Activity 1

We shail be discussing some technical terms in the beginning of this unit. Full attention
is required trom the students so that they will be in a position to grasp the fu!l meaning
of these terms.

Before we go into these ierms, engage yourself in an activity to find out what you mean
by these concept/tem1s. You have heard the word 'development' so often. In the space
provided below, write what you understand when you hear the word 'development'

*************** ** ******************************************

******************"******************* . .. ... ... ............ will

***************************** *** *** ******* ****** * ********** ******************
deve
exar
**** - . . . ....
**** *** ********************** ******************* * uner

peo
In your village/locality/area, what are the main issues and problems which you think whic
need immediate attention so that
prosperity/progress/developmeni may take place.
Mention three such problems/issues and give reasons as to why you think they are
num

pro
urgent. SOCi
not
* ************
************************************************ invo
*************************** *********

***
the
** ********** ******************* ************ *** *** ***** ***********

mod
***

******* .

******************************************************'********** ********************** ************

knov
not o
*****.********************************* ***************** *************** ****** *******
***** alwa
*************************************** ******** *** ** ** ******* *** ********************** ***

1.2.
1.2 THE CONCEPT OF DEVELOPMENT Havi
woul
Here, we shall have the occasion to see the difficulties involved defining in and begir
development. Also we can see the changing perceptions of development measuring
as it evolved over a meas
period of time. Since much of the writings on development are whic
often start with economic by economists, the definitions
development. It is not that there is a general agreement on the meas
definition of economic
development, but it will serve as a simplified starting point. capit
conv
We shall define economic
developiment as "the process of increasing the real per capita
income of a country over a long
provi
period of time accompanied by changes in its structure and
institutions. For example the Indian How
government is inviting the foreign business companies to
invest in India. This invitation, if
accepted by several foreign conmpanies, inight create a large We
number of jobs. This means that the
employed people will have a steady income, probably an
increased one. I am sure you krow that
per capita income is calculated by dividing the
Fi
total income of all the citüzens of a yearly re
country by the number of its population. Therefore, less
unemployment means higher per capita income. Once the un
people have money at hand, they W
 Canceptof

pEVELOPME
PMENT

will definitely satisfy their immediate requirements such as food, clothing and shelter. The real
development is not in the figure of the per capita income. It must be seen and felt- take, for
example. the opening up of the Indian economý to the outside world. If we have less
unemployment in India, it will make for more livable houses, which means lesser number of
peopie sleeping on the footpaths ofthe cities like Calcutta or Bombay; more transport facilities,
which means lss crowded buses and trains; lesser beggars in the streets of metropolises:; less
number of illiterates, etc. These are the signs of development- real development. "The
process involves not only changes in the economic structure, but is interlinked with the entire
social, political and cultural fabric of society." It is necessary to note that development does
not mean mere increase in the per capita income or mere irndustrialization, but "a process
involving a number of qualitative changes'", nothing less than the"upward movement of
the entire social system." Some may interpret development as "attainment of a number of
modernization ideals, such as rise in productivity, social and economic equalization, modern
knowledge, and improved institutions and attitudes." Proper and adequate development is
not done by dislodging people from their roots, culture or environments. Proper development
always helps peopie to be self-sufficientand self-reliant.

1.2.1 Measurement of Development

Having noticed the difficulties in defining development, we can easily see the problems that
would arise in the measurement of development. As in the case of the definition, we nay
begin with the measurement of econnic development. Economists have, "traditionally,
measured economic development by the level of per capita Gross National Produet (GNP),
which. in simple tems, means the total national income divided by the population. This
measure was adopted by the United Nations, in 1950, when it classified all countries with a per
capita income of less than $ 200 as less developed countries (LDC). This was a rough butt
convenient measure for the UN to identify the less-developed countries for the purpose of
providing economic aid.

However, the limitations of the per capita GNP as a measure of development are well known.
We can mention at least four such limitations here.

First, it is based on national income statistics, which does not include major portions of
real
income, like the contribution of work done in the household. This will seriously
undermine the value of the real per capita income of countries like India, where household
work provides substantial proportion of
goods and services.
d evelopment

JNDIE VSA
US& US#
000 1000

Second. it is an average and does not say

much about the structure of production or

distribution of the national income. For example,

Kuwait's per capita income, in 1990.
was $ 32.6S0, the highest in the world,
and that of the United Arab Emirates was $ 19,860.
It does not mean that these countries are developed, and that is why the UN has categorized

them as developing countries.

Third. progress in a narrow sector, like natural resource-exports. oil, minerals, timber
might show high per capita income as in Kuwait and the U.A.E.. Trinidad and Tobaggo.
countries be
($3.610), Gabon ($3,.330). But, by no stretch of imagination, can these
considered ten times more developed than India with a per capita income of $350 in 1990.
Also the purchasing power of local currency is higher than the dollar in the U.S. or other
countries. You can easily perceive that Kuwait, Brunai. the U.A.E. etc. are rich in
non-renewable resources. Once these resources are consumed, the development process in
these countries might cease. Therefore, this kind of development is kollow and temporary.

Fourth, the per capita income may increase even in the face of increasing unemployment.
For instance, today we see that the gross national income of the USA has intreased. The
normal process and assumption is that with thegrowth of per capita income unenployment
diminishes. However, in societies which use high technologies, i.e., labour-displaciog or
capitai-intensive societies, the per eapita income may rise with the rise of unemployment
For example, computerisation or the use of robots might cause a rise in the unemployment
rate.

In spite of these well-known limitations of the measurement of 'economic development' in

terms of per capita income, it is still used widely because of lack of a more satisfactory
measure. The World Bank continues to classify countries on the basis of per capita income.
In 1990, the UN classified the countries as

low income economies: those with a GNP per capita ofS610 or less,

middle incomeeconomies: S611-7,619, and

high income economies: $7.620 or more.

You should note that there has been growirg criticism of this per capita income based concept.
One such criticism is that it leads to misconception of the tasks of development. The growing
disenchantment with a GNP per capita has resulted in a number of alternative ways
measurement of development. One such
o
proposition is that
"development means
reducing
unemployment, iniiigation of inequality and eradication of poverty," According to this
 of
deveioped. if it has poverty and high degree
Cencept a country may not be ca!led
nemployinent and incquality.

of the life index

concept of development suggests an index of physical quality
Tet another
of literacy, life
PQLD. hich emphasizes quality of life as evidenced by the state
freedomns,
pectancy, infant mortality, etc. Yet another notion of development emphasizes
apabilities, and entitlements for better 1life, which could be expressed in terms of a scale,

inilar to,those considered under quality of life. One of the recent entries in the alternative
ievelopment perspective is sustainable development. It draws attention to the need to
nserve resources so that the process of development would be sustainable without
ndangering the resources for the future generations. Thus, it is clear that the concept of
development has advanced far ahead of the narrow confines of per capita incomne.

Check Your Progress1

Note: i) Use the space below for your answers.

ii) Compare your answers with those given at the end of this unit.

1) We have discussed various definitions of development. Please mention at least 10

areas, which could be considered the signs of development, for example, total literacy.

*********"****************** ** **.* "********************** ******°'****"************************

********************** ** ********* ****************'****** *********************************

*********** '** *** ****** **************** '******'******* ****'*******

2) How does one measure the "per capita income ?

3) Why does the UN categories countries as "low-income'", "middie-income" and

"high-income" groups?
********************************************************

**°*****'***°"

Ts ******** *************** ******** ***************** ************ *************

*********.**** ***** *****************°*******

1.2.2 Characteristics of Developing Countries vis-a-vis Development

Faced with these complexities in conceptualizing development, there are many textbooks
which try to present underdevelopment in terms of certain common characteristics of the
developing countries. These include

low levels ofliving.

low levels of productivity,
high rates of population growth,
highend rising levels of unemployment,
ot.
ng underemployment, and
high dependençe on agriculture and other primary production.
ng
IS
 she been allowed as sone more iortunate countries were, iO rcalize her destiny in fher own wa.
Af anú.evelopment
to enpioy her resources for her own benetit, and to harness her energies and abilities tor the

advancement ot her own people.

The most forceful presentation of the neo-Marxist thesis is found in Andre Gunder Frank:

"Under deveicpmeni is not just the lack of deveiopment. Before there was development, there
was no underdevelopment. This relation betwecn developrnent and underdevelopment is not
more developed, and yet there is
a comparative one, in the sense that! some pl.ces are
just
nderdevelopment
A.G. Frank contents that underdevelopment as we know it today, and economic development
as well, are the simultaneous and related products of deveiopment on a world wide scale. and
over a history of more than four centuries, at least, of a single integrated economic system:
are interrelated, and in the
Capitalism. Though integrated in the sense that its far-flung parts
sense that it internally generates its own transtormation, the capitalist system is aiso wrought
diffuses back some of the fruits of
by contradiction. Cae part expioits another, though it also
the economic and cultural development based on that exploitation.

Check Your Progress 5

Note: ) Use the space below for your answers.

at the end of this unit.

i) Compare your answers with those given

) What is the main point of view of the 'populist paradigm'?

.**************** **************************************'** ******************'************'*********

* * *** ***** ***

*********"**********'***********************************************

2) Do you agree with what Paul Baran has said about the course of development

taken by India? Why?

*****************************************'*****************************'*********'**************'****''*********'*****

** ********
****** *********************

******************************** *** *' *************** * **********

............ . .. .. *.************"********"************************

.. . . . . . * * * * . * * * * * * * . * * " * * * * * * " * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ***********************

1.4 DEVELOPMENT EXPERIENCE: THE

THIRDWORLD
After the Second world war, many colonies got independence, and started re-building their
nations. The leaders of these newly independent countries were desperate to bring their
nations out of the vicious circle of poverty, uneducation, disease, hunger, etc. Thus
'development' became a key word in most of their speeches. And the meaning of development
were as varied as the countries. We shall discuss the experienice of these countries, known as
the Third World countries, in the field of development. About three quarters of all humanity.
numbering three and a half billion people, living in the developing countries in Asia, Africa
and Latin America, spanning two thirds of the earth's land surface, constitute the Third
World. A Third World because it belongs neither to the group of industrialized capitalist
countries nor the socialist countries, wherever such countries still exit. These Third World
countries vary greatly in size, natural resource endowments, in the structure oftheir economics.
in the level of economic. social, and technological development. The diversities are fairly
marked, making even the Third World less homogeneous. But the unifying aspect is that. in
these countries, the need to overcome poverty and secure a better life for their people is
primary. Yet, it is ironic, by the end of the 1980s, it could be seen that the achievements of the
Third World during the post-World War II decades had not fundamentally changed the status
of these countries in relation to the world economic system. They remained poor,
subordinate, and powerless. In general, their national se!f-reliance had not increased, in some

16
 ihe Ceneept of De
counries dependence ntensiticd as they tried to inodernize Poverty persisiei nd
income gap between the deeveloped countries and Third Wortd widened.

The growth in the Third Worid rarcly removed the structural iñequalities and cieavages. n
the contrary. the income gap between the rich and poor became wider. As a result, tne
economic growth brought along with it the problem of growing disparities, tendencies towards
disintegration and instability. The social and economic status of women leave much to be
desired. And there was growing dependence of these countries on the developed ones. In spite
of ihe fact that any of the developing countries are dependent on international trade, their share
ot the world trade has dropped from over 30 per cent in the 1950s to about 15 per cent by the
cnd of 1980s. A considerable part of the deciining share has been due to the deteriorating tens
o trade. lhese countries are becoming increasingly dependent on aid and borrowings from
abroad. resulling in a growing foreign debt. There has been an increase in the participation of
the multinational corporations in these countries, and their influence on economic poiicies has
been growing. The Third World accounts for
two per cent of investment on research
and developnent, thus leaving these countries technologically dependent. Most often the
hardly
imported technologies are inappropriate, leaving little scope for expansion of much needed
employment opportunities.

Faced with the growing international inequalities in economic power and influence in the
existing world economic order, ihe Third World countries lobbied for a better deal, which
resulted in the U.N. Resolution popularly referred to as the New International Economic Order
(NIEO), which sought a programme of action towards an equitable world. Some of the
important aspects of NIEO were
renegoiating the debts of the developing countries;
redefining the terins of trade, and assuring greater access to the developed country inarkets;

refornning the IMF and its decision making process; and

attaining the UN official developmnent assistance targets.

Exceptor some alteinpts to negotiate debt repayment in a few cases and some discussion in
UNCTAD on access to trade, not much progress has been made. In fact, the tendency has been
towards disparities between the rich and poor countries by subordinating their interests to those
of the former.

Check Your Progress 6

Note: i) Use the space below for your answers.

ii) Compare your answers with those given at the end of

this unit.
1) Why did the New International Economic Order (NIEO) come into being?
****
***** *************** ****** ******* * * **

**********************************************"************** **** "*** .. .. .. ...

***************************** *

2) What were the demands of the NIE0?

********** *******************************************

***************"***** ***** *** .

n
3) Why did not the NIEO succeed?
1S * * * * * * * * * * * * * * : ************************ * * * * * * * * * * * * * .* . . . . . .

S
** **********************************"********** ***************:'****

ne
 comunicaOn Is
cA ent iommuneaton is a lool, andl not a poduct. Developunenl
d micpiei the ulimate gnul ot de ielopnent c o m i c a l o n is n hiphh r qualny or e o
IV)
the ople ot a siciety
You
Activity2 partic

a dec
take any newspaper that you
can lay
newspaper that you subscribe
to or for i
TAAe today's
Our hands on. SOCie
better
or ino.
out whether they are positive
iASt all the advertisements, and find
Positive To p
Advertisement Message
apprc
IYes No empa
i **************

indiv
IYesI No
************************ ***************

) E
Yes No
**********
***
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ' * **
* ** * * * *

probl
urbar
********************
*****'*******
************************ Y I I No parti
IYes I No prodi
***

of th
**********'******
*************
* * * *

Yes No
******** ********* *************
Urba
*******************

the
****************** **********
IIYes No
*****

Yes No Accc
emp
************
*******
************************

Yes | No and
** *** ******* **** ******* *****************
must

Yes I No then
******************* **************************************|
I
****

peop
need
Check Your Progress 2 as m
answer. the c
Note: i) Use the space below for your
and
with the one given at the end of this unit.
i) Compare your answer hissh

communication is purposive, positive

and
) You have just read that development words what He p
below, please explain in your
own

pragmatic. Using the space given diffe

do vou mean by each of them? radi
**************************************

Purposive..
****************************

*************** ***
D
**********************************************************"

*************** * cO
the
* ********************************************"** *****************************
Acc
Positive. proc
ada

****************************************'********** ** *** ********

We
Pragmatic... *************

segn
*******************'***************************

**************'**
**************'*********
* hapt
adop
the

ROLE OF THE MEDIA IN DEVELOPMENT peo

2.4
COMMUNICATION You
abou
changes in development
communication. Itplays the following four
The role of the media also neig
responsible roles. adoj
events, opportunities, dangers
1) Circulateknowiedge that will inform people of significant 3) N
and changes in their community, country and theworld.
aired. whi
national or community life may be
Provide a forum where issues affecting the
 Developnent C'onia
Teach those ideas, skilis and attitudes that people need to achieve for a betier life.
ii)
IV)Create and maintain a base of consensus that is needed for the stability ol ihe state.

YOu must be knowing the meaning of 'empathy'. Daniel Lerner used this term with a
particular emphasis on the aspirations for a new identity. Suppose, you have a goal of building
a decent house so that you can live with the minimum hassels. You dream about it you aspire
for it. We can say that you empathize with it. Here, Lerner said that people of any given
society must think and aspire for a beter life. If they do so, then they are emphathetie about a
better life.

To perform these roles, the media keeps the development orientation in its perspecti ve. Three
approaches have been identified in relating communication to development. These are
empathy. diffusion, and multiplying of information. We shall discuss each separately.
individually.
) Empathy: Daniel Lerner (1958) in his book, Passing of Traditional Society, saw the
problem of 'modernizing" traditional societies. He saw the spread of literacy resulting from
urbanization as a necessary precondition to more complete modernization that would include
participatory political institutions. Development was largely a matter of increasing
productivity. And to increase this producti'vity one must aspire, and it must begin in the psyche
of the people. Hence, it is basically "psychological".

Urbanization literacy economic and political participation

the mass media exposure

According to D. Lerner, development failed to occur because peasants were unable to

empathise' or imaginatively identify with the new role, and a changed and better way of life
and so remained fatalistic - unambitious and resistant to change. Every change in society

nust originate and begin in the hearts of the pèople. If the people would like to change. only
then the development would begin. What is required is that some means of providing such
people with clues as to what better things in life might be. Lemer saw the media as filling this
need of prqmoting interest among the people for a better life. Not only that, he saw the media
as machines, inspiring people for better things in life. He said 'empathy' endows a person with
the capacity to imagine himself as proprietor of a big grocery store in a city, to wear nice cloths
and live in a nice house, to be interested in "what is going on in the world'" and to "get out of
his hole.

He pointed out to the correlation between economie productivity and the media provisions in
different countries in support of his theory. The richest country had the most newspapers, the
radios and so on, and the poorest, the least.

2) Diffusion: Everett M. Rogers (1983) approached this with a perspective that had muchin
colln with ierner, but differed with him somewhat in emphasis. He saw the diffusion of
the new ideas and their practice as a crucial component of the modernization process.
According to him, "the mass communication influence appears to operate by a 'two step flow'
process through awareness of the mass media, development of favourable attitudes and
leaders".
adaptation by inter-personal channels, particularly, "opinion
We shall discuss this a little more. It has been found that when a message is propagated; a
segment of the population adopts it, and develops a positive attitude towards it. 1iis can
happen in the case otf a product, fertilizer, seeds, ideas, jourmals, ete. Then, the people who

first, directly or indirectiy shape the positive attitude of others who remain indifferent
to
adopt
the message. This is true in places where information and literacy levels are low. Simple
would like confirnation from the people living in their proximity.
people to get

You can think about this prowess in your daily. l1fe. How niany times yuu need intorination
about a product, a book, or about an incident from your friends, classinates, oftice-mates,
neighbours and otihers. Women, especially, need a lot of contirmation from others before they

adopt sonnething. We can go on citing examples.

TS
3) Magic Multiplier: Wilbur Schrarm's (1964) Mass Media and National Development.
which was produced for the UNESCO, became aimost a biuerrint for development
communication. W hile Lerner and others saw all of the media cuiput as having potentially
e eiopn nt to their use in
OdernZling cltects, for Schranin it was their conient that was the key
Social change of great magntude is required. To achieve it. people must be
i.velopment
intormed. persuaded, educated only to them but also from them,
Infonation must flow, not
so that their needs can be know, and ihey niighi participate
in the acts and decisions of the
so that decisions may be made.
nation-buiiding; and information musi also flow vertically
learned at all levels of society for better
Works should be organized. and skills should be
enters thecominunication
utilizauon of the resources of society. Here is where the mass
is so vast that only by making
calculus- the required amount of information and learning the developing countries
the media, can
ofthegrcat information muliipliers,
mass
eitective use

ide information at the rates time tables

their for develop1nent demand
hope io pro
mentioned that a lot of feedback is required
Schramm has very clearly
Let us elaborate a little. The users
when one uses comnunication for development.
It should never be one-way traffic.
to find
This would help the implementors
should be able to give feedback to the implementors.
or aim.
outwhether or not the communication is meeting their purpose

information required by the work that he

Schramm has also s2id that each person could have
lacs of workers requiring various
would undertake. And there might be thousands and
would never be able to meet this
information. The conventional ciannels of communication
would be of great use to meet this
icmand. Therefore, modern com munication technologies
worker.
demand multiplying the messages and reaching each and every
by
Check Your Progress 3

Note: i) Use the space below for your answers.

i) with those given at the end of this unit.

Compare your answers

In the previous section you have learnt how Daniel Lerner, Everett Rogers and Wilbur
Schramm saw the role of the media in development activities. Please mention the major
ideas that have been expounded by these great authors.

Authors Ideas on the role of the media in

communication

) Daniel Lerner ***** ** ******************** *******

e ** *****

********** ************ *********** *******

2) Everett M. Rogers ...

* *************

**** **** **************

**"************"************'********'******.

3) Wilbur Schramm

ao***** ***********************

2.5 COMMUNICATION NEEDS AND RESOURCES

So far, we have discussed the positive role of communication, and have seen hbow the
communication inputs work to nake a developimental programme srcc . But how dues
one go about formulating the comnunication strategy or the inputs requpor a progranme?

m planning communication strategy for developtnent, the most important element is

denüfication of conagiunication needs and resources. Unless one is careful about this, or if