CHAPTER 2

Theories of Development
Communication

refer to
Theories of Development Communication
within
communication processes, strategies and principles
the field of international, national and regional development,
aimed at improving the conditions and quality of lite of people

struggling with underdevelopment and marginalization.

Development communication is
characterized by conceptual
communication techniques used to
lexibility and diversity of discussed in this
address the problem. The approaches
modernization theory, dependency theory,
chapter include:
diffusion of innovation theory, participatory development
There
and social marketing.
communication, media advocacy communication
are other indigenous
models of development
the
which are discussed in
and policy model for development
next two chapters.
DEVELOPMENT
DOMINANT PARADIGM OF
THE
in Asia, Africa
The end of colonization of many countries in
the 1960s and the upsurge
and Latin America by the imposition
of
Assistance led to
Organized Development dominant paradigm
emerged in
The Dominant Paradigm. The countries
the newly independent
the sixties with many of the European
the development path of
attempting to retrace solve their
in a bid to
colonization)
Countries (barring Advocates of
the dominant
problems of underdevelopment.
 Communication for Development 55
54
Theories of Development Communication
Daniel Lerner, Lucien Pye, Ithiel forms of government were established o v e r
paradigm,Wilbur Schramm, representative
believed that the process of
De Sola Pool and
Walt Rostow hundreds of years. This meant individual freedoms, political
involved a transition from traditionalism to in short, western-style liberal
development parties, elections, rule of law: Third World did not
modernization in unidirectional way with countries
a democracy. Many countries in the
ultimately reaching the
status of the Western countries.
undergo these economic or political transformations: they
the political and
Industrialization w a s thought of, by were left behind'. So
the task of these countries was to
to development. In this singular transform themselves from tradition to modernity by
etonomic elite, as the key w a s assumed that
following the footsteps of the West. It
as economic growth,
Conception of 'development' with the West these countries had an
industrialization became a race of catching up because the pathwas charted,

or with standards almost entirely

set by West-centric emulative model to follow.
deemed developed. theorists has
institutions for a country to be One of the most influential modernization
was the project of been W.W. Rostow of the US. His book The Stages of
Accompanying this frenetic activity
modernization which involved
infrastructural changes such Economic Growth (1960) outlined five stages using the
to the take-
as dams and highways; social changes such as getting rid
metaphor of take-off: from the traditional society
beliefs and practices and off stage. He believed that every society would pass through
of the perceived ills of traditional
educational systems with an emphasis on modern the five economic stages: the traditional society,
revamping
science and rationality; and political changes such a s preconditions for take-off, take-off, drive to maturity, and the
and State apparatus. This of m a s s consumption. New production methods in
creating an efficient bureaucracy age high
agriculture and industry through the application of modern
three-pronged strategy was underpinned by what came to be
known as modernization theory that indirectly informed the technology, mobilization of savings, and development of
choices of 'development' made by the leaders of many infrastructure such as banking, insurance, transportation
and communications, would result in pre-conditions for take-
countries.
off of the economy. The take-off stage would lead to a
In broad outline, modernization theory focused on
transformation of the economy from a traditional to a modern
deficiencies in the poorer countries and speculated about
viewed traditional State with a steady economic growth rate. The drive to
ways to overcome these deficiencies. It
society as a series of negatives: stagnant and unchanging, maturity would lead to sustained economic growth and
integration into international markets. The age of high mass
not innovative, not profit-making, not progressing, not
consumption would arrive when majority of the population
growing. It argued that about 500 years ago, most people in
could go beyond consumption of basic necessities to luxury
the world were poor or living in traditional (often subsistence)
sOcial arrangements. Scientific innovation existed in many goods and services: airplanes flying smoothly in the sky. The
a
United States, Japan and Western European nations are
parts of the world (China, India, the Middle East) but for
variety of reasons (not least of them the conquest of the New
countries that had reached the stage of mass consumption.
As countries prepared to launch their airplanes or
World and slavery, which modernization theory bypasses, struggled to keep them flying, they needed assistance: funds,
science and entrepreneurship grew in Western Europe. The
technology, and new markets. The flaws in this theory are
engine of this economic growth was capitalism. Innovati0 numerous. It did not consider what would happen if the
and technological growth became self-sustaining in Western aeroplanes' failed to take-off or if the ones already flying
Europe because they were embedded in the capitalist system. started to slow down or lost the power to ift the planes on
Some modernization theorists emphasized the politica the ground. The theory also did not consider such factors as
modernization that accompanied this economic advance the instability existing inequalities may create. It saw no
1eudal lords and autocratic monarchies were challenged and
 Communication
57
Theories of Development
56
Communication for Development m a s s media
and control of
elite ownership
factors such as
which may have
interests of the rich and of the poor: it messages
conflict between the and low priority
to developmental
the developing
world's r e s o u r c e s and benefits may s o m e of
ignored the fact that the pro-development in
of wealth in some hands not been
the accumulation
be limited, that
and Alex Inkeles (1966)
countries.
diminish the chances of others. This theory (1966)
might actually David McClelland
attitudes that lead to
has also been critiqued by the dependency theory for its a described individual
attributes and
that led to
historicity and its Eurocentric approach to development. McClelland examined the impulse
Daniel Lerner conceived social development as a nucleus modernity. found the mental
m o d e r n i z a t i o n and
economic growth and enabled people
of mobile, change-accepting personalities, a growing mass virus named n-Ach o r
need for achievement
media system to spread the ideas and attitudes of social n-Ach had to be
and faster. But
mobility and empathy, the interaction of urbanization, to work m o r e efficiently modernization.
c o n s c i o u s n e s s for
combined with social modernization
literacy, and industrialization, higher per capita income and McClelland (1966) the impulse
to
political participation (Lerner, 1958). Lerners model suggests According to the social attitude to
attribute n-Ach and
lies in the personal attitude
that the evolution from traditional to modern societies follows Inkeles identified nine
work for the welfare of society.
a causal path that leads to increased mass media use. The character of a modern person: openness
items to describe the
path ends with increased political participation and growth n e w experiences, ability
to
ideas and readiness to
to n e w
in gross national product (GNP). He also suggested that democratic attitude, ability to plan,
form and hold opinions,
individuals needed the capacity to identify new aspects of human dignity, faith in
belief in human efficacy, s e n s e of
their environment, an attribute called empathy which was to calculable and
distributive justice, belief that the world is
be an important skill for people in transition from traditional faith in science and technology (Inkeles, 1966).
to modern social settings. Lerner also believed that a high
empathetic capacity was the key attribute of western MODERNIZATION THEORY
countries which were literate, urban, industrial and
participant.
Both Lerner (1958) and Wilbur Schramm (1964)
Forroughly o n e decade until the second half of the
emphasized a high correlation existed between the indices of 1960s, modernization theory was in vogue in the social
sciences, especially in the United States. The concept
modernity and availability of mass media: more developed modernization was commonly invoked in efforts to explain
the nation, higher was the availability of mass media long-term change, and it figured in critiques of Marxist
channels. Schramm (1964: 112) observed that the less- theory and discussions of Cold War differences over how
developed countries have less-developed mass communi-
cation systems and less development in the services that newly independent countries should develop. Over the
following two decades, modernization theory became a target
support the growth of mass communication. In tune with
of widespread criticism. It was attacked for its effort to
this observation,
for mass
UNESCO suggested a minimum standard
media availability in the Third World that every impose a U.S. or Western model, disregarding obstacles
country should aim to provide for every 100 of its inhabitants resulting from the actual world order. Many rejected any
ten copies of
daily newspapers, five radio receivers, two theory for postmodernist reasons, while others preferred neo-
television receivers and two cinema seats Marxist or world systems theories that put the blame for
(Schramm, 1964).
They argued that increased exposure to mass media underdevelopment on the United States.
messages would create a 'climate for modernization' in the Modernization means the appearance of modes of social
rural areas of the Third
World (Lerner, 1958; life or organization which emerged in Europe from about the
1964). But such thinking ignored the social and Schramm,
structural seventeenth century onwards and which subsequently
58 Communication for Development
Communication 59
Theories of Development
became more or less worldwide in their influence (Giddens
1991a). Modernization theories explain the changing ways of
communication and media use in traditional and
(post)modern societies. Modernization theory has evolved in
three waves. The first wave appeared in the 1950s and
1960s. One made the attempt to explain the diffusion of
Western styles of living, technological innovations and
individualist types of communication (highly selective,
addressing only particular persons) as the superiority of
secular, materialist, Western, individualist culture and of
individual motivation and achievement (Lerner, 1958;
Schramm, 1964). This first wave of theory produced three
variants (McQuail, 2000: 84):
1. Economic development: mass media promote the
global diffusion of many technical and social
innovations that are essential to modernization.
2. Literacy and cultural
development: mass media can
teach literacy and other essential skills and
techniques. They encourage a 'state of mind'
favorable to modernity, e.g. the
imagination of an
alternative way of life beyond the traditional
way.
3. National identity
development: mass media could
support national identities in new nations (colonies)
and support attention to democratic
policies
(elections).
Most of these theories have been
discredited because of
their pro-Western bias.
The second wave of modernization
theory that was
popular in the 1970s and 1980s criticizes the influence of
Western modernization as an
outcome of Western cultural
and economic
imperialism or dominance (Schiller, 1986
According to the media dependency theory,
(developing) countries are assumed to peripheral
be dependant on mass
media in the core
(the Western world). third
The wave of
modernization theory rising in the 1990s is
the theory of late,
high- or post-modernity. It tries to be more
in favor or neutral, being not
against Western modernization. Rather it
attempts to unearth the contradictions in the
process and to explain the modernization
consequences of modernity 1or
60 Communication for Development Theories of Development Communication 61

individuals in contemnporary society (Giddens, 1991a, 1991b). and the larger social system. The theory is applied to the
While traditional society is based on direct interaction mass media at micro, meso, macro level: individuals,
between people living close to each other, Giddens showed interpersonal networks, organizations, social systems and
that modern societies stretch further and further across societies. This theory predicts that an individual depends on
space and time using mass media and interactive new media. media information to meet certain needs and achieve certain
The theory of modernization normaly consists of three goals, like uses-and-gratifications theory. But individuals do
parts: (1) identification of types of societies, and explanation not depend on all media equally. Two factors influence the
of how those designated a s modernized o r relatively degree of media dependence. First, an individual will become
modernized differ from others; (2) specification of how more dependent on media that meet a number of his or her
societies become modernized, comparing factors that are needs than on media that provide just a few. The second
source of dependency is social stability. When social change
more or less
conducive to transformation; and
generalizations about how the parts of a modernized society
(3)
and conflict are high, established institutions, beliefs, and
fit practices are challenged, forcing the individual to reevaluate
together, involving comparisons of stages of modernization
and and make new choices. At such times reliance on the media
types of modernized societies with clarity about
prospects for further modernization. Definitions of for information increases. At other, more stable times
modernized varies. While some pointed out structural dependency on the media may be much lower.
features, such as levels of education, urbanization, use of One's needs are not always strictly personal but may be
inanimate sources of energ, and fertility, others pointed to shaped by the culture or by various social conditions. In
attitudes, such as secularization, achievement orientation, other words, individuals' needs, motives, and uses of media
functional specificity in formal organizations, and are contingent on outside factors that may not be in the
acceptance individuals' control. These outside factors act as constraints
of equality in relationships. The
theory is applied broadly to on what and how media can be used and on the
all global relationships from a availability
historical, sociological,
economic and cultural point of view and pays attention to the
role of mass media and new media in world affairs. The Social system Media system (number and
(degree of stability centrality of information
Modernization and Social Development Conceptual Model by varies
Prasad (2002) emerged out of the functions varies
study of communication
policies in the developing world (see Fig. 2.1). The elaborate
discussion of this model can be seen in the next
Even at the chapter. Audiences
beginning of the twenty-first century, there is (degree of dependency on
lhttle agreement on what modernization theory is and how it
has advanced social science media information varies
analysis.
DEPENDENCY THEORY Effects cognitive
affective
The earliest formulation of
alongside modernization theory. dependency theory came
up behavioural

originally Dependency theory was

proposed by Sandra Ball-Rokeach and
DeFleur (1976). This Melvin
theory emerged out of the communi Fig. 2.2:
AGeneral Conceptual Model of the Dependency
cation discipline Theory.
(see Fig.2.2 and 2.3).
Dependency
relationship among audiences, theory
proposes an integral Source: Ball-Rokeach & DeFleur (1976).
media
62 Communication for Development Theories of Development Communication 63

of other non-media alternatives. Furthermore, the more

alternatives an individual had for gratifying needs, the less ESTABLISHED MEDIA SYSTEM DEPENDENCY RELATIONS
and
dependent he or she will become on any single medium. The
SPECIFIC MEDIA CONVENT
number of functional alternatives, however, is not just a
matter of individual choice or even of psychological traits but Step 1.
Casual observer
is limited also by factors such as availability of certain media.
Dependency theorists sharply critique the modernization
Active selector Incidental exposure
Selective exposure
school. In essence, the dependency theory argues that the (based on one or more tyupe
of media dependency Dependency activated
origins of persistent global poverty cannot be understood
without reference to the entire international economic during exposure
system. Underdevelopment is not a condition: it is an active
process of impoverishment linked to development. That is, OR No activation of
some parts of the world are underdeveloped because others dependencies -ExIT
are developed. They are not separate processes but two Step 2.
aspects of the same process. In other words, economic
The greater the INTENSITY of relevant dependencies,
growth in advanced countries created Third World poverty
in its wake. The Third World is not simply poor in the greater the degree of:
CoGNITIVE AROUSAL and AFFECTIVE AROUSAL
comparison with the industrialized world; rather that it is
(e.g. attention) (e.g. liking/disliking)
poor because development of the industrial system in
Western Europe and North America changed and
impoverished many societies of Asia, Africa and Latin
America, through colonialism, imperialism and extractive
Step 3.
The greater the AROUSAL, the greater
INVOLVEMENT IN INFORMATION PROCESSING
the

terms of trade.
Step 4.
Dependency argues that before the e r a of modern
economic growth (until about 500 years ago), the world's
The greater the INVOLVEMENT, the greater the
probability of COGNITIVE, AFFECTIVE AND
major regions were not densely connected to each other BEHAVIOURAL EFFECTS FROM THE MEDIA
(though extensive trade networks existed). When capitalism
began to spread, the ceaseless search for profit began: Fig 2.3: An Elaborated Conceptual Model of the Dependency
through the production of agricultural goods in colonies or Theory
other lands, and Western Source: DeFleur & Ball Rokeach (1989).
Europe's ability to drive unequal
bargains. This fundamentally changed the social structures
of the Third World. The term
dependency comes from this
link: the kploitation of various developed world. The expansion of the industrial world
regions for their raw rest of the world. Historian Eric Williams, for
materials and labour deformed the
impoverished them and made them
depend on the West. Others point out that in fact it is the example, argues that the slave trade between
Africa and the
Caribbean islands w a s responsible for the emergence of
a
other way around: that the
West has been dependent on commercial middle class in Britain and eventually for
Third World the
though history in order to be able to grow and Britain's industrial revolution. Slaves w e r e taken from Africa
prosper. to the Caribbean; their unpaid and coerced labour produced
So, poverty
accidental.
in the Third World is not
'traditional' or such profitable commodities as sugar or cotton, which were
It is a
necessary companion to the richness of the
64 Communication for Development
Theories of Development Communication 65
taken to Europe for huge profits. This provided the
conditions for take-off for Britain's industrial revolution. An offshoot of dependency has been the world-systems

Similarly, in the late 18th century, Haiti, now the poorest theory which also emphasizes the expansion of a capitalist
northern hemisphere, produced one-half
of all world economy from the beginning of the 16th century. It
country in the
views the global economy in long-term perspective and
sees
the sugar and coffee consumed in Europe and the Americas.
the world system in a constant state of flux. There
are no
as well as substantial amounts of indigo and cotton. The
fixed rankings and locations but cyclical rhythms of
approximately 500,000 slaves working on the colony's 8,000-
Countries are capable of upward
odd plantations generated two-fifths of France's overseas expansion and stagnation.
and downward mobility over very long periods; there is
no
trade.
uni-directional development.
These examples show the dependency approach through and
the actual creation of underdevelopment at the cost of By the end of the 1980s, economists, politicians,1950s
academics declared the modernization theories of the
development. West African societies were uprooted by and 70s
and 60s and the dependency theories of the 60s
centuries of the slave trade; in the Caribbean the plantation of modernization theories
worthless. The supporters
system (set up to meet the needs of the colonists) met no assumed that a linear process exists whereby developing
local needs and impoverished workers. Mines in the Third Reasons for
countries progressively become industrialized.
World produced bauxite, tin, iron and other metals and the underdevelopment of countries w e r e seen within
the
minerals for the industries of the West. All of this depended different societies in internal factors, for example, in their

on cheap indentured or slave labour. Many of the regions of traditions or in the lack of sufficient capital investment. Two
the world were left with skewed, impoverished economies and decades of development under the dominant paradigm
and
devastated populations while the now-developed countries resulted in less for many. In his essay Communication
gained prosperity. Development: The Passing of the Dominant Paradigm (1976),
This was a grossly unequal exchange: the Third World Everett M. Rogers described the dominant model
of
the
development, the factors that led to its decline in
gave much more than it got. The exchange may have created 1970s
some new wealth in the Third
World, some infrastructure and the emerging alternatives. The chart below summarizes
maybe, but it also created an international system of the dominant paradigm, alternatives to it, and possible
inequality. Members of dependency see this process as factors that have led to its demise as the central focus of
continuing. For example, in the developing world, development programmes.
transnational corporations bargain from a position of Theories around dependencia were based o n the
of
strength, distort the local economy, create vast income gaps, assumption that the historical process of the spread
of the
impose their own priorities, and capitalism resulted in the underdevelopment
damage the environment. External
While modernization periphery, which they called the Third World.
theory sees capitalism as a creative factors like colonialism, the capitalist world economy and
10rce, causing growth and progress, dependency sees
international capitalism as the ruin of the Third World. world market integration were considered responsible for the
two decades
Modernization sees rich countries as helpers of p0or lag in the periphery's development. In the last
these theories have been vehemently criticized on the basis of
countries; dependency sees them as the main obstacle to the The of the "Asian
differences within the Third World. s u c c e s s
well-being of the poorer countries. Not all of
theorists' prescriptions are dependency tigers" has been the most recent example that theoretical

see some anti-capitalism however: some assumptions have been wrong. The typical underdeveloped
good in using capitalism and no identical economic and
enhance national economies. protectionism to country did not exist; there w e r e
in all Third World countries. Taiwan in
social structures
 Communication 67
Theories of Development
66 Communication for Development
had more the profile of an OECD member
particular soon
With the distinct
State than that of a developing country.
States it became clear that the s a m e
success of these

categoriescould not be applied to all countries.

DIFFUSION OF INNOVATIONS THEORY

communication theory
Diffusion of innovation as a m a s s
innovation is adopted in
has been used to examine how a n
social Diffusion research by the French
system.
a particular
Gabriel Tarde as in 1903 led to the
early as
sociologist
c u r v e which is
diffusion
plotting of the original S-shaped
a s important because most innovations have a n S-
regarded
Diffusion research
shaped rate of adoption (Rogers, 1995).
decrease the
centers on the conditions which increase or
likelihood that a new idea, product, or practice will be
adopted by members of a given culture. Diffusion of
that media as well as
innovation theory predicts
interpersonal contacts provide information and influence
or rejection of an innovation.
opinion regarding adoption
Since Ryan and Gross' diffusion study on the adoption
of hybrid seed corn (1943), the diffusion of innovation model
has been used to examine the diffusion of new products,
ideas, and practices around the world. The Iowa study of the
adoption of hybrid seed corn by lowa farmers revealed how
social change could be examined through the analysis of the

C
adoption of innovation. The lowa study researched the overall
that
pattern of adoption by focusing on background factors
contribute to the adoption of the new seeds, the role of the
m a s s media and interpersonal communication in the

adoption process, and the time lag between awareness and

adoption (Ryan and Gross, 1943). It was found that while the
mass media contributed to the awareness of the
innovation,
interpersonal communication among farmers was the
determining factor for the adoption of the new hybrid corn
seeds.
Prof. Kuttan Mahadevan, a leading development studies
theorist of the Asian region, conducted a series of research
projects on Decision Making and Diffusion of Family Planning
to help policy makers in many countries and peripheral
68 Communicat for Developmer Communication 69
Theories of Development

workers develop successful health and family planning

and through
communication. He identified many concepts
strategy of involving
action research c a m e up with a powerful
in meetings with
satisfied family planning adopters group
and attitude change
non-adopters to develop credibility
of family planning (see Fig.2.4).
promoting the acceptance
embodied in diffusion studiess
The patterns of communication
identified a s 'similar' and by Mahadevan (1968,
'dissimilar
named as homo-
consequently
reproduced in 1991) was

(dissimilar) by Rogers
philous (same) and heterophilous
of diffusion.
(1973) in his theory is Rogers' model
Another landmark in the diffusion study
Diffusion is the
of diffusion of innovation (Rogers, 1995).
communicated through
a n innovation is
process by which
certain channels o v e r a period of time among the members
An innovation is a n idea, practice, or
of a social system.
to be new an individual or other
by
object that is perceived
in which
unit of adoption. Communication is a process
information with o n e another
participants create and share
to reach a mutual understanding (Rogers, 1995). Diffusion
research has focused on five elements:

(1) the characteristics of a n innovation which may

influence its adoption;
(2) the decision-making process that occurs when
individuals consider adopting a new idea, product or
practice;
(3) the characteristics of individuals that make themn
likely to adopt an innovation;
4) the consequences for individuals and society of
adopting an innovation; and
(5) communication channels used in the adoption
process.
the
In his model, Rogers specified four elements in
diffusion process: the innovation, communication channels,

time, and the social system. With regard to the innovation,

of an innovation:
Rogers identified the five characteristics and
relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability
observability. An innovation has to be relatively advantage-

O J
 70 Communication for Development Theories of Development Communication 71
ous, compatible with the existing values or needs of potential
adopters and simple to use. An innovation that can be
experimented with on a limited basis and is visible to others
will also be more likely to be adopted (see Fig. 2.5).
The mass media and interpersonal communication play
a different role in the diffusion process. Consistent with what
the lowa study found, Rogers (1995) stated that the mass
media are more effective in informing individuals about the
innovation, but an individual's interpersonal contacts
determine whether the individual will adopt the innovation
or not. Studying how innovation occurs, E.M. Rogers (1995)
argued that it consists of four stages: invention, diffusion (or
3
communication) through the social system, time and
consequences. The information flows through networks. The
nature of networks and the roles opinion leaders play in them
determine the likelihood that the innovation will be adopted.
Opinion leaders exert influence on audience behaviour
through their personal contact along with other
as change agents and
intermediaries such gatekeepers in the
process of diffusion. Five adopter categories are:
(1) innovators,
(2) early adopters,
(3) early majority
(4) late majority, and
(5) laggards (see Fig. 2.5).
Individuals adopt innovations
the
at different rates depending on

innovativeness of the individual and the social context.

Rogers (1995) noted three types of innovation decisions:
optional, collective, and authoritative. Optional decisions
pertain to when an individual can make adoption decisions
independent of the other members in a social system. N
Collective decisions are made by consensus
among members
of a social
system, while authoritative innovation decisions N

are made by a few members

in a social system who have the
power, status, or expertise. The rate of
when authoritative decisions are adoption is fastest
made, followed by optional Fig 2.5: Rogers' Conceptual Model of Diffusion of Innovation
decisions, and then collective decisions.
Source: Rogers (1995).
 72 Communication for Development Communication 73
Theories of Development
GLOBALIZATION THEORY and the power of external forces to induce rapid change.
left and the
Critics of globalization theory, both from the
There are few contemporary phenomena that evoke raised against the
right, repeat the accusations that w e r e
public opinion and academic response as globalization. modernization theory. Similar to the modernization theory,
Globalization is the fundamental idea that has set in motion this theory w a s designed as a programme explicitly
directed
a
process of change in the Asian countries and Africa. Many to the n o n - Western world, that is, it w a s devoted to the
of these countries are challenged by the the left
collapse of welfare 'export" of Western institutions and values. Many on
measures and are in the process of see it as justification for neo-imperialism or U.S. hegemony,
synthesizing the old with
the new. Globalization has been a
powerful source of leading to unfair results, including one-sided gains and
change-driving national economies, deepening their negative consequences for cultural diversity
and the
international connections, and transforming social, environment.
and cultural life. Globalization involves
political
processes that not On the right, there is continued fear that compromises
only cross national boundaries o r link States
but which rely will have to be made with others who follow different models,
on worldwide flows of
capital, communications and watering down national distinctiveness or sovereignty. As in
manufactured goods from region to region the case of several developing countries, the burden of
From an economic
perspective, the major characteristics
of globalization are the transformation
foreign debt and balance of payment crisis forced India to
linked to ever- adopt the Structural Adjustment Policy (SAP), one of the
expanding markets, intensified by the rapid technological main instruments of globalization, designed under the
change in transportation and communications that umbrella of the Washington Consensus. The SAP stipulated
transcend national boundaries. The scaling down of the State and included reduction in public
growth of global
corporations and global mergers including several media investment in education and health services, cutting food
conglomerates has an increasing weight in global politics. and fertilizer subsidies, capital intensive and labour saving
Globalization is thus leading to the production strategies and a general reduction of budgetary
erasing economic
borders, increase in international exchange and provisions for development activities.
transnational interaction. In the context of
businesses face competition not globalization, ALTERNATIVE DEVELOPMENT
at home, but
only from their nearest rivals
they must compete internationally too.
Globalization is also tied to theprocess of
modernization Until the 1970s the direction of all development theories
of society. Hannerz
that the structure of
speaks ofglobal
a culture pointing out was that developing countries should become modern
meaning and expression are becoming industrial societies. For the supporters of the modernization
interrelated the world over. The theories the model was the USA, the advocates oof
homogenization of different
societies is manifested in the rise of international agencies dependency looked toward societies with metropolitan
and institutions, global communication, global centers and socialist politics. The Third World countries
and
commonly defined concepts like rights, competition themselves did not have alternative development concepts.
democracy. Modernity from this perspectivecitizenship,
and
Historically they had suffered oppression and saw no way to
sOcial transformation also implies a
of, and even a global overcome it, except by imitating the Western path. In the
regarding the place, rights and the roles of variousmovement 1970s the idea of progress and the concept of development
sOciety people in
Globalization theory is itself came to be debated. Reaching the standard of the
bolstered by greater essentially modernization theory industrial countries was no longer the goal; now the
emphasis on international integration fulfillment of the basic subsistence needs of the population
 74 Communication for Development
Communication 75
Theories of Development
was demanded. The ecological consequences of the Western
industrial and consumer model showed that the former idea focus of attention for their
countries have become the
of following the path toward development of the OECD 1990s s a w the rise of coalition
economic breakthrough. The .

countries would end in disaster. 'Sustainable development' the decline of single political party
politics in India that led
to
instability. It w a s also a
is the new motto for many scholars and politicians, the domination and phases of political
India
former idea of uniform development broke off. dramatic paradigm shift turning
decade that marked a
to a more
New definitions of development emerged to include from an inward-looking highly controlled economy
1991. China implemented
the
growth with equity, a clean environment, provision of basic open system
from August
to the modernization
1979 leading
needs such as food, water, shelter, education, health caare reform and open policy in
before India. The Chinese
and livelihoods, and a harmonious relationship economy much
between of the Chinese
annual growth rate of 8 per
cent
culture and change. In their definition of development, Wang economy with an average
a sustained average growth
and Dissanayake (1984) emphasized the protection of nature and the Indian economy with
reckoned as the fastest
and culture. Development is a process of social change which rate of 5 to 6 percent are being
has as its goal the improvement in the quality of life of all economies in the world.
growing
involves various sections including
or majority of the people without doing violence to the Development in India andd
n o n governmental agencies
natural and cultural environment in which they exist, and the government, industry,
different
through
which seeks to involve the majority of the people as closely the people who are linked and interact
media. In
in this enterprise, making them the masters of communication channels including the mass

as possible China, the media are supposed to be the mouthpiece

theirown destiny (Wang and Dissanayake, 1984: 5). mass
the Chinese govern-
of the Communist Party of China (CPC),
The new definitions of development were pluralistic
and
grounded in the real experiences of development in the ment and the Chinese people and a link among the three.
what
poorer countries of the developing world. The People's The mass politically in accordance with
media must act
and correctly
the party requires and must timely, completely
Republic of China (PRC) through its indigenous Socialist transmit the policies, laws and guidelines
that the party and
Development Model demonstrated that development could be
achieved by following paths of development other than the the governmentmakes for the whole country while keeping
needs
Western Model of close to and reflect their true desires and
masses
development. China achieved tangible relations have a
success in education, hea family planning and rural (Zhenxi, 2002). Thus government public economic
dominant role in the modernization of the political,
development. China like India has a huge population living u s e s the
in the ruralareas. Mao
and cultural life of China. The Chinese government
Zedong's Cultural Revolution Wrought m a s s media as a bridge between the
authorities and the
a fundamental change in society by taking education and
information to accelerate economic
Communication to the grassroots in China. Similarly, Cubaa people, as a s o u r c e of
of people.
made rapid strides in development and to improve the quality
development de spite being rooted in The Chinese radio and TV broadcasts
have
to rural areas
sOcialism. The Kerala experience of
rooted in socialism. Kerala's Model of
development is also a n important objective
to develop the rural economy
as

Since
Development has been agriculture forms the base of the
national economy.
presented separately in chapter four of this book. the rural economy has
been
India and China are two of the world's economic reform in China,
most populous between urban and rural
countries and also the fastest developing rapidly but the gap
world. While India is a
growing economies in the
a r e a s is still large. India's broadcasting objective also aims
democratic polity, China is a socialist the m a s s media do not
fulfill
country under the leadership of the Communist to improve the rural a r e a s but
Party of disconnect between
China. Despite wide differences in these goals and there is an increasing
political ideology both (Sainath, 2003). The
reality and m a s s media projections
 76 Communication for Development Theories of Development
Communication 77
challenge to communication for development is to transmit to question the top-down
the developing world began
iníormation to enrich rural society and l1ve up to the cultural dominant in the 1950s and 1960s,
needs in the rural areas in India and China. approach of development
which had economic growth a s
its main goal of development.
The vast rural populations of the developing world were communication refers to the use
Participatory development
among the poorest and the eradication of poverty became the means of communication and
of traditional, inter-personal
important development goal of national governments and identify problems
communities to
m a s s media that empowers
policy makers. The basic needs approach was adopted as an and
and discover solutions to their development problems
alternative model for development in the developing communication is characterised by a
issues. Participatory
countries. The basic needs approach had the
horizontal flow of communication based primarily
on
important
objectives of providing adequate food and clean drinking dialogue and is increasingly being
considered a key
water; decent shelter; education; security of around the world.
livelihood; component of development projects
access to transport; enable to promote the
people's participation and Participatory communication is intended
decision-making; and uphold human dignity Streeten, 1979: sustainable and systematic use of communication in the
48). From the 1990s with the rise of coalition politics, the development process to help ensure people's participation at
basic needs approach has been all levels, as part of an effort to identify and implement
adopted as the Common
Minimum Programme (CMP) by the Indian
Common Minimum Programme is an
government. The appropriate technologies and policies for the prevention of
agenda for governance poverty. Participatory communication is aimed at facilitating
agreed upon by political parties with divergent people's involvement in decision-making about issues
and policies sharing philosophies
power in a coalition government. Basic impacting their lives by addressing specific needs and
needs have been measured
using the Physical Quality of Life priorities relevant to people and empowering communities
Index (PQLI). The PQLI is an
integration of data on three
factors-life expectancy at age one, infant
towards development. The emphasis on people's participation
mortality, and in the development process led to a shift from the concept
literacy into a single composite index which has a minimum of development communication with its predominant use of
of zero and maximum of
100. top-down, big media centered government-to -people
Human Development measured by a combination of
is communication to development support communication
three components: life
expectancy at birth, literacy of the using co-equal, little media centered government-with-people
population over 15 years of age plus the school communication (Ascroft and Masilela, 1994). Government
ratio for all students enrolment
(as a percentage of all youth), and the extension workers trained in the towns became the front-line
GNP per capita in U.S.
dollars
Human Development Index HDI (at purchasing parity). The
communicators, repeating to farmers in their fields what they
is presented as a fraction of had just been taught in the towns. Posters, leaflets, and
1.0.
Theoretically,
a "basic
the chosen indicators are
the elements of other publications made up another important instrument
needs" approach but
they
building blocks of any modernization also the elementary
are used as a part of this approach. It became known as
"development support communication", a term coined by the
elementary and further education, economictheory: health, FAO. The approach gained wide popularity because many of
basics to mass resources from
consumption. the earlier development efforts in the South were aimed at
farmers.
PARTICIPATORY COoMMUNICATION Generally, four different ways of participation can be
The roots of observed in most development projects (Uphoff 1985). First,
participatory
communication can be found inapproaches
in
development participation in implementation of development programmes
the early years of the 1970s where people are actively encouraged and mobilized to take
 79
78 Communication for Development Theories of Development
Communication

small operations broadcasting

part in the actualization of projects. Second, participation in Community radio through
evaluation when upon completion of a project, people is o n low-power
transmitters owned by trade unions, churches
the people to produce and
invited to critique its success or fail:re. Third, participation and other communities enabled
o n local issues, which
were
in benefit where people take part in enjoying the fruits of a voice programmes that focused
to them. Participatory media
project, such as water from a hand pump, medical care (from the most current and important
decisions. They decide
a barefoot doctor), a truck to transport produce to market, place people in charge programming
of
and when to doo
or village meetings in the new community hall. Fourth. what to broadcast, as well as how, where,
details and
participation in decision-making when people initíate, it. The professionals take c a r e of engineering
when needed.
discuss, conceptualize and plan activities as a community assisting in the creation of the programmes,
transmitters simple to
such as building schools or applying for land tenure. New technology has made radio
to use it independently.
Higher levels of community participation can be more operate and enabled the community
has also led to the manufacturing of portable
New technology
political, such as removing corrupt officials, supporting
parliamentary candidates, or resisting pressures from the audio and video recorders, and desktop publishing systems,
elites. Some development initiatives provide people with which in turn have simplified technical production processes
such media. The
opportunities for all four ways of participation. Many do not, and brought down the cost of operating
low-cost
availability of power generators has also
portable
and restrict participation to one or two
ways. While in the relocation of many such technologies to rural
participation in decision-making is considered most helped
a c c e s s to the media.
important, the other three forms of participation - settings, so that they have easier
in the
implementation, evaluation and benefit - have been criticized Community broadcasting has been successful
non-formal education sector (Beltrán 1993). Literacy
as being false participation by those who believe that income
programmes, gender issues, farming. health,
participation in decision-making is fundamental and land
generation, workers' safety and occupational health,
indispensable to the approach. They feel that people are been
tenure and local administration programmes have
being manipulated through these three forms of pseudo- radio and television
effectively conducted over community
participation to accept plans made by other, more powerful stations. They may lack in
professional finesse but
they more
people from within the community or outside.
than make up for in credibility and feeling. Community radio
The use of interpersonal and traditional
communications stations often double up a s important personal
which were largely ignored
began to be encouraged in communication tools, sending personal messages to faraway
development. Street theatre, folk-songs, speech, and group places not served by telephones or the post office. They alsoo
activities became important and effective channels for
help extend the reach of traditional and folk media byy
participatory communication. Traditional and folk media recording or broadcastirng them "live". When operated by
have been used
effectively in facilitating this process of fearless leaders, such media can quickly create awareness
identifying problems and solutions in many communities. In about incidents of oppression and mobilize local and external
villages, members of the community or a local theatre group resistance to the oppression. Community radio w a s one of
prepare and present to the of the
fictitious
community a play about a the principal media in the "people-power revolution"
place where conditions are similar to those in the Philippines, which toppled a corrupt administration.
village. The play, however does not have an New technologies, such as small-format videos, have also
ending. At an
appropriate time members of the been used successfully. The "Fogo Process" uses video as a
act out the community are invited to
ending or to suggest what the ending may be. "mirror" to reflect the issues and aspirations of people living
This method is effective
as it is entertaining and easy to in isolated communities (Williamson, 1991). The people take
participate in.
80
Communication for Development
an active part in Theories of Development Communication 81
planning and
video. The videos have executing the
a
also served production of social and cultural factors that influence consumer behavior,
communication between the
as
highly effective
community
including politicians and bureaucrats. and
outsiders, recognizing that behavioral change is influenced by a
sent back Replies are combination of environmental a s well a s personal and
to the
frequently
people on a video. "Photo novellas" interpersonal factors.
equally effective. People are are
which they are free to provided with a still camera with Social marketing identifies consumer wants and needs
make up a photograph anything they want to and then develops ways to satisfy them. Marketing's
pictorial novel about themselves.
framework, or the marketing mix, includes five components
shot are
displayed and arranged into an orderThe pictures involved in the exchange process: the product (in social
collaborative efforts of members of the through the
picture community. marketing, the product is the health behavior or service
stories help in reflection, communication The being promoted); its competition (the risk behavior currently
outsiders, and measuring progress of with
practiced);the price (social, emotional, and monetary costs
cooperative efforts.
exchanged for the product's benefits); place (where the
SOCIAL MARKETING THEORY exchange takes place, or the target behaviour is practiced);
and promotion (activities used to facilitate the exchange).
Toward the end of the twentieth Social marketing may be used to get people to adopt new
century, public health
professionals embraced a new strategy called 'sociall protective behaviors such a s healthful diets or exercise, or
marketing' for promoting health behaviors and increasing the
to stop practicing risky behaviors such as smoking. Social
utilization of health services. The term "social marketing can promote a tangible product (oral
coined in 1971 by Kotler and Zaltman in theirmarketing" was
contraceptive) or an idea (family planning) or both. These
seminal article
"Social Marketing: An Approach to Planned Social techniques include the five P's-Product, Price, Place,
Social marketing theory is a combination of Change". Promotion and Positioning.
theoretical
perspectives and a set of marketing techniques. Social In brief, the product refers to the behavior or an idea that
the audience needs to accept. A product line refers to the
marketing has been defined a s the design, implementation,
and control of programs seeking to increase the variety in which the product can be promoted (for example
acceptability a drink fruit juice instead of eating a banana) to attain the
of a social idea o r practice in a target group. It utilizes
goal of adoption of the product. The product may also be a
concepts market segmentation, consumer research, idea
of
configuration, communication, facilitation, incentives, and service such a s prenatal c a r e or immunization, with the
objective being to increase people's utilization of the service.
exchange theory to maximize target group response. In social
marketing the intervention is developed from a solid base of
A commodity, such as a condom,
may also be promoted, but
again the focus is on the behaviour associated with the
communication and social-psychological theories: marketing
techniques are used to supplement message development
commodity.
The price of the product refers to the
and program implementation. monetary as well
as the non-monetary cost of a
A central principle in the social marketing mindset is a product. These non-monetary
costs include psychological, social, or convenience costs. For
commitment to understand the consumer and to design instance, promotion of a low fat diet may not only require
products to satisífy consumers' wants and needs. Those buying higher priced low fat products but also increase
applying social marketing methods need to the
know about
people whose behavior they want to change-their aspirations
difficulty in obtaining such products, preparing them and
making them part of a new lifestyle. Reducing these costs
and values; their relevant beliefs and attitudes; and their greatly increase the chances that a new idea/product will be
current behavioral patterns. They also look at the broader adopted. The place refers to the distribution sites of the