Federal Polytechnic Wannune.

LECTURE NOTES

ON

EEC 115: ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING SCIENCE I

Complied by:

Engr. Umar Musa Adamu MNSE

(Department of Electrical/Electronics Engineering Technology, Federal Polytechnic
Wannune)

Email: [email protected]
 Federal Polytechnic Wannune.

Course Contents
1. Structure and composition of an atom.
2. Conductors, Insulators and Semi-Conductors
3. Concepts of current and electron flow
4. Electrical current, Potential difference, electromotive force and resistance
5. Multiples and Sub-multiples of electric quantities
6. D.C current
7. Ohm’s law
8. Resistivity and conductivity of a conductor
9. Series and parallel circuits
10. Kirchoff’s laws
11. Superposition Principles

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ATOM
An atom is the smallest unit of matter that retains the properties of an element. Atoms are the extremely
small particles that are the basic building blocks of ordinary matter.
Most of the atom is empty space. The rest consists of three basic types of subatomic particles: protons,
neutrons, and electrons. The protons and neutrons form the atom’s central nucleus. (The ordinary
hydrogen atom is an exception; it contains one proton but no neutrons.) As their names suggest, protons
have a positive electrical charge, while neutrons are electrically neutral—they carry no charge; overall,
then, the nucleus has a positive charge. Circling the nucleus is a cloud of electrons, which are negatively
charged. Like opposite ends of a magnet that attract one another, the negative electrons are attracted to
a positive force, which binds them to the nucleus.
STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF AN ATOM
An atom is composed of subatomic particle (protons, electrons, and neutrons) in two regions namely
nucleus and the electron shell.
Nucleus: This is the centre of the atom and contains protons and neutrons.
The Outer Region: This is the region which holds the electrons in orbit around the nucleus.

Protons: Positively charged particles found in the nucleus of an atom.

Neutrons: Neutral particles found in the nucleus.
Electrons: Negatively charged particles that orbit the nucleus in electron shells.
ELECTRON MOBILITY
Electron mobility refers to the ability of electrons to move through a material in response to an electric
field. It is a fundamental property that characterizes how easily electrons can conduct electricity within
a substance.
Electron mobility is defined as the drift velocity per unit electric field applied to the material. It
quantifies how quickly and easily electrons can move through a material when subjected to an electric
field (E).
Mathematically, it can be expressed as:
μ = Vd / E

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Here, the drift velocity is the average velocity of electrons in a material when subjected to an electric
field.
The symbol for electron mobility is 𝜇𝑒. It is typically expressed in units of square centimetres per volt-
second (cm²/V·s) in the International System of Units (SI).
ELECTRON MOBILITY INFLUENCE ON CONDUCTIVITY.
Materials with higher electron mobility have more free electrons that can move easily in response to an
electric field. This results in higher electrical conductivity. Conversely, materials with lower electron
mobility have fewer free electrons available to carry current, resulting in lower conductivity.
FACTORS AFFECTING ELECTRON MOBILITY
Material Type: Different materials exhibit different electron mobilities. Metals generally have high
electron mobility due to their large number of free electrons.
Temperature: Generally, electron mobility decreases with increasing temperature due to increased
lattice vibrations, which impede electron movement.
Impurities and Defects: Presence of impurities and defects can scatter electrons, reducing their
mobility and thereby affecting conductivity.
IMPORTANCE OF ELECTRON MOBILITY.
Electron mobility is crucial in various applications, especially in semiconductor devices such as
transistors and diodes. It influences the efficiency and speed of electronic circuits and devices.
Examples:

• Copper is an excellent conductor with high electron mobility (approximately 𝜇𝑒 ≈ 40,000

cm²/V·s), making it suitable for use in electrical wiring and transmission lines.
• Silicon, a semiconductor, has lower electron mobility compared to metals but can be controlled
and modified for specific electronic applications through doping processes.
Work example:
Consider a hypothetical semiconductor material with a drift velocity of 5 x 10-3 m/s and applied electric
field of 10-4 V/m. Calculate the electron mobility of the material.
Solution:
Using μ = Vd / E
Substituting the given values:
μ = (5 x 10-3 m/s) / (10-4 V/m)
μ = 50 m2/V·s
μ = 5 x 104 cm2/V·s
Thus, the electron mobility for this hypothetical semiconductor material is 5 x 104 cm2/V·s.

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CONDUCTORS, INSULATORS, AND SEMICONDUCTORS

CONDUCTORS
In Electrical & Electronics engineering, a conductor is a type of material that allows the flow of
charge otherwise known as electrical current. Most common electrical conductors are made from
metals. Such materials allow the current flow due to the presence of free electron or ions which starts
moving when voltage is applied. The conductors have very low electrical resistance i.e, the opposition
to the current flow & depend on the length & width of the conductor. It increases with increase in
temperature. Examples include metals like copper and aluminium.
INSULATORS
An insulator is a material that has very high electrical resistance & it does not allow the flow of
current. There are no free electrons in insulators thus they do not conduct electricity. Thus, they are
used for protection against shock. Examples include rubber, glass, and plastics.
SEMICONDUCTORS
Semiconductors are materials that have conductivity in-between conductors and insulators. They can
block or allow the current flow providing total control over it. They are mostly modified by adding
impurities called doping. It modifies its properties like unidirectional current flow or amplification or
energy conversion etc. The electrical conduction inside semiconductors is due to the movement of
electrons & holes. Examples include Gallium arsenide, germanium and silicon

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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CONDUCTORS, INSULATORS, AND SEMICONDUCTORS

Characteristics Conductor Semiconductor Insulator

A conductor is a material
A semiconductor is a material An insulator is a material
that allows the flow of
Definition whose conductivity lies between that does not allow the
charge when applied with a
conductor & insulator flow of current.
voltage.
The resistance of a
Insulator has very high
The resistance of a semiconductor decreases with
Temperature resistance but it still
conductor increases with an increases in temperature. Thus,
Dependence decreases with
increase in temperature. it acts as an insulator at absolute
temperature.
zero.

The conductors have They have intermediate

They have very low
very high conductivity (10- conductivity ((10-7 Ʊ /m to 10-
conductivity (10-13 Ʊ
Conductivity 7 Ʊ /m), thus they can 13 Ʊ /m), thus they can act as
/m), thus they do not allow
conduct electrical current insulator & conductor at
current flow.
easily. different conditions.

The conduction in The conduction in There are no free electrons

Conduction conductors is due to the free semiconductor is due to the or holes thus, there is no
electrons in metal bonding. movement of electron & holes. conduction.
There is no or low energy The band gap in insulator
The band gap of semiconductor
gap between the conduction is huge (+5 eV), which
is greater than the conductor but
& valance band of a need an enormous amount
Band gap smaller than an insulator i.e. 1
conductor. It does not need of energy like lightning to
eV. Their electrons need a little
extra energy for the push electrons into the
energy for conduction state.
conduction state. conduction band.
Resistivity Low (10-5 Ω/m) Normal (10-5Ω/m to 105 Ω/m) Very High (105 Ω/m)
The coefficient of
It has positive coefficient of
Coefficient of It has negative coefficient of resistivity of an insulator is
resistivity i.e. its resistance
Resistivity resistivity. also negative but it has
increase with temperature
very huge resistance.
Some special conductors
turn into superconductors The insulator’s resistance
The semiconductors turn into
Absolute Zero when supercooled down to increase when cooled
insulator at absolute zero.
absolute zero while other down to absolute zero.
have finite resistance.
Valence Electron 1 Valence electron in outer 4 Valence electrons in outer 8 Valence electrons in
in Outer Shell shell. shell. outer shell.
Silicon, Germanium, Selenium,
Gold, Copper, Silver, Antimony, Gallium Arsenide Rubber, Glass, Wood, Air,
Examples
Aluminium (known as semi-insulator), Mica, Plastic, Paper
Boron
The metals like iron & Semiconductors are used every The insulators are used for
copper etc. that can conduct day electronic devices such as protection against high
Application electricity are made into cell phone, computer, solar voltages & prevention of
wires and cable for carrying panel etc as switches, energy electrical short between
electric current. converter, amplifiers, etc. cables in circuits.

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CONCEPT OF CURRENT FLOW

The smallest known quantity of electric charge is the charge of an electron. So, all quantities of charge
are expressed in multiples of this basic or fundamental unit i.e. charge of an electron. The SI unit of
charge is coulomb (Symbol C) which is equal to charge of 6.24 x 1018 electrons.
The movement of electrons in a conductor remains un-channelised until it is acted upon by an electric
field. The flow of electrons through a conductor constitutes an electric current and the path of electric
current is known as electric circuit which is always a closed path. The direction of flow of positive
current is opposite to the direction of flow of electrons. So current can be defined as:
𝜕𝑞⁄
The time rate of flow of electric charge is current 𝐼 = 𝜕𝑡
The unit of current is “Ampere (A)”.
When a current is flowing in a conductor having non-uniform cross-sectional area, the current is same
for all Cross-Sections of the conductor in accordance to the principle of Conservation of charge.
1. Electric potential at a point is the work done in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to
that point.
2. It two points have different electric potentials, there is said to be a potential difference (p.d.)
or voltage existing between the points
CONCEPT OF SOURCE AND LOAD
In electrical and electronic circuits, some components are used to supply the required electrical energy
for the operation of the circuit. These components are known as energy sources. Energy sources are the
active circuit elements that can supply the required electrical energy, to the circuit. In practice, we have
several types of voltage and current sources such as batteries, generators, alternators, photovoltaic cells,
etc.
Types of Energy Sources

• Voltage Sources
• Current Sources
An energy that is used to create a voltage (potential difference) between two points in an electric circuit
is referred to as a voltage source. While, the energy source that delivers a specified electric current to
the circuit is referred to as a current source. Both voltage and current sources are further classified into
Independent Sources and Dependent Sources.
INDEPENDENT VOLTAGE SOURCE
A voltage source whose output voltage does not depend upon the voltage or current of any other part of
the circuit is known as an independent voltage source. This may be classified into Constant Voltage
Sources and Time Variant Voltage Sources
CONSTANT VOLTAGE SOURCES
The constant voltage sources, also called time-invariant voltage sources, are those independent voltage
sources whose output voltage remains constant throughout their operation. Examples of constant
independent voltage sources are cells, batteries, and many other direct voltage sources.
TIME VARIANT VOLTAGE SOURCES
The types of independent voltage sources whose output voltage changes with time are known as time-
variant independent voltage sources. However, it is important to note that the change in the output

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voltage of the time-variant independent voltage source does not occur due to change in the voltage or
current of any other part of the circuit. But, it only changes with time. Examples of time-variant voltage
sources are alternator (AC generator).
INDEPENDENT CURRENT SOURCE
Independent current source is that whose output current does not depend upon the voltage or current of
any other part of the circuit is known as independent current source. Just like independent voltage
sources, the independent current sources are also classified into Constant Current Source and Time-
Variant Current Source
CONSTANT CURRENT SOURCE
A constant current source is an independent current source whose output current remains constant
throughout its operation is known as a constant independent current source. It is also known as time-
invariant current source.
TIME-VARIANT CURRENT SOURCE
A time-variant independent current source is an independent current source whose output current
changes with time. Here, it must be noted that the output current does not change due to variation in
voltage or current in any other part of the circuit, but it only changes with time.
Independent voltage and current sources may also be classified into the following categories,
depending their internal resistance:

• Ideal Voltage Source

• Practical Voltage Source
• Ideal Current Source
• Practical Current Source
Ideal Voltage Source: A voltage source with zero internal resistance is known as ideal voltage source.
Therefore, for an ideal voltage source, the output voltage always remains constant and equal to the EMF
of the source. This is because, there is no voltage drop within the source when current drawn from it.
However, the ideal voltage sources do not exist in practice. These are just theoretical models of voltage
sources.
Practical Voltage Source: An independent voltage source with a finite internal resistance is known as
a practical voltage source or real voltage source. In a real voltage source, the internal resistance is shown
connected in series with the source voltage as shown in the figure. In real voltage source the output
voltage or terminal voltage of the real voltage source decreases with the increase in current drawn from
it when a load circuit is connected across its terminals. this is because, when a current is drawn from
the source, it causes a voltage drop in the internal resistance. Consequently, the output voltage at the
source terminals is reduced.

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Ideal Current Source: A current source which has infinite internal resistance is known as ideal current
source. Therefore, the output current of an ideal current source is equal to the source current due to its
infinite internal resistance. Thus, an ideal current source always delivers same current throughout its
operation when a load is connected to it. Any change in the load circuit does not affect the output current
of the ideal current source. Again, the ideal current sources are not practically possible.
Practical Current Source: A practical current source (or real current source) is one which has a finite
internal resistance which is connected in parallel with the source current. Therefore, when there is any
change in the load voltage, the current delivered by the real current source is changed. It is because, the
increase in the load voltage forces an extra current to flow through the internal resistance of the source,
which results in the decreased output current. Examples of real current sources include semiconductor
devices such as diodes, transistors, operational amplifiers, etc.

Ideal Current Source Practical Current Source

DEPENDENT SOURCES
Dependent sources are those whose output voltage is controlled by a voltage or current in any other part
of the circuit. They are also referred to as controlled sources. The dependent sources are used in
modelling the behaviour of electronic devices such as amplifiers. Dependent sources are represented
using diamond shapes as shown in the figure below.

Based on the combination of controlling quantity and output quantity, the dependent sources are
classified into the following:
Voltage Dependent Voltage Source (VDVS)
Current Dependent Voltage Source (CDVS)
Voltage Dependent Current Source (VDCS)
Current Dependent Current Source (CDCS)

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ELECTRICAL CURRENT, POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE, ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE AND

RESISTANCE
Electric Current
Electric current is defined as the rate of flow of electric charge through any cross-section of a
conductor.
Mathematically, the flow rate of charge with respect to time can be expressed as,

𝐼 = 𝑄⁄𝑇

The symbol for electric current in formulas is “I” or “i”. The SI unit of current is the ampere (A).
Electromotive Force (EMF)
Electromotive force (EMF) is the energy per unit of charge that is provided by a source, such as a
battery or generator, to drive a current through a circuit. EMF is measured in volts (V) and is
symbolized by the letter “E” or “ε”.
Potential Difference
The amount of work done in moving a unit charge from one point to another is defined as the
potential difference between any two points.
Potential difference can be written as

𝑉 = 𝑊⁄𝑄

Where, W is work done and Q is charge. Volts is the SI unit of potential difference (V).
Key differences between EMF and PD
1. The electromotive force is the quantity of energy that each coulomb of charge receives,
whereas the potential difference is the amount of energy used by 1 coulomb of charge.
2. The symbol E represents electromotive force, whereas the symbol V represents potential
difference.
3. The electromotive force is autonomous of the circuit’s internal resistance, whereas the
potential difference is proportional to the resistance.
4. The electromotive force transfers energy throughout the circuit. The potential difference is the
portion of energy between any two points on a circuit.
5. The EMF increases the electrical energy in the circuit, whereas the potential difference
decreases it.
Example of EMF and PD
To illustrate the distinction between EMF and PD, consider a simple battery used to power a circuit.
For example, the voltage is usually stated on the battery’s outer package: 1.5 volts for single-cell
alkaline cells. However, it has been discovered that the voltage drops when the battery is in use. This
is mainly when larger loads are applied and used as the battery ages. Even if the cell or battery is
brand new, there will be some voltage drop when it supplies current. This is because there is some
resistance within the cell.

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The EMF can thus be defined as the driving potential within any electrical or electronic source,
regardless of internal resistance. When measured with very high impedance and no load, the voltage is
effectively seen on the source’s output, i.e. battery, etc. It is the cell’s internal voltage.
The potential difference represents the actual potential seen at any point in a circuit. It is not reliant on
the absence of a load. When no load is applied to the source, the EMF and potential difference are the
same. The potential difference decreases when a load is applied, but the EMF remains constant.
Resistance
Resistance (R) is the property of a material or component that opposes the flow of electric current
through it. It is measured in Ohms and denoted by the symbol “Ω”.

MULTIPLES AND SUB-MULTIPLES OF ELECTRIC QUANTITIES

There is a vast range of electrical values between a minimum and maximum value of a standard
electrical unit. For instance, the resistance of a conductor can be as low as 0.001 ohms or as high as
100000 ohms. To avoid writing multiple zeros while describing the values of the electrical unit, we
can take the help of the sub-multiples and multiple values of the standard unit.

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