Topic 1: Politics and the Study of Politics Fertility Regulation Technology

Various definitions of Politics - Essential in the population growth

- Becomes government domain even when
- The science of “who gets what, when and how.”
conducted in private spaces
- The authoritative allocation of values
- The activity by which differing interest within a Gender Related Violence
given unit of rule are conciliated by giving them
- The state enters even though it is a private
a share in power proportional to the whole
affair to protect women
community
- Contribution of Radical Feminists; “Personal is
- The process of making government policies
Political and Political is Personal
- The art of looking for trouble, finding it
everywhere, diagnosing it correctly and ! Greater interest of society is a concern of politics!
applying the wrong remedies
Politics at a Glance
Commonalities

- Politics is a concept of relations of people

- Relational concept, relationship among people
- Interests and power; attempt of someone to
further one’s interest or to reduce the influence
of another
- The amount of power controls the realization or
deprivation of interest
- Dynamic process of an activity that is
perpetually in motion and continually
expressing, transforming, and confining to the
trends and events which it operates Heart of politics is power which is released by those in
- “Politics is a constrained use of social power” authority by use of influence and rules set boundaries
- Use of power to manage interest and as to how that power and authority is used.
relationships of people
- Politics is a power struggle; inevitable Ability to make things possible

Two Broad Approaches to defining the Political Potere – to be able

*Principally it happens in the public sphere where the Perspectives

government is the key actor in other institutions
Biological
Def of Political Public Affair – Compromise & - Man is by nature a political animal
Art of Gov’t Consensus - “Zoon politikon”; the human person cannot live
Private Affair – Power & alone
Personal Distribution of - Living in collective purposes of sustenance and
(As a resources survival
contribution of
Feminist Psychological
Scholars) - Some people surrender their action to authority
figures
Interplay of power coming from the outside that
implicates the personal life of women and arrangement Cultural
of power in families. - Nurture vs nature
- Society is held together by values transmitted
Examples of Private becoming Public
by social institutions
Rational Referent Power
- People are what they want most of the time
- Not tangible
Irrational - Moral credibility: if you are morally credible
- Use power and myth to cloud reason people will still follow you even if they don’t
support your actions
- E.g.: When the Pope speaks the world listens,
not because of having the same religion but the
goodness associated with the Pope

Sources of Power

1. Authority – appointed/elected
2. Human Resources- Are your human resources
skilled and knowledgeable?
3. Intangible Factors – Honesty, Moral integrity
4. Material Sources – Natural sources and ability
to produce for the market
5. Skills and Knowledge
6. Sanction
Expert Power
Power Continuum
- Power that comes from people who are
professionals/experts in their fields
- E.g.: Medical experts called for a lockdown and
Influence Coercion
even at the risk of crippling the economy,
Ability to Opposite of influence, it
countries still complied
persuade/convince involves control by force;
Reward Power others to accept certain compliance is achieved
objectives or behave in a through
- Power to reward compliance and penalize non- certain way punishments/threats.
compliance Power is always within the continuum because in
- E.g.: Although Pakistan and Bangladesh don’t Politics you always want to make things happen.
have the greatest history with India, they
benefit more from allying themselves with the
country. What is Methodology? Method?
Coercive Power Methodology – “conception of the process for acquiring
- “Might is right.” knowledge
- Often goes hand in hand with military - What could be possibly known of what we want
- E.g.: When America dropped the atomic bomb to know?
on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, they sent a
message to the world of their strength and Method – means of acquiring knowledge
therefore they were right. Ontology Epistemology
Legitimate Power Theory of being Theory of knowledge
Reflect the researcher’s Reflects the view of can
- Your election or appointment is your source of view about the nature of be known about the
power the world. world and how we can
- E.g.: If you were elected as the President, you know it
have legitimate power
Approaches to the study of Politics • Example: Cases – show me the evidence
of rape. Used the medical legal
Ontology
examination result
- Understanding of the nature of what we are
Anti-Foundationalist
studying about.
Epistemology: Hermeneutic
Epistemology
• Subjective Reality
- How we can study what we would like to study.
• Human agents construct the world
Example: Voting Participation through interpretation
- What is the understanding of the nature of
voting participation? Is the voting Approach
participation of people a subject that is - Particular orientation that one adopts when
independent that can be objectively verified
addressing the subject
independent of the interpretation of the
- A predisposition to adopt a particular
researcher?
conceptual framework and to explore certain
Epistemology
- The matter can be objectively verified from hypothesis in order to generate theory
the records of the Comelec. - Orientation determines the focus of the study
- If the nature of voting participation is as what we will know eventually
something that can be verified determined - May be implicit or explicit but must be
from the records of the Comelec. identifiable
Quantitative in nature
Ontology Approach Method
- What is the meaning of voting for the A way of looking at and A way of organizing a
electorate? then explaining a given theory application to
- There are no records. Meaning is interpretive phenomenon which data
in nature, relative to the electorate. include everything
Qualitative in Nature related to the collection
- and selection of evidence
necessary for
investigation and analysis
Foundationalist of hypothesis
Consist of criteria for The technical devices
Epistemology: Scientific selecting problems and used in gathering data
• Objective Reality relevant data and the point of view of
the specialists
• This reality is separate and independent
Procedures for getting
that human agents cannot intervene in
and utilizing data
Tradition: Empiricist

• Knowledge starts from our senses Study Process:

Tradition: Logical Positivism 1. Nature of the issue you would like to

investigate.
• Scientific knowledge is the only factual 2. Can be objectively identified? Or Interpretation
knowledge of the political actions they do?
• Basis resets upon public experimental 3. What approach am I going to use? What
verification orientation or point of view?

Traditional Approaches to the Study of Politics

Features o Variable – a feature of a social
situation or institution that may
1. Normative
appear in different degrees or
2. Formal – Legal
forms in other
3. Concern with large questions
situations/institutions
Approach – the way of looking at the study o Hypothesis – offers tentative
explanation or a generalization/
1. Philosophical Approach statement presented in tentative
- looking at the ethical, prescriptive, or and conjectural manner
normative questions. o Theory – series of interconnected
- Concerned with analytical study of ideas hypotheses which describe what we
and doctrines that have been central to think we know about out
political thought- history of political through interrelationships among a series of
- Ex. I would like to know if the strategy of variables
the Philippine Government maximizes the - Summation of Scientific Enterprise:
common good of the people. 1. Identifying significant issue/problem.
- Niccolò Machiavelli 2. Devising a plausible hypothesis to
2. Institutional Approach – Descriptions and explore the phenomena.
functions of political institutions and structures 3. Find reliable evidence with which to
like executive, legislature, judiciary, political test the hypothesis.
parties, interests’ groups. 4. Exploring the findings.
3. Legal – regards the state as the creator and 5. Exploring how the results may be
enforcer of law and deals with legal institutions combined with other scientific
and processes explanations to form a theory.
4. Historical – Legal/Forma; descriptions of
2. Systems
government with emphasis on chronology &
- Politics is depicted by the interaction
historical development of government
between the societal environment and an
structures and institutions
abstract political system
Modern Approaches - Government is at the center of the political
system, at the heart of three processes
1. Scientific/ Behaviorist ‘ (input, conversion, output)
- Concerned with how individuals behave 3. Structural-Functionalism
within political institutions and how - Specifies the activities of a viable political
informal behavior contribute to system
policymaking 4. Political Economy
- Why do people behave the way they do?
- Concerned with the relationship between
a. Observable behavior
government and economics (public policy),
(individual/aggregate) is the focus of
studies on what government does
analysis
- Influences 2 schools
b. Explanation of the behavior should be
o Public Choice – “liberal political
susceptible to empirical testing
economy”
- Drew its methodology from sociology or
o Neo Marxism – based on Marx’s
psychology
thinking on the relationship
- Strive to explain/ explain political
between economic, social, and
phenomena by discovering uniformities in
political structure
political behavior
o Commodity is a good or service
- Contributions to Methodology
being sold in the market
5. Rational Choice Theory
 - Emphasizes that when faced with several - Approach: Legalistic, institutional, historical, and
courses of action, people usually do what normative approaches toward the systematic,
they believe is likely to have the best overall sociological, processual, and behavioral
outcome approaches
- Explain individual actions and the outcomes
Illustrados or Intellectuals during the Propaganda
they lead to in terms of the courses of
movement regarded as the Fathers of Political Science:
action (strategies) open to them, their
preferences over the end states to which Triumvirate of the Propaganda Movement:
combinations of action chosen by the
various players lead, and their beliefs about 1. Jose P. Rizal (1861- 1896)
important parameters such as each other’s 2. Graciano Lopez Jeana (1856- 1896)
preference 3. Marcelo H del Pilar (1850- 1896
6. Neo Institutionalism Duumvirate of the Philippine Revolution:
- Theory oriented, going beyond description
to explanation, in which, institutions are 4. Emilio Jacinto (1875- 1899)
either the effect or the cause of 5. Apolinario Mabini (1864- 1903)
phenomena in politics; methodologically Political Scientist who recognized them:
behavioralist, using actual behaviors of
individuals in the institution as data, while • Before WWII – Teodoro Kalaw, author of Manual
remaining concerned with the institutions de Ciencia Politica
as such focused on institutional outcomes • After WWII- Cesar A. Majul
in the form of public policies
JOSE RIZAl
- Resulting alternative perspectives/approach
in analysis of social & political reality Important Works of Rizal with Political Ideas:
{agency focus on actions of agents &
structure, context in which the action • Essay - “The Insolence of the Filipinos”
occurs • Essay – “The Philippines Century Hence”
7. Feminism • Novel – “The Social Cancer”
- Recognizes patriarchy as a defining source • Novel – “The Reign of Greed”
of domination in society • Constitution for La Liga Filipina
- Recognizes that the personal is political and The culmination of the progressive development of
gender as the socially constructed human society is a new socio-political order whose
difference between the male and the constituents are nationally participant, oriented towards
female in contrast to sex scientific and universalistic values and truly self-
8. Post-positivism confident and free.
- An approach which recognizes one’s way of
thinking is enmeshed with one’s Rizal believed education of the people would bring about
understanding and interpretation of this new order and hence believed the change to be and
research data evolution.

History of Political Science JAENA & DEL PILAR

Propaganda Movement (1880- 1895) Jaena’s political ideas have been compiled and published
in Speeches, Articles and Letters.
Philippine Revolution (1896- 1901)
Del Pilar’s works were mostly published in La Solidaridad
- Focus: The discipline is moving away from the
state and toward the political system All were exponents of liberal democracy.
JACINTO & MABINI Components of Political Belief System

Mabini’s political thought is more extensive, 1. What is the content of the belief?
comprehensive, and more systematic than Jacinto’s a. subject & nature
2. What is the salience of the belief?
Jacinto’s political writings have been compiled in Buhay
a. Importance and significance attached to
at mga Sinulat ni Emilio Jacinto
the belief by the individual
Mabini in La Revolution Filipina 3. What is the consistency of the beliefs with
other beliefs held by the individual?
University of the Philippines were to provide a College 4. How stable are the beliefs over time?
of Social and Political Science 5. Do(es) the belief(s) motivate the individual to
Replaced with College of Political Science 1915. undertake any political action?

George A Malcolm appointed as acting Dean of the Political Culture

college of law 1912-1913 - Broad pattern of values and attitudes that
Topic 2: Micro-Politics individuals and societies hold towards political
objects
Micro-Politics - System of empirical beliefs expressive symbols
- A domain in Political Science that deals with and values which defines the situation in which
political beliefs and action political action takes place
- Study of political beliefs and actions of small Political Culture Elements
group such as families and communities
Values, Symbols, Expectations, Beliefs, Customs,
Political Behavior Attitudes, History
Locus: Individual Sub-culture: Class, Ethnicity, Language, Sex, Caste,
- What do men and women think about politics Gender, Religion
- How they act politically Political Culture vs Opinion

Political Behavior Basic general values and News about specific

attitude towards politics leaders and politics
and government
Political Belief
Underpinnings of Responses to current
legitimacy questions
Political Belief
The government
System
attitudes that sustain a
political system
Political Culture Significance

1. Demarcates the boundaries of which

Political Belief System / Opinion Schema
government can legitimately act
- “Configuration of an individual’s political a. When citizens accept the legitimacy of
orientation, opinion schema” their state (moral rights to govern) this
- Network of cognitive, affective, and evaluative provides a barrier to radical change
orientation that serves as a basic framework b. Belief in civilian authority provides
guiding a person barrier to authority and provides a
- An organizer of existing political knowledge and barrier to authoritarian/military rule
processes new information in order to establish 2. Provide an overarching bond that can unite its
an opinion on a particular subject citizens
Political Belief: Individual Level Key Issues

1. Individual human nature and view

2. Individual and society relationship
Evaluative 3. Equality
Orientation
The Left-Right Ideological Spectrum

Cognitive Affective
Orientation Orientation

Political Belief System

Continuum – can become extreme
Configuration of an individual’s political
orientation Liberalism

Cognitive Orientation Individualism

- Recognized because of their ability to reason
- Refers to what individuals might believe as facts
- The individual attribute of rationality was
(might be true or not)
recognized by the Greeks and was not a popular
Affective Orientation thought but was brought back during the
renaissance period and rebirthed the
- Refers to any feeling/emotion evoked in a recognition of rationality
person by political phenomena Freedom
Evaluative Orientation - Bestowed with the freedom to pursue under
the right of liberty
- Refers to a synthesis of facts and feelings that - Not solute; bounded by the sense of
form one’s judgement about a political responsibility
phenomenon - Rational = knows the difference of right and
Component of Individual’s Belief System wrong
- “My liberty to pursue what I want to pursue
Content ends where you start to pursue what you want
to pursue”
Action Salience - Prioritizes liberty, life and property
- Political expression – democracy; Economic
IBC Expression - capitalism
Reason
Stability Complexity
Equality
- premised of foundational equality reflected in
Consistency
legal equality & political quality
o “All are equal before the law”
o “All Filipino citizens can enjoy the right
Comparative Ideologies to suffrage and run for office”
- Comprehensive set of beliefs about the political - Endorses equality of opportunity instead of
world about desirable political goals and the equality outcome
best ways to achieve these goals o In actuality we are not equal due to
patriarchy and oppression of women
 o Liberalism fails to recognize that there Individual: Inherently unequal in intelligence, skills,
is a real lack of equality based on status, and those who are superior must be in positions
outcome/ substantive equality of power
o Does not go beyond context and the Individuals and Society:
outcome of equality and stays withing - Society composed of groups of unequal power,
the bounds of equality of opportunity status, and material possessions
Toleration - Individual Liberty is valued in the context of
mutual responsibility l
Elements of Liberalism Equality: Inequality is natural
Consent Goal: Order and stability
Constitutionalism -superiority of the law
Noblesse Oblige
Classical - Social inclusion
Emerged from the medieval period where all processes - Not egalitarian
were managed by feudal lords o Not equal but make it a point to help
Individual: Rational & self-interested those lesser than them
Individual and Society: Tradition is best
- Primacy of Individual Freedom Pragmatism – belief that action should be shaped by
- Laissez-Faire/ Let-alone policy practical circumstances and practical goals, “what works
o The market knows how to behave Organicism – society is structured by a natural
o Gov’t shouldn’t interfere with pricing necessity, “whole is more than a collection of its parts”
o This was due to the extreme coercion
during the feudal system and people Totalitarian Ideologies – National Socialism & Fascism
had no choice but to comply to make a Liberal Society/State:
living
- Government by Consent & Limited by the
Sovereign Authority; “Nightwatchman state” in A big part is
support of negative freedom State People lived outside of
Equality: Equality before the Law it
Goal: Attainment of Individual Freedom (to enjoy life

Neo Liberalism Only this small section which

Exactly the same except for the view on market involves the people and the state
- The Government did not help the market during doe the government have a hold
the Great Depression because of extreme on people
classical liberal views and many people suffered Totalitarian Society/
for it. State:
- Let the individual enjoy the freedom and have
the government ensure it remain that way
through welfare
- State intervention is allowed if needed
- Ex: in the event that the market needs subsidy people State
the government should provide
Individual is regarded as an
- Supports welfare policies (free education,
individual but for the state to
health services, meals for children)
secure the individual it
encompasses or subsumes it
Conservatism within the state
The interest of the individual exists but is encompassed response to inputs demands or support from
by the state and expressed by its leader. the public
- Political distribution of power wealth and
“I am the state, and the state is me.” resources

Political Regime
Socialism
Individual: Caring, unselfish & attitudes are determined - Characterized effectively by the organization of
by the environment economic life as they are by the governmental
- Has the capacity of others first process thru which they operate
Individual & Society: Good of Society, Expansive - Describes the characteristics of political system
Government
Equality: sate ensure increase material, social, &
political equality of all its members
- Prioritizes equality of outcome
Goal: High quality relatively equal conditions of life for
everyone with an active state assisting in the
achievement of the goal

Marxism
- Views things through the economic perspective
- Political Power is attained through economic
power
- Economies that rely on capitalism oppress
people and therefore the power that comes
from it is one that promotes violence and since
the state represents the power the state is seen
as an embodiment of that violence and must be
overthrown
- Revolution is inevitable
- Revolution will come during the industrial age
and from the workers to overthrow 3 World Typography
bourgeoisies
- Systematize the revolutionary struggle – Lenin Democracy & Non-Democracy
Maoism Feature of Democracy
- Organized from the agricultural sector
- He took over China little by little 1. Election (free & fair based on universal
- Raged the cultural revolution suffrage)- votes counted accurately, winning
- Empathy comes from experience candidate determined on the basis of pre-
- Decentralization from the people the state but existing rule
centralized from the state down. 2. Political parties free to organize, offer ideas,
- Environment determines your consciousness present candidates for public office & compete
in elections
Topic 3 : Macro Politics 3. Elected gov’t. Develops policy based on
Political System specified procedure – fair &open to public
scrutiny
- Network of relationship through which 4. All citizens possess civil & political rights
government generates outputs (PPPAs) in
 5. Political system has independent judiciary on race, ethnicity, religion, language have
system – protect citizen rights & ensure gov’t. become increasingly vocal and have used the
Officials respect constitution & other laws global media to make their discontent known.
6. Military is subordinate to elected gov’t. &
State
commander-in-chief is responsible to voters
- An independent, sovereign government
exercising control over a certain spatially
Nation defined and bounded area, whose borders are
usually clearly defined and internationally
- Refers t a shared cultural or ethnic identity
recognized by other states. A state is an
rather than to a legally recognized geographic
organized political community acting under a
territory. A large group of people linked by a
government. States may be classified as
similar culture, language, and history.
sovereign if they are not dependent on, or
- There is concept and practice of a nation work
subject to, any other power or state.
to establish who belongs and who does not
(insider vs outsider)
Number of States in the World
Implications on the Individual of Membership in a - 49 Asian states
Nation - 47 states in Europe
- 54 states in Africa
- The individual met the legal requirements of a - 50 states in North America
national, state, or local government - 12 states in South America
- Be label as a “citizen” of the nation - 14 states in Oceania
- Relationship between an individual and a state - 195 Sovereign States According to the UN
- The individual shares the same bond with their
fellow citizens Modern State
- The individual is bounded by the law - It is a welfare state and not just a police state.
(constitution) of the nation The state assumes a greater role by creating
- The individual is given rights and freedoms economic and social overheads, ensuring
under the law stability both internally and externally,
- The individual is obliged to perform civic duties conserving resources for sustainable
and responsibilities development, and so on. The modern state is a
- The individual is expected to defend the developed state. The state should strive to keep
constitution of the Nation its people secure and safe. The state should
Challenges posed by Globalization on the Individual and ensure that its borders are sealed and
National Identity protected.

On the Individual Features of Modern State

- Globalization has affected the standards of life - Monopoly hold over the use of violence
and quality of life of individuals and families - Territoriality
throughout the world. Standard of living is the - Sovereignty
level of wealth, comfort, material goods, and - Constitutionality
necessities available to a certain socioeconomic - Impersonal Power
class in a certain geographic area - Public Bureaucracy
On National Identity - Consensual Operation
- Globalization increases awareness of social - Citizenship
heterogeneity because democracy allows - Taxation
people to participate and freedom of speech is
guaranteed, so groups whose identity is based Development of the Modern State
- Refers to an institutional innovation that - Process of decolonization accelerated in the
fundamentally changed political, economic, and decades following World War II
social dynamics
- Originated in medieval or early modern Europe,
spread to all parts of the world, and quickly States Roles
became the dominant form of political
organization I. The Pluralist State
- Relation to the Social-Contract Theory
Rights of the State and its Domain of Action o The Pluralist theory originated from the
social-contract theories.
Hierarchy of Rights
o The “voluntary agreement” that arose
Life – Right to be alive; Right to a Good life from the individuals recognizes that an
Liberty – Right to exist; Right to be free from establishment of a sovereign power
personal restraint could protect them from the brutality
Property – right of ownership of the state of nature.
o Without a state, citizens would abuse,
Classification of Rights
exploit, and enslave one another.
Statutory Rights – Rights provided by the law- - In relation to the role of the state as a minimal
making body of a country state.
Constitutional Rights - Provisions mentioned in o The state acts as a protective body, with
the constitution its core function being to provide a
Natural Rights - Rights inherent to man framework of peace and social order.

Human Rights
1. The Pluralist State – Minimal state
Civil Rights 3 Core Functions:
Political Rights i. The state exists to maintain domestic
Social Rights order.
Cultural Rights ii. It ensures that the contracts or
Economic Rights voluntary agreements made by citizens
are enforced
Generation of Human rights iii. Provides protection against external
First Generation – negative rights in a sense attack or threats
they prohibit the doing of something
2. The Capitalist State – Collectivized State
Second Generation – Positive rights that enjoin - In relation to the role of the state as a
the state to perform an act collectivized state.
Third Generation – Human rights are newly o There is a preference of common
emerging rights ownership over private property.
o It seeks to abolish private enterprises
- The central factor that explains the and sets up centrally planned
development of the modern state was its ability economies administered by a network
to fight wars. of economic committees.
- Michael Mann stresses the state’s capacity to - The state is believed to emerged out from the
combine ideological, economic, military, and class system.
political forms of power o It is an alternative from the pluralist
- The state acquired wider economic and social system where the state is seen as an
responsibilities during the twentieth century umpire or neutral arbitrary
 3. The Leviathan State - strictly, a form of rule in which absolute power
- A self-serving monster intent on expansion and is vested in one individual.
aggrandizement - In a dictatorship, the government tightly
o The state is viewed as an overbearing controls all aspects of the state and will often
‘nanny’, desperate to interfere or ban or tightly control groups and meetings.
meddle in every aspect of human - A dictatorship completely disregards the rights
existence. The central feature of this of individual citizens. there is only one party -
view is that the state pursues interests the dictator's party
that are separate from those of society. - The government controls every element of
- The state is associated in modern politics with people's lives
the New Right
o This is distinguished by a strong hostility Totalitarianism
towards state intervention on economic - Totalitarianism is an all-encompassing system of
and social life. It originates from the political rule, typically established by pervasive
comparison of state as a parasitic ideological manipulation and open terror.
growth that threatens both individual (Politics, 4th ed., Andrew Heywood)
liberty and economic security. - is a form of government in which no individual
4. The Patriarchal State freedom is theoretically permitted and in which
- Patriarchy opposes women’s political status all areas of individual life are subordinated to
because it firmly stands on its definition of “rule the state's authority.
by men” and implies superiority and power over - An extreme form of tyranny in which dictatorial
women. rulers and forced ideologies completely control
- Patriarchy is relatively ruled by men a community and its members.
o Rooted in the belief that men have the
Presidential System
focus and great that will lead to
developmental, minimal, and - constitutional and political separation of
collectivized states. Hence, it is because powers between the legislative and executive
it focuses solely on the power of men. branches of the government.
Non-Democratic System Principal Features:
- is a system of government where the country is 1. The executive and the legislature are elected
ruled by a single political party. separately
- a form of government that uses coercion and 2. Formal separation between the personnel
repression, fear rather than consent. between the legislative and the executive
branches
Authoritarian
3. The executive cannot be removed by
- is a belief in, or practice of, government ‘from legislature, except possibly through
above’, in which authority is exercised - impeachment
regardless of popular consent 4. The president or executive cannot dissolve the
- Does not allow much free political participation legislature
by the people; uncontested elections happen in 5. Executive authority is concentrated in the hands
authoritarianism. of the president
- Maintaining a power monopoly is the main aim
of an authoritarian state.
- President is a formal head of state
Dictatorship
- Constitutional or non-executive presidents are a
feature of the parliamentary systems, and their
 responsibilities are largely within the b. The ultimate control that Congress
ceremonial duties. They are considered exercises over the president resides in
figureheads the power of impeachment.
- Types of Presidential Executives: 2. Federal Bureaucracy
o Limited presidential executives operate a. Professional bureaucrats outnumber
within constraints imposed by the the appointments of the president and
constitution, political democracy, party frequently respond to interests at odds
competition and some form of with the priorities of the administration
separation of powers. Counterbalanced 3. The Supreme Court
by those of a popularly accountable a. Judges cannot be controlled because of
assembly. their security of tenure
E.g.: USA, France, Finland 4. Media
o Unlimited presidential executives, the a. Media prizes political independence
president is invested with near- and its reputation for seeking the truth
unchecked powers, effectively,
Parliamentary System
dictatorships. Commonly found in one-
party states that rest heavily on the - Parliamentary system, democratic form of
support of the military. government in which the party (or a coalition of
E.g.: Sudan, Belarus, Kazakhstan parties) with the greatest representation in the
parliament (legislature) forms the government,
its leader becoming prime minister or
- ‘Separated institutions sharing powers’ – chancellor. Executive functions are exercised by
Richard Neustadt (1990) members of the parliament appointed by the
prime minister to the cabinet.
- it is a system of government having the real
executive power vested in a cabinet composed
of members of the legislature who are
individually and collectively responsible to the
legislature has a democratically elected
parliamentary government.

Aim of the System

- The Core Objectives of Parliament are to pass
legislation (laws), to scrutinize and oversee
US presidency transformation key developments:
Executive action (keep oversight of the
1. The national economy developed required the executive and organs of state), to facilitate
government to abandon its laissez fair policies public participation and involvement in the
and adopt a more interventionist approach. legislative and other processes, to participate
2. USA dropped the policy of isolation after WWII in, promote and oversee co-operative
and adopted a world role, the mantle of the government.
leader of the ‘free world’ since 1945.
Features of Parliamentary System
4 Crucial relationships needed by the US president
1. Supremacy of the legislative branch
1. Congress - The legislative branch conducts its
a. Depends on their ‘success rate’ or the business through a unicameral (one house)
portion of their legislative programs or bicameral (two houses) Parliament. This
that survives congressional scrutiny. group is composed of representatives or
 members that are elected by citizens of the union. This alliance utilizes its combined
country. The primary job of members of resources to accomplish a common goal.
Parliament is to create and pass laws.
Advantages
2. Division of Roles
- a divide between the roles of - It promotes good governance.
Head of Government and Head of State. - Faster and quicker decision making
Rather than citizens, members of - It requires less personnel and cost
Parliament elect the Prime Minister, who is - It lessens friction, makes friendship, and
the Head of Government. The Prime promotes cooperation between the two arms of
Minister oversees Parliament. This creates the government
an overlap between the legislative and
executive branches of government. The Disadvantages
Head of State in a parliamentary system is - The Prime Minister is loyal to his Party
largely a symbolic role. Hereditary - Overload of the functions of the cabinet
monarchs typically have this role reserved. - Lack of specialization leading to inefficiency
3. Supreme Court - Members of the parliament will become too
- In most parliamentary systems of powerful arrogant and likely to abuse power
government, there is a Supreme Court that
can declare a law as unconstitutional. This
would be done if it were to pose violations Unitary System
against the nation’s constitution.
4. Election and In-voting - In a unitary system, all powers are centralized in
- Though members of Parliament hold their the hands of the central government and the
positions in office by each election season, only center is the reservoir of all state powers.
they can be turned out of office. If one - constitution empowers the central government
respective party loses majority holdover to legislate, execute, and adjudicate
members of Parliament, they can be comprehensively.
removed. Other members of Parliament, as - the state administration with confidence
well as the Prime Minister, are then able to without any fear and terror.
vote out a member of Parliament. A no- - centralization of powers is itself an
confidence vote accomplishes this. administrative problem.
5. Lacking - in the UK, this Parliament possesses unrivaled
- Parliamentary systems lack what and unchallengeable legislative authority. The
presidential systems call “Checks and Parliament can make or unmake any law it
Balances.” Therefore, the parliamentary wishes for its powers are not checked by a
system tends to be more efficient. This is codified or written constitution; A unitary
because political gridlocks cannot delay government may or may not have a written
them. constitution.
6. Political Parties - a unitary system is when one central
- A parliamentary system of government government controls weaker states wherein
consists of members serving various single power is not shared between states,
political parties. Therefore, coalitions are a counties, devolved regions/provinces, or local
very popular type of agreement in institutions.
parliamentary governments. Members of
Simplicity of the Government
opposing political parties will often form a
coalition, otherwise known as a temporary - The unitary system is a very simple system of
government.
 - Central legislature to legislate, the executive - National and Regional Government
branch to execute the legislature, and the - determined not just by constitutional rules, but
judiciary to adjudicate without any share. also by a complex of political, historical,
- All powers belong to the central government. geographical,
cultural and social circumstances.
Responsibility of the System - Written Constitution
o Constitutional Arbiter
- One important principle of this form of state is o Linking Institutions
that responsibility is fixed in the defined - Two Autonomous Levels of the Government
institutions. o Legislative
- These institutions are accountable for their ▪ Makes the laws
constitutional responsibilities and therefore ▪ Congress, House of
they try their best to remain within the circle of Representatives, and Senate
the law of the land. o Executive
▪ Carry the law
Local Governments ▪ President, Vice President,
Cabinet, Federal Agencies
- powers are the ill grip of the urban bureaucracy
- central government manipulates the affairs
Types of Federalism
through local government institutions.
- Executive Federalism
- The locality of such institutions is often based o A style of federalism in which the
geographically, demographically, or socio- federal balance is largely determined by
culturally. the relationship between the executives
of each level of government.
Federalism
- Dual Federalism
- It is about Government Power o A style of federalism in which national
- It is a power that is divided between the and regional government occupy
National Government and the State separate and seemingly indestructible
- It refers to legal and political structures that spheres of policy power.
distribute power territorially within a state. - Administrative Federalism
o A style of federalism in which central
government is the key policymaker, and
Federal State
provincial government is charged with
Government
responsibility for policy
implementation.
Regulate trade - Fiscal Federalism
between states They have their own laws o A style of federalism in which the
(as long as their laws do not federal balance is largely determined by
contradict national laws) funding arrangements, especially
Declare War
transfer payments from the center to
the periphery.
Federation
Structures of the Government
- is an intermediate form of political organization Legislative
that lies somewhere between a confederation - Is vested in both the government and the
- Federal systems are based on a compromise
chamber congress-the Senate (upper) and
between unity and regional diversity, between House of Reps (lower)
the need for an effective central power and the - This branch enacts legislation confirms or
need for checks or constraints on that power. rejects presidential appointments and has the
authority to declare war
Features
- Separation of Power, Funds, and Programs
Executive Interest Groups

- Is exercise by the government under the - Representation

leadership of the president o They represent their members before
- The executive branch carries out and enforces the government
laws - Participation
o Facilitate and stimulate people's
Judicial
participation in politics
- Is vested in the courts with the Supreme Court - Education
of the Philippines as the highest judicial body o Educate their members, the public at
- This branch interprets the meaning of law, large, and the government about
applies laws to individual cases and decided if o specific issues
laws violate the Constitution - Agenda Building
o Get issues on the political agenda and
Political Parties make them a high priority
- Are groups identified by name and ideology - Program Monitoring
that fields candidates at elections in order to o keeping track of government programs
win public office and control government o Keep tabs on consequences and effects
of laws
Interest groups

- Also known as pressure groups are bodies

which seek to influence public policy from
outside the formal structures of government

Roles of Political Parties and Interest Groups in

Democracy

Political parties

- Government
o Providing a foundation for the exercise
of power by governments, offering
them direction.
- Guidance
o Giving voters coherent and contrasting
sets of policies from which to choose,
giving effect to the idea of liberal
democracy
- Aggregation
o Aggregating interests, filtering many
specific demands into manageable and
prioritized packages of proposals.
- Mobilization
o Encouraging Voters to participate in
politics
- Recruitment
o Recruiting and preparing candidates for
public office