SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTOR USING

PULSE WIDTH MODULATION

GROUP MEMBERS

NAME OF STUDENTS ID NUMBER

1. TOLOSSA JARSE------------------------ ENGR /625/03

2. GEREZIER GEBREYESUS--------------ENGR/278/03
3. WELDEBRHAN AMARE----------------ENGR/983/03
4. AMANUEL TEMESGEN-----------------ENGR/739/03
5. MOHAMED AHMED---------------------ENGR/457/03
A THESIS OF MINI PROJECT (ECEG5307)

INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING
STREAM OF POWER ENGINEERING

SUBMITTED TO DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER

ENGINEERING.

DEBRE BERHAN UNIVERSITY

DEBRE BERHAN, ETHIOPIA

February 18/2015 G.C

DECLERATION

Name signature

1) TOLOSSA JARSE ________________

2) GEREZIER GEBREYESUS ________________
3) WELDEBRHAN AMARE ________________
4) AMANUEL TEMESGEN ________________
5) MOHAMED AHMED ________________

We hereby declare that we carried out the work reported in the department of Electrical and
Computer Engineering Debre Berhan University under Electrical and computer Engineering
Department We solemnly declare that to the best of our knowledge on part of this project has
been submitted here in a previous application for award of a degree in Electrical Power
Engineering at Debre Berhan University

Page | ii
APPROVAL

This is to verify that the project title speed control for dc motor using pulse width
modulation based on IC555 carried out by given our group name has been read and
approved for meeting part of the requirements and regulations governing the ward in
Electrical and Computer Engineering (stream of electrical Power Engineering)

Name of department head Ato Abebe Tsegaye

Name of Advisors signature

1. Mrs. V.Rajaguru __________________

2. Mrs. Tesfaye Nafo ___________________

Name of examiners Signature

1 Shegaw Melak __________________

2 Abduselam Hamid __________________
3 Endirs Gezu ___________________

Date -----------------------------

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are highly grateful to our advisor Mrs. V.Rajaguru for providing this
opportunity to carry out the present work. We would like to express a deep sense of
gratitude and thanks to our supervisor Mrs. Tesfaye Nafo department of electrical and
computer engineering. We also express our gratitude other faculty members of the
department for their intellectual support throughout the course of this work. The copious
help received from the technical staff of the department for the excellent lab support is
also acknowledged.

Finally we are indebted to all who so ever have contributed to provide help to carry out
the present work.

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ABSTRACT

The DC motor is an important part of as equipment in many industrial

applications requiring variable speed and load characteristics due to its ease of
controllability. Nowadays, there are lots of good-quality motor speed controllers on the
market. However, their costs are relatively high. A speed controller with both low cost
and good performance will be highly marketable, especially for small mobility
applications. The current work allows controlling the speed of a DC motor in both
forward and reversing direction, from fully off to fully on. It runs in switch mode so it
is quite efficient. In this work, designing motor bi-directional DC control circuit using
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) based on an operational amplifier model IC555 is
implemented. The proposed system offers many advantages such as simple structure,
low cost, accurate, quite efficient, lightweight nature, small volume, and bi-directional
speed control.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CONTENTS PAGE

DECLERATION..............................................................................................................i

APPROVAL .................................................................................................................. ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................... iii

ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................ v

LIST OF FIGURE....................................................................................................... viii

LISTS OF ABBREVIATION AND SYMBOLS ..........................................................ix

CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................. 1

1. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 1

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY ................................................................... 1

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEMS .................................................................. 5

1.3 SOLUTION OF THE PROBLEM ........................................................................ 5

1.4 OBJECTIVES .................................................................................................... 6

1. 4.1 GENERAL OBJECTIVES ............................................................................ 6

1.4.2. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES.............................................................................. 6

1.5 SIGNIFICANT OF THE STUDY ...................................................................... 7

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 1.6 METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................ 7

CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................ 9

2. LITERATURE RE-VIEW ..................................................................................... 9

2.1 INTRODUCTION OF DC MOTOR .................................................................... 9

2.2 DC MOTORS...................................................................................................... 9

2.2.1 DC MOTOR BACKGROUND ...................................................................... 9

2.2.2 THEORY OF DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROL ......................................... 11

2.3 SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTORS .............................................................. 12

2.4 SPEED CONTROLWITH PWM ........................................................................ 13

2.5. PWM FREQUENCY ......................................................................................... 14

2.6 BI-DIRECTIONAL CONTROL OF DC MOTOR ............................................. 16

2.7 PULSE WIDTH MODULATION ...................................................................... 16

2.8 DC MOTOR DRIVE......................................................................................... 18

CHAPTER THREE ...................................................................................................... 20

3. DRIVE CIRCUIT DESIGN .................................................................................. 20

3.1 12 VOLT DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROLLER WITH PULSE WIDTH

MODULATION ........................................................................................................ 20

3.1.1 THE WORKING PRINCIPLE. .................................................................... 20

3.1.2 RESULT AND CONCLUSION ................................................................... 23

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 3.1.3 PWM DRIVE LOAD 12 V DC POWER SUPPLY ..................................... 25

CHAPTER FOUR ......................................................................................................... 27

4. DRIVING VIBRATION MOTORS WITH PULSE WIDTH MODULATION

OVERVIEW (PWM) ................................................................................................ 27

4.1 PULSE WIDTH MODULATION (PWM) EXPLAINED .............................. 27

4.2 DRIVING MOTORS WITH PWM ................................................................. 29

4.3 AMPLIFYING THE PWM SIGNAL FOR MOTORS ................................... 30

CHAPTER FIVE .......................................................................................................... 32

5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION .................................................... 32

5.1 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................... 32

5.2 RECOMMENDATION AND FETURE WORK ............................................ 33

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................. 34

APPENDIX ................................................................................................................... 36

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LIST OF FIGURE

FIGURE 1 FIELD OF DC MOTOR ............................................................................. 12

FIGURE 2 INTERNAL PART OF DC MOTOR ......................................................... 12

FIGURE 3 COMMON MOTOR LAYOUT ................................................................. 13

FIGURE 4 PULSE WIDTH MODULATION WITH 80% DUTY CYCLE ............... 17

FIGURE 5 PULSE WITH MODULATED WAVE FORM ......................................... 19

FIGURE 6 PERMANENT MAGNET DC MOTOR.................................................... 20

FIGURE 7 PULSE WIDTH MODULATION TECHNIQUE...................................... 21

FIGURE 8 SCHEMATIC SHOWS THE PWM SPEED CONTROLLER,POWER

AND PMDC MOTOR .................................................................................................. 23

FIGURE 9 SCHEMATIC SHOWS THE PWM SPEED CONTROLLER IN

SIMULINK ................................................................................................................... 24

FIGURE 10 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP SHOWING OVERALL LAYOUT OF ALL

EQUIPMENT USED .................................................................................................... 26

FIGURE 11 NO LOAD VOLTAGE WAVE FORM ................................................... 27

FIGURE 12 MOTOR BI-DIRECTIONAL SPEED AS A FUNCTION OF INPUT

VOLTAGE .................................................................................................................... 28

FIGURE 13 PWM EXAMPLE WAVE FORM ........................................................... 31

Page | ix
LISTS OF ABBREVIATION AND SYMBOLS

PWM = Pulse Width Modulation

DPDT = Double Pole Double Throw

BLPM = Brush Less Permanent Magnet

BDC = Brushed Direct Current

PIC = Programmable Integrated Circuit

ECCP = Enhance Capture Compare

PLC = Programmable Logic Controller

DAC = Direct Alternative Current

SCR = Silicon Controlled Rectifier

DC = Direct Current

BJT= Bi-polar Junction Transistor

MOSFET= Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor

IC=Integrated Circuit

IRF=Interface Radio Frequency

Q=Transistor

Page | x
 CHAPTER-1

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

At the most basic level, electric motors exist to convert electrical energy into
mechanical energy. This is done by way of two interacting magnetic fields--one
stationary, and another attached to a part that can move. A number of types of electric
motors exist. DC motors have the potential for very high torque capabilities (although
this is generally a function of the physical size of the motor), are easy to miniaturize,
and can be "throttled" via adjusting their supply voltage. DC motors are also not only
the simplest, but the oldest electric motors.

The basic principles of electromagnetic induction were discovered in the early

1800's by Oersted, Gauss, and Faraday. By 1820, Hans Christian Oersted and Andre
Marie Ampere had discovered that an electric current produces a magnetic field. The
next 15 years saw a flurry of cross-Atlantic experimentation and innovation, leading
finally to simple DC rotary motor. A number of men were involved in the work, so
proper credit for the first DC motor is really a function of just how broadly you choose
to define the word "motor.

Often, people attempt to control DC motors with a variable resistor or variable

resistor connected to a transistor. While the latter approach works well, it generates heat
and hence wastes power. The simple Pulse Width Modulation PWM DC motor control
eliminates these problems. It controls the motor speed by driving the motor with short
pulses. These pulses vary in duration to change the speed of the motor. The longer the
pulses, the faster the motor turns, and vice versa [1]. Many works had been published a
very popular switch mode speed control circuits, but they works in only one direction.
To change direction, a double-pole changeover switch or relay is needed to change the
polarity of the applied voltage and the motor spins the other way However, this has the

Page | xi
disadvantage that they then a Double-pole/Double-throw DPDT switch has to be added
to change the polarity of the applied voltage. Therefore, there are two ways to control
the motor-a direction switch as well as the speed control. Also, it is not a good idea to
suddenly reverse the voltage on a DC motor while it is spinning. It can cause a big
current surge that could burn out the speed controller, as well as causing big electrical
and mechanical stresses on the motor itself [1].

The current designed circuit overcomes both these problems. The direction and
speed is controlled using a single potentiometer. Turning the pot in one direction causes
the motor to start spinning. Turning the pot in the other direction causes the motor to
spin in the opposite direction. The center position on the pot is off, forcing the motor to
slow and stop before changing direction. R. Karthick [ [1] designed a circuit allowed
controlling the speed of a DC motor (in eight levels) from PC’s parallel port.

The PC used a software program to control the speed of the motor. [3] Designed
a Brushless Permanent Magnet BLPM motor drive might serve as a potential alternative
to existing servo industrial AC motor, especially in a small frame size, for variable speed
drives. This work deals with a topology of the converter for small three phase brushless
DC motor M. Rylee [4] discussed how to use the Enhanced, Capture, Compare, and
PWM (ECCP) on the PIC16F684 for bi-directional brushed DC (BDC) motor control.
M. George [5] proposed the speed controller of a separately excited DC motor with
varying armature voltage.

Speed controller system based on controller had been successfully developed and
it was found able to regulate the speed well above the rated values. K.-H.Kim et.al [6]
presented a robust speed control scheme for a Brushless DC (BLDC) motor using an
adaptive input-output linearization technique. This work acts as a simple, high reliability
and comparatively low cost bi-directional BLDC motor control.

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 PWM DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROL

The application note in [7] demonstrated the use of NXP Semiconductors

LPC2101 controller for bi-directional brushed DC motor control. A. S. Zein El Din [8]
presented a simplified approach for speed control of a separately excited DC motor
using Programmable Logic Controller PLC designed a high-performance low-cost low-
loss wireless DC motor speed control unit. The principles of PWM and Hall sensor have
been introduced by W. Wang [9]. He proposed the designing strategy of DC motor speed
control system based on single chip controller with integrated circuits. A. K. Dewangan
[10] investigated an implementation of the ATmega8L microcontroller for PWM speed
control of Permanent Magnet DC motor fed by a DC chopper with speed feedback
through a taco generator. Gregor T. George [11] designed circuit for controlling the
voltage across the DC motor by varying the duty cycle with PWM scheme.

A PWM scheme would allow for simple interfacing with the DAC. The variable
DAC output voltage is integrated as an input to the operational amplifier which acts as
a comparator circuit. As a result, varying user inputs in Lab VIEW would be used to
drive the motor at different speeds. R. K. Kumordzi [12] provided efficient and simple
method for control speed of DC motor using PWM technique based on dual timer IC-
555. The works [4, 9] above depend upon controller chips technology and other
advanced power electronic technologies, and therefore with these techniques, the DC
motor speed technology is gradually turning from analogue to digital. Therefore, these
techniques will be more complex and higher cast with respect to analogue one.
Compared with all previous drives, the current work proposed a very low cast PWM
drive scheme. This drive is chosen to vary the voltage applied across the motor
terminals. The PWM generator design is based on a single low cast operational amplifier
(IC555) model. The duty cycles of the output waveform could be varied from 0% to
100% using this design.

The proposed drive has additional advantages such as lightweight nature, small
volume, accurate, low cost, and high efficiency as well as it allows controlling the speed
of a DC motor in both the forward and reverse direction. The range of control is from
fully off to fully on in both directions. It can be used for motors running at 12V or 24V
and drawing up to about 5A. It runs in switch mode so it is quite efficient. Pulse-width

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 PWM DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROL

modulation (PWM) or duty-cycle variation methods are commonly used in speed

control of DC motors. The duty cycle is defined as the percentage of digital ‘high’ to
digital ‘low’ plus digital ‘high’ pulse-width during a PWM period.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEMS

 Constantly supplying power to a device seems wasteful, in part due to the amount of
energy wasted as heat when using a resistor to limit the amount of current delivered to
the motor. Also, when using a resistor, if the load changes, the amount of current presently
being used by the device has to be re- distributed over the new load
 Because of Newton’s first law, motors require a significant amount of energy to start
turning. This initial energy requirement depends on the size of the motor used
 Likewise, once the motor is turning, it requires much less energy to maintain the spin than
it did to get it spinning. All of that extra energy is wasted.
 Inversely, initially supplying just enough energy to maintain an already-spinning motor
won’t be enough to get it started spinning
1.3 SOLUTION OF THE PROBLEM

PWM can solve both of these problems

 Because we are modulating the on/off time, rather than the power, this allows us to do
some things we were not able to do before.
 Since we are supplying the full voltage to the motor from the start, this should be enough
to get the motor to a full spin from a dead stop.
 Since we are modulating the amount of time that full power is applied to the motor, we
can use short bursts of full power to ‘boost’ the motor, and then let the motor ‘glide’ under
its own inertia
 By varying the amount of time the signal is ‘on’, the average of the signal approximates
the level of the analog DC voltage needed to drive the motor at the same speed.

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 PWM DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROL

1.4 OBJECTIVES

1. 4.1 GENERAL OBJECTIVES

The general objectives of the proposal project is to control the speed of DC motor by using
pulse width modulation .The speed of DC motor can be controlled by varying the voltage applied
to the terminal.

1.4.2. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

There are many different ways to control the speed of motors but one very simple and easy
way is to use PWM; but before we start looking at the in’s and out’s of PWM. We need to
understand a little more about how a dc motor works. The main advantage of a pwm circuit over
a resistive power controller is the efficieny.The one advantage of pwm is that the pulses reach
the full supply voltage and will produce more torque in a motor by being able to overcome the
internal motor resistance motor easily. Some of the following terms are how to control dc motor
speed and the parameters of controlling speed of dc motor using pwm.

 Select the of circuit board

 study the behavior of DC motor and PWM
 Choose the material requirement
 Design the circuit diagram of dc motor
 Controlling the speed of dc motor with:-
o Speed control with pwm
o bi-directional control of dc motor
o dc motor drive
o drive circuit design

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 PWM DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROL

1.5 SIGNIFICANT OF THE STUDY

The advantage and disadvantage of dc motor speed control using pwm techniques within
short time. The advantage of dc motor are:

a. Provide excellent speed control for acceleration and deceleration

b. Easy to understand design
c. Simple, cheap drive design
d. Power supply is connects directly to the field of the motor allows for precise voltage
control, which is necessary with speed and torque control applications.
Sub-fractional horse power applications by the SCR (silicon controlled rectifiers) and PWM
(pulse width modulation) drives, which offer relatively precisely control voltage and current.
Adding an SCR allows simple voltage variability simply by turning the knob and there by the
speed of the motor pulse width modulation is an effective method for adjusting the amount of
power delivered to an electrical load

1.6 METHODOLOGY

A scheme that address on building up such a system as described above is

presented in here. As the system is based on the speed controlling of a DC motor, so the
desired goal is to achieve a system with constant speed at any load condition. That
means motor will run at fixed speed at any load condition. It will not vary with the
amount of load. The software is made in such a way that even an unskilled operator can
operate it. This system describes the design and implementation of the microcontroller
based closed loop DC motor speed controller that controls the speed of a DC motor by
using PWM and DC chopper. In implementing this work frequency, independent PWM
output with variable duty cycle that can vary from 0% to 100% is generated.

Direct current (DC) motors have been used in variable speed drives for a long
period of time. The versatile characteristics of dc motors can provide high starting

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 PWM DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROL

torques which is required for traction drives .Control over wide speed range, both below
and above the rated speed can be very easily achieved. The methods of dc motor speed
control are simpler and less expensive than thus of alternating current motors.

In this project speed control is attained using pulse width modulation techniques
and pulse width modulation generation is done using microcontroller pwm is a method
for binary signals generation which has 2 signal periods (high and low). The width of
each pulse varies between 0 and the period (T). PWM is implemented using a
microcontroller, dependent on an input value for generating variable pulse widths, for
driving motor at variable speed.

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 PWM DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROL

CHAPTER -2

2. LITERATURE RE-VIEW

A lot of studies have been made in this area are as follows. The simple Pulse Width
Modulation PWM DC motor control eliminates these problems. It controls the motor
speed by driving the motor with short pulses. These pulses vary in duration to change
the speed of the motor. The longer the pulses, the faster the motor turns, and vice versa
[1]. The PC used a software program to control the speed of the motor. [3] Designed a
Brushless Permanent Magnet BLPM motor drive might serve as a potential alternative
to existing servo industrial AC motor, especially in a small frame size, for variable speed
drives.

This work deals with a topology of the converter for small three phase brushless
DC motor M. Rylee [4] discussed how to use the Enhanced, Capture, Compare, and
PWM (ECCP) on the PIC16F684 for bi-directional brushed DC (BDC) motor control.
M. George [5] proposed the speed controller of a separately excited DC motor with
varying armature voltage. Speed controller system based on controller had been
successfully developed and it was found able to regulate the speed well above the rated
values. K.-H.Kim et.al [6] The application note in [7] demonstrated the use of NXP
Semiconductors LPC2101 controller for bi-directional brushed DC motor control. A. S.
Zein El Din [8] presented a simplified approach for speed control of a separately excited
DC motor using Programmable Logic Controller PLC designed a high-performance
low-cost low-loss wireless DC motor speed control unit.

The principles of PWM and Hall sensor have been introduced by W. Wang [9].
He proposed the designing strategy of DC motor speed control system based on single
chip controller with integrated circuits. A. K. Dewangan [10] investigated an
implementation of the ATmega8L microcontroller for PWM speed control of
Permanent Magnet DC motor fed by a DC chopper with speed feedback through a taco
generator. Gregor T. George [11] designed circuit for controlling the voltage across the
DC motor by varying the duty cycle with PWM scheme. The principles of PWM and

Page | 18
 PWM DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROL

Hall sensor have been introduced by W. Wang [9]. He proposed the designing strategy
of DC motor speed control system based on single chip controller with integrated
circuits. A. K. Dewangan [10] investigated an implementation of the ATmega8L
microcontroller for PWM speed control of Permanent Magnet DC motor fed by a DC
chopper with speed feedback through a taco generator. Gregor T. George [11] designed
circuit for controlling the voltage across the DC motor by varying the duty cycle with
PWM scheme. As a result, varying user inputs in Lab VIEW would be used to drive
the motor at different speeds. R. K. Kumordzi [12] provided efficient and simple method
for control speed of DC motor using PWM technique based on dual timer IC-555.

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 PWM DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROL

CHAPTER-3

3.1 INTRODUCTION OF DC MOTOR

A DC motor consist basically of two parts, the stationary body of the motor
called the “Stator” and the inner part which rotates producing the movement called the
“Rotor”. For D.C. machines the rotor is commonly termed the “Armature”. Generally
in small light duty DC motors the stator consists of a pair of fixed permanent magnets
producing a uniform and stationary magnetic flux inside the motor giving these types
of motors their name of “permanent-magnet direct-current” (PMDC) motors. The
motors armature consists of individual electrical coils connected together in a circular
configuration around its metallic body producing a North-Pole then a South-Pole then
a North-Pole etc., type of field system configuration.

A DC motor relies on the fact that like magnet poles repel and unlike magnetic
poles attract each other. A coil of wire with a current running through it generates an
electromagnetic field aligned with the center of the coil. By switching the current on or
off in a coil its magnetic field can be switched on or off or by switching the direction of
the current in the coil the direction of the generated magnetic field can be switched 180°

3.2 DC MOTORS

3.3.1 DC MOTOR BACKGROUND

In any electric motor, operation is based on simple electromagnetism. A current-

carrying conductor generates a magnetic field; when this is then placed in an external
magnetic field, it will experience a force proportional to the current in the conductor,
and to the strength of the external magnetic field.

In magnetic fields opposite (North and South) polarities attract, while like polarities
(north and north, south and south) repel.

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 PWM DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROL

Figure 1 Field of dc motor

The internal configuration of a DC motor is designed to harness the magnetic

attraction between a current-carrying conductor and an external magnetic field to
generate rotational motion.

Figure 2 Internal part of dc motor

Let's start by looking at a simple 2-pole DC electric motor (here red represents a magnet
or winding with a "North" polarization, while green represents a magnet or winding
with a"South" polarization).

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 PWM DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROL

Figure 3 Common motor layout

In most common DC motors, the external magnetic field is produced by high-

strength permanent magnets. The stator is the stationary part of the motor - this includes
the motor casing, as well as two or more permanent magnet pole pieces. The rotor
(together with the axle and attached commutator) rotate with respect to the stator. The
rotor consists of windings (generally on a core), the windings being electrically
connected to the commutator. The above diagram shows a common motor layout -- with
the rotor inside the stator (field) magnets.

3.3.2 THEORY OF DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROL

The speed of a DC motor is directly proportional to the supply voltage, so if we reduce the
supply voltage from 24 Volts to 12 Volts, the motor will run at half the speed. How can this be
achieved when the battery is fixed at 24 Volts?

The speed controller works by varying the average voltage sent to the motor. It could do
this by simply adjusting the voltage sent to the motor, but this is quite inefficient to do. A better
way is to switch the motor's supply on and off very quickly. If the switching is fast enough, the
motor doesn't notice it, it only notices the average effect.

When you watch a film in the cinema, or the television, what you are actually seeing is a
series of fixed pictures, which change rapidly enough that your eyes just see the average effect -
movement. Your brain fills in the gaps to give an average effect. When the switch is closed, the
motor sees 24 Volts, and when it is open it sees 0 Volts. If the switch is open for the same amount

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 PWM DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROL

of time as it is closed, the motor will see an average of 12 Volts, and will run more slowly
accordingly.

As the amount of time that the voltage is on increases compared with the amount of time
that it is off, the average speed of the motor increases. This on-off switching is performed by
power MOSFET. A MOSFET (Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor) is a device
that can turn very large currents on and off under the control of a low signal level voltage.

The time that it takes a motor to speed up and slow down under switching
conditions is dependent on the inertia of the rotor (basically how heavy it is), and how
much friction and load torque there is.

3.3 SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTORS

In essence, there are four ways to vary the speed of DC motors:

1. By using mechanical gears to achieve the desired speed. This method is

generally beyond the capability of most home workshops.
2. Reducing the motor voltage with a series resistor. However, this is inefficient
(energy wasted in resistor) and reduces torque. As the current drawn by the
motor increases, the motor load increases too. More current means a larger
voltage drop across the series resistor and therefore less voltage to the motor.
The motor now tries to draw even more current, resulting in the motor “stalling”.
3. Using a transistor to continuously vary the voltage to the motor. This works well
but a substantial amount of heat is dissipated in the power transistor.
4. By applying the full supply voltage to the motor in bursts or pulses, eliminating
the voltage losses in the series resistor or transistor. This is called Pulse Width
Modulation PWM and it is the method used in the current proposed circuit. It is
a very efficient way of providing intermediate amounts of electrical power
between fully on and fully off. Short pulses means the motor runs slowly; longer
pulses make the motor run faster [12].
The main advantage of a PWM circuit over a resistive power controller
is the efficiency. One additional advantage of PWM is that the pulses reach the

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 PWM DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROL

full supply voltage and will produce more torque in a motor by being able to
overcome the internal motor resistances more easily. Finally, in a PWM circuit,
common small potentiometers may be used to control wide varieties of the loads
whereas large and expensive high power variable resistors are needed for
resistive controllers [12]
3.4 SPEED CONTROLWITH PWM

One essential aspect of controlling motors is the ability to change the speed of
rotation and the amount of torque produced. One simple but usually impractical means
of achieving this is to adjust the supply voltage up and down as required. However, it is
more effective and common to use the PWM concept. By adjusting the duty cycle of
the signal (modulating the width of the pulse, hence the “PWM”) i.e, the time fraction
it is "on", the average power can be varied, and hence the motor speed. This is a control
technique where power to the motor is switched on and off rapidly, at rates high enough
that the effects of the switching can be negligible (The output transistor is either on or
off, not partly on as with normal regulation, so less power is wasted as heat and smaller
heat-sinks can be used). The resulting effective voltage is then the average fraction of
the time the power is on. This technique is also used in many other applications.

The drive signal is switched on and off with a given period and is in the “on” state
at voltage VON for a fixed fraction of the period. This “on” time is referred to as the
“duty cycle” and is stated as a percentage,

𝑂𝑛 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
Duty cycle (%) = *100 (1)
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑

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 PWM DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROL

3.5. PWM FREQUENCY

The frequency of the resulting PWM signal is dependent on the frequency of the ramp
waveform. What frequency do we want? This is not a simple question. Some pros and cons are:

 Frequencies between 20Hz and 18kHz may produce audible screaming from the speed
controller and motors - this may be an added attraction for your robot!
 RF interference emitted by the circuit will be worse the higher the switching frequency
is.
 Switching on and off of the speed controller MOSFET results in a little power loss.
Therefore the greater the time spent switching compared with the static on and off times,
the greater will be the resulting 'switching loss' in the MOSFETs.
 The higher the switching frequency, the more stable is the current waveform in the
motors. This waveform will be a spiky switching waveform at low frequencies, but at
high frequencies the inductance of the motor will smooth this out to an average DC
current level proportional to the PWM demand. This spikiness will cause greater power
loss in the resistances of the wires, MOSFETs, and motor windings than a steady DC
current waveform. The frequency of the PWM drive signal is calculated by taking the
reciprocal of the period.

1
PWM Frequency = (2)
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑

Figure 4 Pulse width modulation with 80% duty cycle

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 PWM DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROL

By changing the duty cycle of a PWM signal changes the average, or

perceived voltage level . For instance, adjusting the duty cycle shown in Figure (4)
so that, it is in the “on” state for 80% of the period, the situation will change
to that shown in Figure (4). By increasing the duty cycle to 80%, the perceived voltage
increases to 80% of VON.

If PWM is implemented at a frequency that is too low, the result will be a jerky,
stop-start response. Instead, the desired result is to approximate the “perceived voltage”
as closely as possible with a minimum of perceptible ripple. When driving a permanent
magnet brushed DC motor with PWM, the smoothing or filtering is very effectively
performed by the physical inertia of the mechanical system. When done properly, the
switching occurs too rapidly for the mechanical system to follow. For applications other
than controlling the speed of a DC, filtering circuits may be used to perform the required
smoothing of the PWM output. In the extreme case where a very long period is chosen-
much longer than the mechanical time constant, the motor will very obviously start and
stop.

Consider the case of PWM period of 2sec (which is a 0.5 Hz PWM frequency): the
motor will almost certainly accelerate and decelerate noticeably during each period.
This is the undesirable “torque ripple” that will become much less noticeable if higher
PWM frequencies are used. Regardless of the PWM frequency, torque ripple (and, by
extension, current ripple) will occur to some degree. Higher PWM frequencies result in
less ripple, but since current flow in the inductive motor coils is never able to follow the
crisp edges of the PWM drive signal, ripple is unavoidable

3.6 BI-DIRECTIONAL CONTROL OF DC MOTOR

It would be more practical to design a control circuit capable of causing current to

flow in either direction through a motor using only a single positive power supply. The
most common way of accomplishing this is through the use of a network of transistors.

The no-load motor speed is proportional to the voltage applied across the motor.
Thus, by simply varying the voltage across the motor, one can control the speed of the

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 PWM DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROL

motor. PWM is used to implement this see Figure (5). It is based on a fixed frequency
pulse waveform with a variable duty cycle. The average voltage applied to the motor is
proportional to the PWM duty cycle.

3.7 PULSE WIDTH MODULATION

There are many different ways to control the speed of motors but one very simple
and easy way is to use Pulse Width Modulation. But before we start looking at the in’s
and out’s of pulse width modulation we need to understand a little more about how a
DC motor works. Next to stepper motors, the Permanent Magnet DC Motor (PMDC) is
the most commonly used type of small direct current motor available producing a
continuous rotational speed that can be easily controlled. Small DC motors ideal for use
in applications were speed control is required such as in small toys, models, robots and
other such Electronics Circuits.

A DC motor consist basically of two parts, the stationary body of the motor called
the “Stator” and the inner part which rotates producing the movement called the
“Rotor”. For D.C. machines the rotor is commonly termed the “Armature”. Generally
in small light duty DC motors the stator consists of a pair of fixed permanent magnets
producing a uniform and stationary magnetic flux inside the motor giving these types
of motors their name of “permanent-magnet direct-current” (PMDC) motors. A DC
motor consist basically of two parts, the stationary body of the motor called the “Stator”
and the inner part which rotates producing the movement called the “Rotor”. For D.C.
machines the rotor is commonly termed the “Armature”.

Generally in small light duty DC motors the stator consists of a pair of fixed
permanent magnets producing a uniform and stationary magnetic flux inside the motor
giving these types of motors their name of “permanent-magnet direct-current” (PMDC)
motors. The power applied to the motor can be controlled by varying the width of these
applied pulses and thereby varying the average DC voltage applied to the motors
terminals. By changing or modulating the timing of these pulses the speed of the motor
can be controlled, ie, the longer the pulse is “ON”, the faster the motor will rotate and

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 PWM DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROL

likewise, the shorter the pulse is “ON” the slower the motor will rotate. In other words,
the wider the pulse width, the more average voltage applied to the motor terminals, the
stronger the magnetic flux inside the armature windings and the faster the motor will
rotate and this is shown below.

Figure 5 Pulse with modulated wave form

3.8 DC MOTOR DRIVE

A DC motor consists of stator and armature winding in the rotor as shown in

Figure (5). The armature winding is supplied with a DC voltage that causes a DC current
power application, because of the ease control of the speed and the direction of rotation
of large DC motor. The filed circuit of the motor is exciting by a constant source.

The steady state speed of the motor can be described as

𝑉𝑎−𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑎
ω= (3)
𝐾𝑎

Where

o Kb (is the back emf constant),

o Ra (armature resistance),
o Ia, and Va (armature current and voltage, respectively), and
o ω (angular velocity)

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 PWM DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROL

Figure 6 Permanent magnet dc motor

The speed of a DC motor can be controlled by varying the voltage applied to the
terminal. These can be done by using a PWM technique as shown in Figure ( 8), where
T is the signal period, td is the pulse-width, and Vm is the signal amplitude. A filed
voltage signal with varying pulse-width is applied to the motor terminal. The average
voltage is calculated from:

𝟏 𝑻 𝒕d
𝑽𝒂𝒈 = 𝑻 ∫𝟎 𝑽𝒂(𝒕)𝒅𝒕 = 𝑽𝒎 = 𝑲𝑽𝒎 (4)
𝑻

Where K is the duty cycle, it can be mentioned from these equation that the average DC
component of the voltage signal is linearly related to the pulse-width of the signal, or
the duty cycle of the signal, since the period is fixed. The motor current is either
continuous or discontinuous depending on the duty cycle K and inductance of the
armature circuit [1].

Figure 7 Pulse width modulation technique

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 PWM DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROL

CHAPTER-4

4.1 CIRCUIT DESIGN

Usual, we just enter the voltage and DC current source to the DC motor, Makes
motor can be rotated. If will modify or regulate the speed in rotation of the motor. We
will need to enter the voltage look into pulses or periodically. Which will makes the
average voltage at output is different. By the pulse voltage is high frequency will has
the average voltage than the low frequency pulse. The same with the pulse has over duty
cycle value, it will has the average pressure much than low duty cycle value.

4.2 THE WORKING PRINCIPLE.

The average voltage will be supplied to the DC motor. To control the motor
rotation is slow or fast. This circuit uses the above principle. By makes the pulse
generator circuit or a stable multivibrator which consists of IC inverter gate with C1,
C2, R1, VR1 and diode D1, D2, D3.The signal generator has the duty cycle value that
can adjustable or can rotate with VR1 there.

The pulse signal of circuit. When is adjusted to get the duty cycle too much there
is a maximum of 100%.(signal has the most positive pulse.) Makes the motor it will spin
the fastest. If the percentage of the duty cycle reduced, the speed it will reduced as well.
The pulse output signal from IC will enter to Q1 (IRF540) that are connected to the
Darlington amplifier circuit. To extend the current pulse up. Then to drive to the motor,
connected to the output terminals of the circuit. The selection will need to look in
accordance with the current use of the motor. We choose to be more current, because
when the motor start to draw more the current from the power supply than the normal
rotation or not the motor is loaded. This circuit is suitable for the DC motor with a power
that is not much. Is small enough that the voltage and current not exceeding 12 volts 5
amps. Which reduces power loss to the motor and the circuits.

The schematic of the PWM speed controller circuit is shown in Figure (7) and
essentially consists of an IC op amp and a MOSFET in

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 PWM DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROL

Figure 8 Schematic shows the PWM speed controller, power and PMDC motor

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 PWM DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROL

Figure 9 Schematic shows the PWM speed Controller in Simulink

Both the control circuit and the motor use the same power supply. And while the
maximum operating voltage of the IC is 32V DC, it would be suggested that the
maximum operating voltage of the circuit is 24V DC, as supplied by a 24V battery. In
practice, this means that the supply could be almost 29V. Any more than this means
that; there is very little safety margin (i.e., below the maximum of 32V). The IRF540
MOSFET can handle 49A. This protects the MOSFETs when powering the control
circuit from higher voltages i.e. 24V battery.

The Op-amp IC is configured as voltage comparators. The reference voltage that

each triggers at is derived from the resistor voltage divider of Note that the reference
voltage for IC is connected. The frequency is approximately the inverse of the time

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 PWM DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROL

constant of C1-270Hz for the value used. Reducing C1 will increase the frequency;
increasing either will decrease the frequency. The peak-to-peak output level of the
triangle wave is less than the difference between the two voltage references. Therefore,
it is impossible for both comparators to be triggered simultaneously. Otherwise
MOSFET would conduct, causing a short circuit that would destroy it. The triangle
waveform is centered on a DC offset voltage. Raising or lowering the offset voltage
changes the DC position of the triangle wave accordingly. When the voltage level of the
triangle wave is between the two voltage references then neither comparator is triggered.

Instead of using a variable DAC used in [11] to vary the motor speed, a
potentiometer is used as; an input to the operational amplifier IC which acts as a
comparator circuit. The DC offset voltage is controlled by the potentiometer P via IC,
which is configured as a voltage follower. As the ‘pot’ is turned the DC offset voltage
changes, either up or down depending on the direction the pot is turned. Winding up
increases the DC bias on the triangle wave and pushes the peaks further above the DC
reference, resulting in the motor being powered for a greater portion of each cycle. Note
that an unavoidable side effect of decreasing DC bias is a decrease in the oscillation
frequency of the triangle generator. With the set for minimum DC bias (full speed); the
frequency will be about 150Hz.

4.3 RESULT AND CONCLUSION

The circuit of the speed controller was shown in Figure (10) and essentially
consists of an IC op amp and a MOSFET in a bridge configuration to drive the motor.
The prototype for this circuit is constructed on a PC board as shown in Figure (8) has
experimentally validated the proposed PWM speed control DC motor drive circuit.

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 PWM DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROL

Figure 10 Experimental setup showing Overall layout of all equipment used

Figure (10) shows the no load voltage waveform on the output terminals with
0%, PWM in the forward direction. The drive circuit can be operated in bi-directional
mode where the input is responsible for both direction and speed selection. In bi-
directional mode 0V (or 0 pulses) will give 0% PWM duty. Increasing voltage from 0V
to 12V will increase the PWM duty from 0-100% and turn the motor in one direction.
Decreasing the voltage from 0V to -12V will increase the PWM duty from 0-100% and
turn the motor in the other direction.

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 PWM DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROL

4.4 PWM DRIVE LOAD 12 V DC POWER SUPPLY

PWM duty from 0-100% and turn the motor in one direction. Decreasing the
voltage from 0V to -12V will increase the PWM duty from 0-100% and turn the motor
in the other direction.

(a) PWM Farward With 0% ( b) PWM Backward With 0%

Figure 11 No load voltage wave form

Figure (11) shows how the input voltage affects motor speed and direction in
bidirectional mode. Motor direction can only be changed when the analog input is close
to 0V because reversing motor direction while the motor is turning could have damaging
effects on the motor and drive circuit.

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 PWM DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROL

Figure 12 Motor bi-directional speed as a function of input voltage

4.5 DRIVING VIBRATION MOTORS WITH PULSE WIDTH MODULATION

OVERVIEW (PWM)

PWM formulae are also provided to enable the user to estimate the results of a
given PWM signal. In addition, graphs and example circuits are included to aid
explanations.

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 PWM DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROL

4.6 PULSE WIDTH MODULATION (PWM) EXPLAINED

A Pulse Width Modulated signal is a type of digital waveform. It alternates

between bursts of ‘On’ and ‘Off’, also known as high and low respectively, at a fixed
frequency. The PWM signal differs from other digital signals (e.g. square waves)
because the time that the signal is high and low can be varied. This is useful because
when the PWM signal is averaged with a simple analogue filter, a DC voltage is
produced that is proportional to the duty cycle (which is the percentage of time that the
PWM signal is high). Since a vibration motor's speed and frequency of vibration is
directly proportional to the voltage applied to the motor, we can use PWM to control
precisely how the motor runs.

The specified frequency of the signal needs to be sufficiently high so that the load,
in our case a vibration motor, does not see 'bursts' of high and low (the switching digital
signal). Instead we want the PWM signal to appear as a smooth averaged signal, which
is proportional to the duty cycle of the digital signal. Luckily, because of the inductive
and resistive nature of a DC motor's windings, it effectively has its own low pass
analogue filter built in. If the load was purely resistive then the PWM waveform would
still be visible. The width of the on burst can be adjusted by whatever is producing the
PWM signal, which is complimented by the inverse change in the off pulse width,
thereby maintaining the same frequency. Changing the pulse widths results in a change
of the average voltage after filtering, allowing any value between zero and the maximum
voltage to be represented by increasing or decreasing the on pulse width. Hence the term
Pulse Width Modulation.

This enables analogue control of the motor using digital signaling, making it very
useful in electronics systems that use controllers to control the motor. Many controllers
have PWM generators built-in, alternatively the antique technique is to generate it using
an analogue signal, a saw tooth signal, and a comparator. Generating PWM signals is
beyond the scope of this bulletin, instead we will focus on how it can be used to drive
the motor and assume that a suitable PWM source is readily available in the circuit.

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 PWM DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROL

The PWM signal has three separate components:

 A Voltage, V PWM - The value of the ‘on’ or high voltage level.

 A Frequency - The period of one clock cycle, i.e. one high pulse and one low
pulse.
 A Duty Cycle - The ratio of the on-time to the off-time, which controls the
resulting voltage.

The Duty Cycle represents the length of the On pulse compared to one period
cycle. It is expressed as a percentage. The resulting voltage, which is seen by the motor,
is the average voltage over the period. It is easily calculated using the following formula:

𝑽𝑨𝑽𝑮 = 𝑽𝑷𝑾𝑴 × 𝑫𝒖𝒕𝒚 𝑪𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆 (5)

We can see from the formula that if we can adjust the voltage by changing the Duty
Cycle. For example, if we have a 3 V PWM signal with a 50% Duty Cycle, the average
output voltage is:

𝑽𝑶𝑼𝑻 = 𝑽𝑽𝑨𝑮 =VPWM×Duty Cycle (6)

𝑽𝑶𝑼𝑻 = 3V*50%

=1.5V

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 PWM DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROL

Consider the simple waveform below:

1
High Period=
𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦

Low

Figure 13 PWM Example Wave form

4.7 DRIVING MOTORS WITH PWM

As demonstrated above, a controller can easily change the voltage applied to a

motor using a PWM signal. It can build quite complex waveform to increase haptic
feedback performance, and even store these waveforms in libraries or some remote
memory location. Unfortunately, it is not possible to drive the motor directly from the
controller itself due to the current draw of the motor. Hence a switching amplifier is
needed which with appropriate PWM signals to tackle two issues:

 Supplying enough current to drive the motor.

 Supplying enough voltage to meet the required motor start voltage.

Controllers are usually designed to be as efficient as possible with fast switching

capabilities. As a result they use low voltage and low current signals for their inputs and
outputs. Vibration motors, as with most DC motors, have a Maximum Operating
Current much higher than the controller can provide.

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 PWM DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROL

If we assume a 12V supply voltage the range of PWM values at start is reduced.
A Duty Cycle of under 50% would reduce the average voltage below the motor’s start
voltage.

𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡
Minimum Duty Cycle= (7)
𝑉𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦

6.04𝑉
Minimum Duty Cycle=
12𝑉
Minimum Duty Cycle=0.503333 (8)

Once the motor is spinning, the user can utilize the full range of PWM values to
vary the motor speed from low to high amplitudes. However, note that if the motor
comes to rest due to too low a PWM signal, you will have to re-apply the start voltage
to ensure that it will start spinning again in every instance. To drive the motor we
therefore need some additional circuitry to help fulfill the motors power requirements.

4.8 AMPLIFYING THE PWM SIGNAL FOR MOTORS

The PWM signal should have a high enough voltage such that the MOSFET is
operating in the saturation region, otherwise it too will require a heat-sink, and be very
inefficient. To achieve saturation, try to select a MOSFET with a Vgs that is less than
1/3rd of the Vmax of the PWM signal; this will ensure the MOSFET is switched hard
on. The pull down resistor will ensure that it’s switched hard off. The motor’s supply
voltage is now a factor of VDD, which should be able to provide a high enough voltage
and current to adequately drive the motor. The effect of the Duty Cycle remains the
same, except Vpwm is replaced by VDD

𝑉𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑉𝐷𝐷 × 𝐷𝑢𝑡𝑦 𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 (9)

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 PWM DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROL

This means that controlling the speed of the motor, the vibration frequency and
also the vibration strength, can easily be achieved by altering the PWM signal’s Duty
Cycle in controller. The advantage of this technique is that the controller can make a
simple adjustment to it’s output depending upon the input conditions and its
programmed. Also, specific output waveforms can be stored in libraries or memory
which can be recalled for certain events

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 PWM DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROL

CHAPTER 5

5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 CONCLUSION

The proposed circuit acts as a simple, low-cost, light weight, efficient, and accurate
design for PWM controlling the speed of a DC motor in both forward and reverse
direction, from fully off to fully on. Speed control of a DC motor via pulse width
modulation of a fixed-voltage power supply is introduced. The PWM waveform is
created using an operational amplifier (op-amp) circuit. An op-amp integrated circuit
(IC), is used.

The output transistor is either on or off, not partly on as with normal regulation, so
less power is wasted as heat and smaller heat-sinks can be used. The proposed circuit is
used for motor running at 12V or 24V and dawning up to about 5A. It runs in switch
mode so it quite efficient. This simple circuit can run a DC motor in clockwise or anti-
clockwise direction and stop it using a single potentiometer.

The voltage on a DC motor can be suddenly reversed while it is spinning. This

circuit overcomes both the big current surge that could burn out controller and big
electrical and mechanical stresses on the motor. Using a PWM signal to drive vibration
motors can enable high performance vibration control with relative ease. The Duty
Cycle of the PWM signal represents the length of the On pulse in one wave cycle,
expressed as a percentage. This alteration of the width of pulse affects the average
voltage. When a PWM signal, which has a high frequency, is applied to a DC or
vibration motor then it is the average voltage that drives the motor. This allows users to
control the speed of the motor, or strength of vibration, by adjusting the Duty Cycle.

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 PWM DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROL

5.2 RECOMMENDATION AND FETURE WORK

Pulse width modulation is an important in speed control of dc motor in industrial

application by varying duty cycle and variable resistor. It shows that in industrial that
have more efficiency than the others. Depending on the efficiency we recommended
that for the future next person to do more modifying than this by using microcontroller
and increasing the value of transistors and diodes the motor is more gives efficiency.
When we do this project there is not excess data and information but next person will
depend on the excess internet and data when do this project is the best because you get
more knowledge and idea which helps on how dc motor speed control using pwm and
other methods.

Therefore using pwm speed controller is extensive safety mechanism materials,

increase the efficiency, providing excellent speed control for acceleration and
deceleration. However pwm is to solve the problem of the speed depend on modulating
the on/off time, rather than the power, this allows us to do some things we were not able
to do before, are supplying the full voltage to the motor from the start, this should be
enough to get the motor to a full spin from a dead stop, modulating the amount of time
that full power is applied to the motor, we can use short bursts of full power to ‘boost’
the motor, and then let the motor ‘glide’ under its own inertia and By varying the amount
of time the signal is ‘on’, the average of the signal approximates the level of the analog
DC voltage needed to drive the motor at the same speed.

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 PWM DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROL

REFERENCES

[1]. Hughes,A. Electric Motors and Drives Fundamentals, Types and Applications, 3rd

Edition, Austin Hughes, Published by Elsevier Ltd, 2006.

[2]. Karthick,R. PC Based Speed Controlling of a DC Motor, Report, Circuit Ideas,

Electronics for you, June 2004.

[3]. Pavel . Electrical Drive with Brushless DC Motor, 16th Int. Conference

on Electrical Drives and Power Electronics, Slovakia, Sept. 24-26,2007.

[4]. Mike Rylee, Low-Cost Bidirectional Brushed DC Motor Control Using

the PIC16F684,Microchip Technology Inc., AN 893, 2003

[5]. Moleykutty George, “Speed Control of Separately Excited DC Motor”, American

Journal of Applied Sciences 5 (3): 227-233, 2008.

[6]. Kim, K.-H. I.-C. Baik, S.-K. Chung, and M.-J.YO U n, “Robust speed control of

Brushless DC motor using adaptive input-output linearization technique”, IEE

Proceedings online, IEE Proc.-Elect. Power Appl., Vol. 144, No. 6, Nov. 1997,

[7]. AN10513, Brushed DC motor control using the LPC2101, Application note, Rev.

pp. 1-12, January 2007.

[8]. Zein El Din, A. S. “PLC-Based Speed Control of DC Motor,” IEEE, IPEMC 2006.

[9]. Wang, W. A Speed Regulation System of DC Motor Based on PWM

Technology, Applied Mechanics and Materials, Vols. 29-32 (2010).

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 PWM DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROL

[10]. Dewangan, A. K. N. Chakraborty, S. Shukla and V. Yadu, PWM Based

Automatic Closed Loop Speed Control of DC Motor, International Journal of

Engineering Trends and Technology, Vol. 3, Issue 2, 2012.

[11]. Gregor T. George, A Control and Measurement System for an Elevation over

Azimuth Antenna Pedestal, BSc Project, Cape Town, October 2007.

[12]. Richmond K. Kumordzi, Design and Implementation of DC Motor Speed Control

using Pulse Width Modulation Technique, BEng, Regent-Ghana, Des. 2011.

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