Calculus &

Analytical
Geometry
(MATH- 101)
Instructor: Dr. Naila Amir ([email protected])
 Limits

▪ Book: Thomas Calculus (14th Edition) by George B. Thomas, Maurice D. Weir, Joel R. Hass, Frank R. Giordano
▪ Chapter: 2 (2.2, 2.4, 2.6)
➢ An Introduction To Limits
➢ One-Sided Limits
➢ Laws for Calculating Limits
➢ Limits Involving Infinity
▪ Infinity as a Limit
▪ Limit at infinity
Limit of a Function:
Let 𝑓 be a function and let 𝑎 and 𝐿 be real numbers. 𝑳 is the limit of 𝒇(𝒙) as 𝒙 approaches 𝒂, written:
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿,
𝑥→𝑎

if 𝑥 assumes values closer and closer (but not equal ) to 𝑎 on both sides of 𝑎, i.e., 𝑥 approaches the number 𝑎
from the left-hand side, where 𝑥 < 𝑎 (Left-hand limit) and the right-hand side where 𝑥 > 𝑎 (Right-hand limit)
the corresponding values of 𝑓(𝑥) get closer and closer (and are perhaps equal) to 𝐿, i.e.,
lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿, (Left-hand limit)
𝑥→𝑎

and
lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿, (Right-hand limit)
𝑥→𝑎

Then
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿. (Limit of a function at 𝒂)
𝑥→𝑎

The statement lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 means that for each 𝜀 > 0 there exists a 𝛿 > 0 such that if 0 < 𝑥 − 𝑎 < 𝛿 then
𝑥→𝑎
𝑓 𝑥 − 𝐿 < 𝜀. This is known as the formal definition or 𝜺 − 𝜹 definition of limit.
Limits that do not exist
If there is no single value that is approached by 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎, we say
that 𝑓(𝑥) does not have a limit as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎, or lim 𝑓(𝑥) does not exist.
𝑥→𝑎
In other words, if:

lim− 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 ,

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

then, lim 𝑓(𝑥) does not exist.

𝑥→𝑎
Determining whether a limit exists
Example: Determine:
lim 𝑓(𝑥) ,
𝑥→2

where:
4𝑥 − 5; if 𝑥 ≤ 2,
𝑓 𝑥 =ቊ
3𝑥 − 5; if 𝑥 > 2,

Solution: Construct a table

x 1.9 1.99 1.999→ 2.001 2.01 2.1
f(x) 2.6 2.96 2.996→ 1.003 1.03 1.3
Solution:
𝑓(𝑥) approaches 3 as 𝑥 gets closer to 2 from the left, i.e.,
lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 − 5 = 3
𝑥→2

but
𝑓(𝑥) approaches 1 as 𝑥 gets closer to 2 from the right, i.e.,
lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 5 = 1.
𝑥→2

Since
lim− 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ lim+ 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→2 𝑥→2

Therefore, lim 𝑓(𝑥) does not exist.

𝑥→2
Example:
1
Find lim 𝑓(𝑥) where 𝑓 𝑥 = 2 .
𝑥→0 𝑥

Solution: Construct a table and graph

x -.1 -.01 -.001→

f(x) 100 10,000 1,000,000→

x .001 .01 .1

f(x) 1,000,000 10,000 100

Note that as 𝑥 approaches 0, the corresponding
values of 𝑓(𝑥) grow arbitrarily large. Therefore,
1
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 2
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥

does not exist.

Conditions under which lim 𝑓(𝑥) fails to exist:
𝑥→𝑎
▪ 𝑓(𝑥) approaches a number 𝐿 as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎 from the left and 𝑓(𝑥) approaches
a different number 𝑀 as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎 from the right i.e.,

lim− 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ lim+ 𝑓 𝑥

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

▪ 𝑓(𝑥) becomes infinitely large in absolute value as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎 from either side.

▪ 𝑓(𝑥) oscillates infinitely many times between two fixed values as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎.
Example: A Function May Fail to Have a Limit at a Point in Its Domain
Discuss the behavior of the following functions as 𝑥 → 0.
Solution: A Function May Fail to Have a Limit at a Point in Its Domain
(a) Left-hand limit is not equal to right-hand limit:
The unit step function 𝑈 𝑥 = 𝑦 has no limit because its values jump at 𝑥 = 0. For negative values
of 𝑥 arbitrarily close to zero, 𝑈 𝑥 = 0. For positive values of 𝑥 arbitrarily close to zero, 𝑈 𝑥 = 1.
There is no single value 𝐿 approached by 𝑈(𝑥) as 𝑥 → 0.
Solution: A Function May Fail to Have a Limit at a Point in Its Domain

(b) It grows too large to have a limit:

𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑦 has no limit as 𝑥 → 0 because the
values of 𝑔 grow arbitrarily large in absolute value
as 𝑥 → 0 and do not stay close to any real
number.
Solution: A Function May Fail to Have a Limit at a Point in Its Domain

(c) It oscillates too much to have a limit:

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑦 has no limit as 𝑥 → 0 because the
function’s values oscillate between +1 and −1 in
every open interval containing 0. The values do not
stay close to any one number as 𝑥 → 0.
One-Sided Limits
Limits of the form

lim 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎

are called two-sided limits since the values of 𝑥 get close to 𝑎 from both the right
and left sides of 𝑎.

Limits which consider values of 𝑥 on only one side of 𝑎 are called one-sided
limits.
Right-Hand Limit
The right-hand limit,

lim+ 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎

is read “the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎 from the right is 𝐿.”

As 𝑥 gets closer and closer to 𝑎 from the right (𝑥 > 𝑎), the values of 𝑓(𝑥) get
closer and closer to 𝐿.
Left-Hand Limit
The left-hand limit,

lim− 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎

is read “the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎 from

the left is 𝐿.”

As 𝑥 gets closer and closer to a from the left (𝑥 < 𝑎), the values of 𝑓(𝑥)
get closer and closer to 𝐿.
One-sided limits are related to limits in the following way.
Example:
Find lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 and lim− 𝑓 𝑥 where:
𝑥→2 𝑥→2

𝑥 + 6 if𝑥 < 2
5 if𝑥 = 2
𝑓(𝑥) = 1
𝑥 2 if𝑥 > 2
2

Moreover, determine whether lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists or not?

𝑥→2
Solution:
𝑥2
In order to evaluate lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 , we make use of the formula: 𝑓 𝑥 = .
𝑥→2 2

In the limit lim− 𝑓 𝑥 , where 𝑥 < 2, use 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 6. Thus,

𝑥→2

1 2 1 2
lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ 𝑥 = 2 = 2
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 2 2

lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = lim−(𝑥 + 6) = 2 + 6 = 8

𝑥→2 𝑥→2

lim 𝑓(𝑥) doesn′ t exist since lim− 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 .

𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2
Example:
For the given graph, determine the following:
1. lim− 𝑓(𝑥) , lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) , lim 𝑓(𝑥) , 𝑓(1).
𝑥→1 𝑥→1 𝑥→1

2. lim− 𝑓(𝑥) , lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) , lim 𝑓(𝑥) , 𝑓(6).

𝑥→6 𝑥→6 𝑥→6

Solution: 1. lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = 4,

𝑥→1
lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = −2,
𝑥→1
lim 𝑓(𝑥) does not exist,
𝑥→1
𝑓(1) = 4.
 2. lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = 5,
𝑥→6

lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 5,
𝑥→6

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 5,
𝑥→6
𝑓(6) = 2.

Practice: Determine:

lim − 𝑓(𝑥) , lim + 𝑓(𝑥) , lim 𝑓(𝑥) , 𝑓(−4).

𝑥→−4 𝑥→−4 𝑥→−4
Infinity as a Limit
A function may increase without bound as 𝑥 gets closer
and closer to 𝑎 from the right.
Infinity as a Limit
The right-hand limit does not exist, but the behavior is described by writing

lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞
𝑥→𝑎

If the values of 𝑓(𝑥) decrease without bound, write

lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞
𝑥→𝑎

The notation is similar for left-handed limits.

Infinity as a Limit
Example: Find lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) and lim− 𝑓(𝑥) where:
𝑥→2 𝑥→2

1
𝑓(𝑥) = .
𝑥−2
Solution:
lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞
𝑥→2
and

lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞.

𝑥→2
Rules for Limits

1. Constant rule If 𝑘 is a constant real number,

lim 𝑘 = 𝑘.
𝑥→𝑎

2. Limit of identity function

lim 𝑥 = 𝑎.
𝑥→𝑎
Rules for Limits
For the following rules, we assume that lim 𝑓 (𝑥) and lim 𝑔 (𝑥) both exist.
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

3. Sum and difference rules

lim [ 𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓 (𝑥) ± lim 𝑔 (𝑥).

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
Rules for Limits
Rules for Limits (Continued)
4. Product Rule
lim [ 𝑓(𝑥) ⋅ 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓 (𝑥) ⋅ lim 𝑔 (𝑥).
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

5. Quotient Rule
lim 𝑓 (𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥→𝑎
lim = .
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) lim 𝑔 (𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎

provided
lim 𝑔 (𝑥) ≠ 0.
𝑥→𝑎
Rules for Limits
6. Polynomial rule If 𝑝(𝑥) defines a polynomial function, then
lim 𝑝 (𝑥) = 𝑝(𝑎).
𝑥→𝑎

𝑝(𝑥)
6. Rational function rule If 𝑓(𝑥) defines a rational function: 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑞(𝑥)

where 𝑝 𝑥 and 𝑞 𝑥 are polynomials with 𝑞(𝑎) ≠ 0 then

lim 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎).

𝑥→𝑎

8. Power rule For any real number 𝑘,

𝑘
lim [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑘 = lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

provided this limit exists.

Rules for Limits
9. Exponent rule For any real number 𝑏 > 0,

𝑓(𝑥) lim 𝑓(𝑥)

lim 𝑏 =𝑏 𝑥→𝑎 .
𝑥→𝑎

10. Logarithm rule For any real number 𝑏 > 0 with 𝑏 ≠ 1,

lim log 𝑏 𝑓 (𝑥) = log 𝑏 lim 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

provided that

lim 𝑓 (𝑥) > 0.

𝑥→𝑎
Rules for Limits
11. The Sandwich Theorem (Squeeze Theorem or Pinching Theorem)
Suppose that 𝑔(𝑥) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ ℎ(𝑥) for all 𝑥 in some open interval
containing 𝑎, except possibly at 𝑥 = 𝑎itself. Suppose also that

lim 𝑔 (𝑥) = lim ℎ (𝑥) = 𝐿.

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

Then lim 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝐿.

𝑥→𝑎

12. Zero Limit Theorem

For any function 𝑓(𝑥), we have
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 iff lim 𝑓 (𝑥) = 0.
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎