Inadequacies of Classical Physics

Classical physics falls short in explaining certain phenomena, especially those that
occur at the atomic and subatomic levels. Two key areas where classical mechanics
and electromagnetism break down are the wave nature of particles and the particle
nature of light.

Wave Nature of Particles

Classical physics treats particles, like electrons, as point masses with no wave-like be-
havior. However, experiments show that particles exhibit wave properties, a concept
formalized in quantum mechanics.

Young’s Double Slit Experiment with Electrons

When electrons are passed through a double-slit apparatus, they display an interfer-
ence pattern, characteristic of waves. This behavior can’t be explained by treating
electrons as classical particles. Instead, quantum mechanics introduces the concept
of wave-particle duality.
According to de Broglie’s hypothesis, particles like electrons have an associated
wavelength given by:
h
λ=
p
where:
- λ is the wavelength,
- h is Planck’s constant (6.626 × 10−34 Js),
- p is the momentum of the particle.
In the double-slit experiment, the electron’s wave function interferes with itself,
leading to the observed interference pattern. This wave behavior was also confirmed
by the Davisson-Germer experiment, which demonstrated the diffraction of electrons
when they interact with the crystal lattice of a material. The diffraction pattern is
consistent with wave theory, not classical particle theory.

Particle Nature of Light

Classical wave theory predicts that light behaves only as a continuous wave, but
several experiments show that light also behaves as a collection of discrete particles
called photons.

a) Young’s Double Slit Experiment with Light

When the double slit experiment is performed with a very dim light source, individual
photons strike the detector one by one. Each photon deposits a specific amount of
energy and momentum, behaving like a particle. The energy of each photon is given
by:
E = hν

Module 2: Page no. 1

where:
- E is the energy of the photon,
- h is Planck’s constant,
- ν is the frequency of the light.
Although individual photons behave like particles, after accumulating enough
photon strikes, an interference pattern emerges. This shows that photons exhibit
both particle-like and wave-like properties, a cornerstone of quantum mechanics.

b) Photoelectric Effect
The photoelectric effect was another phenomenon that couldn’t be explained by
classical physics. Classical wave theory suggested that the energy of ejected electrons
should depend on the intensity of the light, and there should be a time delay before
electrons are emitted as they accumulate energy. However, experiments revealed
that:
- The kinetic energy of ejected electrons depends only on the frequency of the incident
light, not its intensity.
- There is no time delay in the ejection of electrons, even for very dim light sources.
Einstein explained this by proposing that light consists of photons, each carrying
a quantum of energy E = hν. When light is incident on a material, photons transfer
their energy to the electrons in discrete amounts. For an electron to be ejected,
the photon must have enough energy to overcome the work function (W0 ) of the
material. The work function is the minimum energy required to eject an electron
from the surface, given by:
W0 = hν0
where ν0 is the threshold frequency of the material. If the photon’s energy exceeds
the work function, the excess energy is converted into the kinetic energy of the ejected
electron:
K.E. = hν − W0
This explanation of the photoelectric effect provided direct evidence of particle nature
of light and for this Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize.

c) Compton Scattering
In 1923, Arthur Compton’s experiment provided one of the most compelling pieces
of evidence for the particle-like behavior of radiation, specifically X-rays. By scatter-
ing X-rays off free electrons, Compton observed that the wavelength of the scattered
X-rays was longer than the wavelength of the incident X-rays. This wavelength shift,
known as the Compton shift, could only be explained by treating X-rays as parti-
cles—discrete packets of energy called photons—rather than as continuous waves, as
predicted by classical physics.
Classical Physics Prediction

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According to classical electromagnetism, X-rays consist of electromagnetic waves.
When these waves encounter free electrons, the electric field associated with the
radiation would induce an oscillatory motion in the electron. In turn, the electron
would radiate light at the same frequency (and hence the same wavelength) as the in-
cident radiation. In this view, the scattered X-rays should have the same wavelength
as the incident X-rays. Additionally, classical theory suggests that the intensity of
the scattered X-rays should vary with the intensity of the incident X-rays, with no
change in wavelength. If the incident intensity I0 is high, the scattered intensity I
should also be proportionally high, but the wavelength should remain unchanged.
However, neither of these predictions align with experimental results. Compton’s
experiment demonstrated that the scattered X-rays had a longer wavelength than
the incident X-rays, and the amount of this wavelength shift depended on the angle
at which the X-rays were scattered, not on the intensity of the radiation.
Quantum Explanation of the Compton Effect
Compton’s findings could only be explained by considering the particle nature of
light. In his experiment, X-rays were treated as photons, which have both energy
and momentum. When a photon collides with a free electron, the photon transfers
some of its energy and momentum to the electron, similar to how one billiard ball
transfers momentum to another in a collision.
The energy of a photon is given by E = hν. Since the frequency ν is related to
the wavelength λ by the equation:
c
λ=
ν
where c is the speed of light, a change in the energy of the photon will result in a
change in its wavelength. When a photon collides with an electron, some of its energy
is transferred to the electron, reducing the energy (and hence the frequency) of the
scattered photon. As a result, the wavelength of the scattered photon increases. The
change in wavelength ∆λ, called the Compton shift, depends only on the angle θ at
which the photon is scattered. This relationship is given by the Compton equation:
h
∆λ = λ0 − λ = (1 − cos θ)
me c
where:
- λ0 is the wavelength of the scattered photon,
- λ is the wavelength of the incident photon,
- me is the mass of the electron (9.11 × 10−31 kg),
- c is the speed of light,
- θ is the scattering angle.
The term mhe c is known as the Compton wavelength of the electron, and its value is
approximately 2.43 × 10−12 m.

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Figure 1. Comparison of different spectral density distributions shows that the Planck
distribution (solid curve: Quantum Law) matches the experimental data perfectly. In
contrast, the Rayleigh–Jeans and Wien distributions (dotted curves: Classical Laws) only
partially align with the experimental results, highlighting their limitations in accurately
describing the entire spectrum.

d) Black body Radiation

One of the major unresolved challenges in the second half of the nineteenth century
was understanding the continuous spectrum of radiation emitted by a glowing solid
object, such as a heated metal. Classical physics, particularly through the frame-
works of statistical thermodynamics and classical electromagnetic theory, failed to
provide a satisfactory explanation for this phenomenon. Despite numerous attempts,
these classical approaches could not account for how energy is exchanged between ra-
diation and matter, highlighting the need for a new theoretical framework to describe
the behavior of thermal radiation.
Planck proposed that the exchange of energy between radiation and matter oc-
curs in discrete, quantized units rather than continuously, as classical physics had
assumed. He suggested that the energy of radiation with a specific frequency ν is
emitted or absorbed by oscillating charges (such as those in the walls of a cavity)
in fixed amounts. Specifically, he postulated that this energy must be an integer
multiple of hν, where h is Planck’s constant (6.626 × 10−34 Js). This means that the
energy could only be exchanged in discrete packets or ”quanta,” rather than in arbi-
trary amounts, a groundbreaking idea that laid the foundation for quantum theory.
The relationship is expressed mathematically as:

E = nhν

where:
- E is the energy,
- n is a positive integer (1, 2, 3, ...),

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- ν is the frequency of the radiation,
- h is Planck’s constant.
This quantization of energy was key to resolving the issue of blackbody radiation
and led to the development of Planck’s law, which accurately describes the observed
spectral distribution of radiation.
Another set of phenomena that classical physics could not adequately explain
were the specific heat of solids and the atomic line spectrum. Classical theories failed
to provide accurate descriptions of these behaviors, highlighting the limitations of
existing models at the time.

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 WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY
The interference pattern of the particle and light (wave) can be represented by the figure 1
below

Figure 1. Interference pattern (intensity distribution) of the particle (a) and wave (b).

If one tries the interference pattern with the particles (Figure 1 (a)), there appears a well-
defined Gaussian distribution in front of slits as shown in the figure. There will be an equal
number of distribution curves as the slits (here two for double slit). But for the wave, there
are multiple (>2) distribution curves on the screen having consecutive maxima and minima
(as shown in Figure 1 (b)). Wave bends more in the geometrical shadow regions and interfere
to construct maxima and minima.
Light shows the well-defined behaviour of the wave nature. Phenomena like interference, and
diffraction verified the wave nature of the light. Other phenomena can’t be understood by
assuming light wave behaviour like the photoelectric effect and Compton scattering. All
experimental data inferences on the photoelectric effect can be reproduced by assuming the
particle behaviour of the light. Similarly, the Compton scattering can be explained based on
elastic collision between the X-ray and the electron (here X-ray behaves like the particle).
So, there are some physical phenomena where light behaves like waves and others where it
behaves like particles. In conclusion, light behaves like both (i.e. wave and particle under
some conditions or say light has a dual character). This duality is called the wave-particle
duality i.e. under defined conditions a wave can behave like a particle and vice-versa. A
similar nature can be found in matter, where under certain conditions matter behaves like a
wave i.e. dual character.

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 DE-BROGLIE HYPOTHESIS
Inspired by nature's symmetry, de Broglie proposed the particle's wave nature. Up until that
time, it was established that light has a dual nature (i.e., particle and wave). Some
experimental pieces of evidence like the photoelectric effect (in 1905 explained by Einstein,
by taking the particle nature of light), and the Compton Scattering (in 1923 by A. H.
Compton, by taking the particle nature of X-ray light) established the dual nature of light.
In 1925, de Broglie proposed the idea of the matter wave associated with matter in motion.
The wavelength (λ) of the wave associated with particle can be given by the relation
ℎ
𝜆=
𝑝
Where h and p are Plank constant, and the momentum of the particle.
The above relation can be derived using the equivalency of the photon energy in terms of its
momentum and frequency
𝐸 = ℎ𝜐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸 = 𝑝𝑐

Here 𝜐 isthe frequency of the photon

ℎ𝜐 = 𝑝𝑐
𝑐 ℎ
= = 𝜆
𝜐 𝑝
The particle in motion can be represented by the wave packet in space, where the wave
amplitude is related to the probability of finding the particle in that region. A schematic is
shown in Figure 2 below, where a particle having momentum p in the forward direction is
represented by the wave packet comprised of different waves of wavelengths and velocities
superimposed such that these waves form constructive maxima in the region around the
particle with decreased amplitude and extended both sides and ultimately destructive minima
of zero amplitude to the rest region.

Figure 2. Wave packet for the particle having momentum p in forward direction.

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If a wave packet is represented by a single wave of wavelength (λ), in this case velocity of
the wave packet is equal to the velocity of the particle itself. In such case, velocity is called
phase velocity and written as 𝑣 = 𝜐𝜆 = .
Putting values of 𝜐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜆 (using equation 𝐸 = ℎ𝜐 = 𝑚𝑐 ) one gets,

ℎ
ℎ
=
So, such a wave packet (having a single wave of wavelength (𝜆)) has a velocity greater than
the velocity of light.
This implies the two cases
1. If we let wave packet velocity equal to the velocity of the particle (to which wave is
associated). In this case, it violates Einstein's theory of relativity by having a velocity
greater than the speed of light. So, this is not possible.
2. If a particle has a velocity less than the speed of light and a matter wave shows phase
velocity greater than c, in this case particle is left behind the matter wave, so this is
not possible.

So, the matter wave can’t be represented by a single wave, it must be represented by groups
of waves of different wavelengths and velocities.
In that case, we assign two velocities, one is phase velocity (𝑣 ) and other is group velocity
(𝑣 ). Here phase velocity represents the velocity of individual waves and group velocity
represents the resultant wave velocity (or say particle velocity). Here group velocity always
come less than speed of light.

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 COMPTON EFFECT

The evidence of the particle nature of electromagnetic radiation was given by A. H. Compton
in 1921. According to Compton “when high frequency radiation is scattered by the electron
of the scatterer, then frequency of scattered radiation is smaller than the frequency of incident
wave or wavelength of scattered radiation is greater than the wavelength of incident
radiation”. This phenomenon is called Compton Effect. Compton also observed that
decrease in frequency frequency of the scattered radiation varies with the angle between the
scattered and incident directions.

Compton explained the observed phenomenon on the basis of Planck’s quantum theory of
radiation where radiation consists of quanta or photons with energy hν.

Theory of Compton Scattering:Consider an X-ray photon of frequency ν incident upon a

free electron at rest (Fig). During Collision it imparts a part of its energy to the electron
setting it into motion. The scattered light photon has smaller energy and hence smaller
frequency.

Before Collision:

The energy of incident photon = ℎ𝜈 (1)

The rest energy of electron= m0c2 (m0 is the rest mass of electron) (2)

The momentum of incident photon= (3)

The momentum of the electron= 0 (as electron is at rest) (4)

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After collision:

The energy of scattered photon = hν’ (5)

The rest energy of electron= mc2 (m is the mass of moving electron given by 𝑚 = (6)

The momentum of scattered photon = (7)

The momentum of recoil electron = mv (v is the velocity of the electron after collision)(8)

From the principle of conservation of energy, we have

Energy of system (photon+ electron) before collision= Energy of system after collision

i.e. hν + m0c2 = hν’ + mc2 (9)

Apply principle of conservation of momentum

(a) In the direction of incident photon
+0= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 + 𝑚𝑣𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 (10)

(b) Perpendicular to the direction of incident photon

0= 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 − 𝑚𝑣𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (11)

From equation (10) & (11), we can write

𝑚𝑣𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = ℎ𝜈 − ℎ𝜈 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 (12)

𝑚𝑣𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = ℎ𝜈 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 (13)

Squaring and adding these equations (12 & 13), we get

𝒎𝟐 𝒗𝟐 𝒄𝟐 = 𝒉𝟐 (𝝂𝟐 + 𝝂 𝟐 − 𝟐𝝂𝝂′𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓) (14)

From equation 9, we get

𝑚𝑐 = ℎ(𝜈 − 𝜈 ) + 𝑚 𝑐 (15)

Squaring above equation, we get

𝒎𝟐 𝒄𝟒 = 𝒉𝟐 (𝝂𝟐 + 𝝂′𝟐 − 𝟐𝝂𝝂′) + 𝟐𝒉𝒎𝟎 𝒄𝟐 (𝝂 − 𝝂 ) + 𝒎𝟎 𝟐 𝒄𝟒 (16)

Subtracting equation 14 from 16, we get

Module 2: Page no. 10

𝒎𝟐 𝒄𝟐 (𝒄𝟐 + 𝒗𝟐 ) = 𝟐𝒉𝟐 𝝂𝝂 (𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 − 𝟏) + 𝟐𝒉(𝝂 − 𝝂 )𝒎𝟎 𝒄𝟐 + 𝒎𝟎 𝟐 𝒄𝟒 (17)

Using, 𝑚 = , equation (17) becomes

𝑚 𝑐 = 2ℎ 𝜈𝜈 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 − 1) + 2ℎ(𝜈 − 𝜈 )𝑚 𝑐 + 𝑚 𝑐 (18)

Or 2ℎ(𝜈 − 𝜈 )𝑚 𝑐 = − 2ℎ 𝜈𝜈 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 − 1)

Or = 𝑚 𝑐 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙)

𝟏 𝟏 𝒉
Or − = (𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓) (19)
𝒗 𝒗 𝒎𝟎 𝒄𝟐

This expression gives the change in frequency of scattered photon and indicates that 𝝂 > 𝜈′
i.e. frequency of incident photon is greater than that of scattered photon.

In terms of wavelength (𝜆 = ), expression 19 becomes

𝒉
𝝀 −𝝀=𝒎 𝟐
(𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓) (20)
𝟎𝒄

This expression gives the change in wavelength of scattered photon and indicates that 𝝀 > 𝜆
i.e. wavelength of scattered photon is greater than that of incident photon.

The change in wavelength 𝝀 − 𝝀 = 𝜟𝝀 is known as Compton Shift. The change in

wavelength 𝜟𝝀is independent of the incident frequency as well as the nature of the scatterer,
but it depends upon ϕ (the photon angle of scattering).

Module 2: Page no. 11

 QUANTUM COMPUTING

Quantum computing is an area of computer science that uses the principles of quantum theory.

Quantum theory explains the behavior of energy and material on the atomic and subatomic

levels. It uses subatomic particles, such as electrons or photons.

Quantum computing uses the qubit as the basic unit of information rather than the conventional

bit. The main characteristic of this alternative system is that it permits the coherent superposition

of ones and zeros, the digits of the binary system around which all computing revolves. Some of

the important attributes of the Quantum computing are as follows:

 A qubit (short for quantum bit) is the basic unit of information in quantum computing and

counterpart to the bit (binary digit) in classical computing. It plays a similar role as a bit, in

terms of storing information, but it behaves much differently because of the quantum

properties on which it's based.

 Quantum computers can perform multiple calculations simultaneously due to the unique

behavior of quantum particles. This capability is known as quantum parallelism.

 Quantum parallelism enables quantum computers to solve certain types of problems much

faster than classical computers.

 Quantum computing has the potential to revolutionize various fields, including

cryptography, drug discovery, and materials science.

 While quantum computing is still in its early stages of development, numerous researchers

and companies are actively working on building practical quantum computers.

Module 2: Page no. 12

 The potential possibilities that quantum computing could unlock in the future have

generated a great deal of excitement in the scientific community and industry.

Module 2: Page no. 13

 TUNNELING EFFECTS

Tunneling is a quantum mechanical phenomenon when a particle is able to penetrate through a

potential energy barrier that is higher in energy than the particle's kinetic energy. Classically it

could not surmount. This amazing property of microscopic particles plays important roles in

explaining several physical phenomena including radioactive decay. It has important applications

to modern devices such as the tunnel diode, quantum computing, and the scanning tunneling

microscope.

Tunneling is often explained using the Heisenberg uncertainty principle and the wave particle

duality of matter. If analysed with classical mechanics, if E is less than U, the particle will

remain in the well forever. If E is greater than U, then the particle can get out of the well. But

this is not the case.

Using quantum mechanics, the particle can escape even if its energy is less than U, but the

PROBABILITY is less depending on the difference of E and U. There is a possibility that the

particle will tunnel through the potential barrier.

Module 2: Page no. 14

Module 2: Page no. 15
 Physical Significance of wavefunction

If a particle moves along a straight line (i.e., in one-dimensional motion), its position
can be described by a single coordinate x. If the particle is in a state represented by
the wave function ψ(x), the probability that the particle is found between positions
x and x + dx is given by:
p(x) dx = |ψ(x)|2 dx
Here, |ψ(x)|2 is the probability density, which determines the likelihood of finding
the particle at a particular position x.
To find the probability that the particle is located within a specific region between
two points a and b, we integrate the probability density over that range:
Z b Z b
p(x) dx = |ψ(x)|2 dx
a a

This integral represents the sum of the probabilities of the particle being located at
any point between a and b.
To ensure that the particle is somewhere along the entire line, the total proba-
bility of finding the particle anywhere along the line (from −∞ to +∞) must be 1.
This is expressed as: Z +∞
|ψ(x)|2 dx = 1
−∞

This condition, known as the normalization of the wave function, ensures that the
particle is certain to exist somewhere on the line, as the probability of a certain event
is always equal to 1.
The wave function ψ(x) provides a comprehensive description of the quantum
state of the particle. Physically, the square of its magnitude, |ψ(x)|2 , represents the
probability density of finding the particle at position x. This probabilistic interpre-
tation is a departure from classical determinism, reflecting the inherent uncertainty
in quantum mechanics.
The wave function itself contains all the information about the particle’s state,
including its energy, momentum, and spatial distribution. While ψ(x) itself is not
directly observable, the probabilities derived from |ψ(x)|2 are crucial for predicting
experimental outcomes. Thus, the wave function is fundamental to understanding
and predicting the behavior of quantum systems, encapsulating the principles of
superposition and quantization that define quantum mechanics.

Module 2: Page no. 16

 Time independent Schrodinger wave equation

Let us assume the time independent wave function as

Ψ = Ψ0eikx (1)

Where, Ψ0 is amplitude, k is wave number, i is the imaginary unit and x is the position.

Now, differentiate equation (1) w.r.t x, we get,

∂Ψ/∂x = (ik)Ψ0eikx

Or ∂Ψ/∂x = (ik)Ψ [Using (1)]

2П 2П
Or ∂Ψ/∂x = i( λ )Ψ [k = ]
λ

2Пp ℎ
Or ∂Ψ/∂x = i( )Ψ [λ = 𝑝]
h

ℎ ∂Ψ
Or pΨ = -i2П ∂x

ℎ ∂
Or p = -i2П ∂x (2)

As we know, energy (E) can be written in terms of kinetic energy and potential energy as

𝑝2
EΨ = Ψ + VΨ (3)
2𝑚

Using equation (2) in (3), we get,

ℎ2 ∂2 Ψ
EΨ = − 8П2𝑚 ∂x2 + VΨ

𝛛𝟐 𝚿 𝟖П𝟐 𝒎
Or + (𝐄 −V)Ψ = 0
𝛛𝐱 𝟐 𝒉𝟐

Time dependent Schrodinger wave equation

Let us assume the time dependent wave function as

Ψ = Ψ0ei(kx-wt) (4)

Where, Ψ0 is amplitude, k is wave number, x is position, w (= 2Пυ) is angular frequency and t

is time.

Now, differentiate equation (4) w.r.t x, we get,

Module 2: Page no. 17

 ∂Ψ/∂x = -(ik)Ψ

2П 2П
Or ∂Ψ/∂x = i( λ )Ψ [k = ]
λ

2Пp ℎ
Or ∂Ψ/∂x = i( )Ψ [λ = 𝑝]
h

ℎ ∂Ψ
Or pΨ = -i2П ∂x

ℎ ∂
Or p = -i2П ∂x (5)

differentiate equation (4) w.r.t t, we get,

∂Ψ/∂x = -(iw)Ψ0ei(kx-wt)

∂Ψ/∂t = -(iw)Ψ [Using (4)]

Or ∂Ψ/∂t = -i(2Пυ)Ψ [w =2Пυ]

Or h∂Ψ/∂t = -i(2Пhυ)Ψ [Multiplying h both sides]

ℎ ∂Ψ
Or EΨ = i2П [E = hυ]
∂t

ℎ ∂
Or E = i2П ∂t (6)

Substitute values of p and E from (5) and (6) in (3), we get

𝒉 𝛛𝚿 𝒉𝟐 𝛛𝟐 𝚿
i𝟐П 𝛛𝐭
= − 𝟖П𝟐 𝒎 𝛛𝐱𝟐 + VΨ

Module 2: Page no. 18

 SCHRODINGER'S EQUATION FOR PARTICLE IN 1D BOX

Let us consider the case of a particle of mass m moving along x-axis between two rigid
walls A & B at x = 0 & x = a. The particle is free to move between the walls. The potential
function is defined in the following way:

V(x) = 0 for 0 < x< a

and V(x) = ∞ for 0 ≥ x and x ≥ a

Under this condition, particle is said to move in an infinitely deep potential well or
infinite square wall.
The Schroedinger equation for the particle within the box (V= 0) is,
𝟐𝒎
𝛁𝟐𝝍 + 𝟐 𝑬 𝝍 = 𝟎 ………(1)
ћ

.………(2)
where

.………(3)
The general solution of eq.(2) is of the for
...……..(4)
Apply the boundary condition, ψ = 0 at x = 0 & x = a to eq.(4)

.………(5)
From eq.(3) & eq.(5), we get

……….(6)
From eq.(6), it is cleat that the particle can not have an arbitrary energy, but can have
certain discrete energy corresponding to n = 1, 2, 3,…….. Each permitted energy is
called eigen value of the particle & constitute the energy level of the system. The
corresponding eigenfunction is given by

To find the value of constant A we apply normalisation condition,

Module 2: Page no. 19

Therefore, the normalised wavefunction for nth state is given by

………(7)

Fig. (a) Energy levels (b) wave function (c) Probability density

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