Theory and Design of Structures III

INTRODUCTION

The final form which is adopted for a work of architecture is

influenced by many factors ranging from the ideological to
the severely practical.

The contribution of the structure to the achievement of

higher architectural objectives is always crucial.

The relationship between the structural and the non-structural

parts of a building may vary widely.
In some buildings the space- In others, such as buildings with large
enclosing elements - the areas of glazing on the exterior walls,
walls, floors and roof - are the structure can be entirely separate
also structural elements, from the space-enclosing elements.
capable of resisting and
conducting load
In all cases, however, the structure, by virtue of the significant volume
which it occupies in a building, affects its visual character to some
extent and it does so even if it is not directly visible.
Structural constraints therefore exert a significant influence, overt or
hidden, on the final planning of buildings.
The basic requirements of the structure are
▪ the ability to achieve equilibrium under all possible load conditions
▪ geometric stability
▪ adequate strength and adequate rigidity
(Strength refers to a material's ability to withstand applied forces without failure,
while rigidity relates to its resistance to deformation.)
(Strength is defined by the material's response to stress, which can be tensile,
compressive, or shear
Rigidity is quantified by the modulus of elasticity, which varies with the type of
atomic bonds (covalent, ionic, metallic bonds)

Equilibrium requires that the structural elements be properly configured,

stability is ensured by the provision of a bracing system; and adequate
strength and rigidity are provided by the specification of structural
elements which are of sufficient size, given the strengths of the
constituent materials.
STRUCTURAL REQUIREMENTS
To perform its function of supporting a building in response to whatever
loads may be applied to it, a structure must possess the listed properties:

▪ Stable
▪ Adequate strength and rigidity
And,
▪ Economy
▪ Functionality
▪ Aesthetics
Stability is the property which preserves the geometry of a structure and
allows its elements to act together to resist load. It is a different property
from strength or rigidity, because even if the elements of a structure have
sufficient strength and rigidity to sustain the loads which are imposed
on them it is still possible for the system as a whole to fail due to its
being geometrically unstable.

E.g.:- Roller supported beam, roller supported truss, roller

supported frames, rectangular truss configuration

The application of load to a structure generates internal forces in the

elements and external reacting forces at the foundations and the
elements and foundations must have sufficient strength and rigidity to
resist these. They must not rapture when the peak load is applied;
neither must the deflection which results from the peak load be
excessive.
The requirement for adequate strength is satisfied by ensuring that the
levels of stress which occur in the various elements of a structure, when
the peak loads are applied, are within acceptable limits. This is chiefly a
matter of providing elements with cross sections of adequate size,
given the strength of constituent material. The determination of the
sizes required is carried out by structural calculations. The provision of
adequate rigidity is similarly dealt with.

Structural calculations can be considered into two parts – structural analysis

and the element-sizing calculations.
Structural analysis is the evaluation of the internal forces which occur in the
elements of the structure and
Element-sizing is carried out to ensure that the elements will have sufficient
strength and rigidity to resist the internal forces which the loads will cause.
 STRUCTURAL MATERIALS
A structural material is the material – concrete, steel, timber and the like – which is
used to making those parts of the structure which carry the load and give it
strength and stability. For instance, in a steel-framed office building the steel is
the structural material, such a structure contains other materials, those used to
clothe or clad it to protect it from the weather, or in the internal linings and
partitions.

Steel
frames

Steel plate wall

Strength is the most important property of a structural material, since it is strength

which determines the force which the weakest part of a structure can carry before
the material at that point fails, and the structure as a whole may collapse. The
ultimate strength of a material is the stress at which failure takes place, and is
usually measured by testing a specimen of the material in a testing machine.
Steel Tensile testing Compressive strength test
Typical properties of common structural materials
Concrete
It is composed of Coarse Aggregate, Fine Aggregate, Cement and water.
Concrete after water is an extensively exploited material in this planet.

The ratios and compositions of these ingredients can alter the material
behavior of the concrete such that, strength. Concrete by its nature is
brittle, and prone to crack. It is weak in tension stresses when compared
with its compression carrying capacity. It has approximately, 10 times
less tensile strength than its compression strength.
It has durable nature and suitable to create the form needed. It has an
alkaline nature which helps to keep the reinforcement bar from
corrosion.
 Cement

PPC Cement: Pozzolana is a natural or artificial material which contains silica

in the reactive form. Portland Pozzolana Cement is cement manufactured by
combining Pozzolanic materials. This cement comprises of OPC clinker, gypsum
and pozzolanic materials in certain proportions. The Pozzolanic materials include
fly ash, volcanic ash, calcined clay or silica fumes. These materials are added
within a range of 15% to 35% by cement weight.
OPC Cement or Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC): is manufactured by
grinding a mixture of limestone and other raw materials like argillaceous,
calcareous, gypsum to a powder. OPC is the most commonly used cement in the
world. This type of cement is preferred in comparison with PPC where fast pace
of construction is done.
 water to cement ratio curing of concrete

Density
Ordinary concrete has
Normal weight concrete, as is
a unit weight of about
used in pavements and
2300 kg/m3, but
bridges, has a density of 140
lightweight concretes
to 150 lb/ft3 (2240 to 2400
with unit weights as low
kg/m3). The density of
as 1200kg/m3 can be
concrete varies with the
produced,
relative density of the
although they are
aggregate, the amount of air
accompanied by a
present in the paste, and the
significant decrease
amount of water and cement
in concrete strength.
in the mixture.
Mechanical properties of concrete
Compressive Strength: Using a test cube or
a cylinder, a uniaxial compression test shall
take over a design mix to evaluate its
compressive stress resisting capacity. Usually,
a test cube takes a dimension of 150 x 150
mm. Voids shall be avoided from the volume
of the test specimen. It shall also be cured on
a constant temperature. It shall be Soaked in
a constant environmental conditions to 28
days.
Tensile Strength: Concrete by its nature is relatively weak in tension.
Excessive tension creates extensive cracks. Tension cannot be
transferred across the cracks. It can only be carried by the uncracked
area. Stress concentrations develop at the perimeters of the void or at
the tips of the crack.

Split tensile strength

Standard Beam Test

Modulus of Elasticity (Ec): The modulus of elasticity of concrete is strongly

influenced by the concrete materials and mix proportions used. An increase in
compressive strength is accompanied by an increase in the modulus, as the
slope of the ascending branch of the stress–strain diagram becomes steeper.

Time dependent characteristics

Shrinkage is the decrease in the volume of concrete during hardening and
drying. The primary type of shrinkage is called drying shrinkage or simply
shrinkage and is due to the loss of a layer of adsorbed water (electrically bound
water molecules) from the surface of the gel particles.
The hardened cement paste shrinks, whereas the aggregate acts to restrain
shrinkage. Thus, the larger the fraction of the total volume of the concrete that
is made up of hydrated cement paste, the greater the shrinkage.
Creep can be defined as the increase in strain under sustained stress. Creep is
a very gradual change in length (deformation) which occurs over time when a
material is subjected to sustained load.
According to Ethiopian Building code
Reinforcement bars

Because concrete is weak in tension, it is reinforced with steel bars or wires that
resist the tensile stresses.

The most common types of reinforcement for non-prestressed members are hot-
rolled deformed bars and wire fabric.

Steel bars are made rough on its texture to create effective anchorage when
used in the concrete. In addition to its use in tension, it is utilized in RC structures
to minimize creep and crack width.

Reinforcing bars are available in four grades, with yield strengths at 40, 50, 60,
and 75 ksi, referred to as Grades 40, 50, 60, and 75, respectively. Grade 60 is the
steel most commonly used in buildings and bridges.
PRESTRESSING STEEL
Prestressing steel is available as individual wires, seven-wire strands and
high strength steel bars. Seven-wire strands are produced by helically winding
six peripheral wires around a central wire, which has a slightly larger diameter
than the other wires.
The tensile strength of prestressing steel is significantly larger that that for
normal reinforcing bars. This higher strength, and the corresponding high initial
prestress are necessary because a significant amount of the initial prestress
will be lost (referred to as prestress losses) due to elastic shortening of the
prestressed member, deformation of the anchorage assembly, relaxation of the
prestressing steel, shrinkage and creep of the concrete member, and other load
effects.
Prestressing eliminates a number of design constraints on span and load that
ordinary concrete imposes, allowing the construction of roofs, floors, bridges, and
walls with longer unsupported spans. This enables architects and engineers
to design and build lighter, shallower concrete structures while maintaining
strength.
Tensile strength of reinforcement bars

Yield strength
Tensile strength
Elongation
Diameter
Linear density (mass per length)
Stress–strain curves for reinforcement Stress–strain curves concrete

EBCS EN 1992-1-1:2013
The application rules for design and detailing in this code of practice are valid for
a specified yield strength range, fyk= 400 to 600 MPa.
The mean value of density may be assumed to be 7850 kg/m3
The design value of the modulus of elasticity, Es may be assumed to be 200 GPa.
Remark
During construction, RC bars should be prevented from corrosion, chemical
and heat. An adequate thickness of cover concrete shall be provided to
insure the durability of steel bars imbedded.
Thank you for your attention.