ATHEORY1 LESSON 1

ARCHITECTURE ESSENCE OF ARCHITECTURE

is generally conceived- designed- and realized- Architecture is the process that we
built- in response to an existing set of instinctively recognize as the genius of
conditions. growth and creation

It is assumed that the existing set of It gives form to the invisible pulses
conditions – the problem- is less than and rhythm of life
satisfactory and that a new set of
conditions – a solution – would be desirable. The physical manifestation of the power
is a consequence of the desire for the
The term comes from Latin architectura; invisible to be made visible
from Ancient Greek ἀρχιτέκτων (arkhitéktōn)
'architect'; from ἀρχι- (arkhi-) 'chief',
and τέκτων (téktōn) 'creator' ARCHITECTURE AS ART AND SCIENCE
As an art, architecture is more than
a very complex discipline. satisfying the purely functional requirements
of a building program. Fundamentally, the
physical manifestations of architecture
FORMS/TYPES OF THEORY
accommodate human activity.
DESCRIPTIVE - Explains phenomenon or
events; they re neutral and do not lean Form and space are presented not as ends
towards any ideology. e.g. Idealism, realism, in but as means to solve a problem in
PRESCRIPTIVE - Prescribes bases or response to conditions of function, purpose,
guidelines. e.g. when we say we must relate and context that is, architecturally
classroom teaching to the child's real world
CRITICAL - Challenges relationships
between architecture & society. e.g.
ARCHITECTURE AS PEOPLE CENTERED
Marxism, post modernism, feminism Human centered architecture puts people
at the heart of the design process, striving
to create spaces that cater to their needs ,
WHAT IS ARCHITECTURE? enhance their well being, and promote a
The art and science of designing sense of connection to their environment.
and constructing buildings.

ART - It is the conscience use of skill, craft, and ARCHITECTURE AS EXPRESSION

creative imagination in the product of what is Architectural expression refers to
beautiful, appealing, or of more than ordinary design or the determination of form which
significance. includes every aspect of every quality of a
building, including size, shape, materials,
DESIGNING - A plan or drawing produced to show texture, color, ornamentation, etc..
the look and function or workings of a building.

CONSTRUCTING - To build
ARCHITECTURE AS A PLACE
Our idea of an “Architecture of Place” is
SCIENCE - A branch of knowledge dealing with a about creating design that enables people
body of facts or truths obtained by direct that makes them feel empowered, important,
observation, experimental investigation and and excited to be in the places they inhabit in
methodical study, systematically arranged and their daily lives. Whether we like the buildings
showing the operation of general laws. as pure formal objects is another matter, and
not of primary significance.
ARCHITECTURE AS SELF REFLECTION
SYSTEMS &
ARCHITECTURAL ORDERS FORM & SPACE
ORGANIZATIONS OF

“Dreams and visions of designing Sensory Approach &

buildings and structures that would perception & Departure
Perceptual
change the world” recognition of Entry & Egress
the physical Movement
elements by through the order

ARCHITECTURAL SYSTEMS experiencing

them sequentially
of spaces
Functioning of
AND ORDERS in time activities
within spaces
THE ARCHITECTURE OF: Organizational pattern, Qualities of light,
Space relationships, hierarchy color
Qualities of shape, color,
Structure
texture, scale, proportion
Enclosure Qualities of surfaces, edges Comprehension of Images
and openings the ordered and Patterns
Conceptual
disordered Signs
relationships Symbols
EXPERIENCED Approach and entry among a building’s Context
THROUGH: Path configuration and elements and (space,form ,
Movement in Space access systems and function,techniqu
Sequence of spaces responding to the es
time
Light, view, touch, hearing meanings they
and smell evoke

Approach and entry

ACHIEVED BY:
Path configuration and
Technology access
Sequence of spaces
Light, view, touch, hearing
and smell

ACCOMMODATING User requirements, needs,

A: aspirations
Program Socio cultural factors
Economic factors
Legal restraints
Historical tradition &
precedents

COMPATIBLE Site and environment

WITH ITS: Climate: sun, wind,
Context temperature and precipitation
Geography: soils,
topography, vegetation and
water
Sensory and cultural
characteristics of the place

ARCHITECTURAL SYSTEMS
“LET THEM CONSTRUCT A SANCTUARY FOR ME, THAT I MAY DWELL

VILLA SAVOYE BY
AMONG THEM. “ACCORDING TO ALL THAT I AM GOING TO
SHOW YOU, AS THE PATTERN OF THE TABERNACLE AND THE PATTERN
OF ALL ITS FURNITURE, JUST SO YOU SHALL CONSTRUCT IT.
LE CORBUSIER 9
Exodus 25: 8,

SYSTEMS &
ARCHITECTURAL ORDERS FORM & SPACE
ORGANIZATIONS OF

• Solids • Space
&Voids • Structure
Physical
• Interior & • Enclosure
Exterior • Machines
 ATHEORY1 LECTURE 2
L1: BASIC ELEMENTS OF DESIGN SIZE
PRIMARY ELEMENTS OF DESIGN A point extended becomes a line with
properties of:

POINT Length
The two ends of a line Direction
The intersection of two lines Position
The meeting of lines at the corner of a
plane or volume COLOR
The center of a field A phenomenon of light and visual perception
that may be described in terms of an
LINE individual’s perception of hue, saturation,
A point extended becomes a line with and tonal value. Color is the attribute that
properties of: most clearly distinguishes a form from its
environment. It also affects the visual weight
Length of a form
Direction
Position TEXTURE
The visual and especially tactile quality given
PLANE to a surface by the size, shape,
arrangement, and proportions of the parts.
A line extended becomes a plane with Also determines the degree to which the
properties of:
surfaces of a form reflect or absorb incident
Length and width light.
Shape
Surface POSITION
Orientation The location of a form relative to its
Position environment or the visual field within which it
is seen.
VOLUME
AA plane extended becomes a volume with ORIENTATION
properties of:
The direction of form relative to the ground
Length, width, depth plane, the compass points, other forms, or to
Form and space the person viewing the form
Surface
Orientation VISUAL INERTIA
Position The degree of concentration and stability of a
form. The visual inertia of a form depends on
ARCHITECTURAL FORM its geometry as well as its orientation relative
Is this point of contact between mass and to the ground plane, the pull of gravity, and
space. our line of sight.

PROPERTIES OF FORM

SHAPE
the characteristic outline or surface
configuration of a particular form. Shape is
the principal aspect by which we identify
and categorize forms.
 ATHEORY1 LECTURE 2
PRIMARY SOLIDS REGULAR AND IRREGULAR FORMS

SPHERE REGULAR FORMS

a solid generated by the revolution of a refer to those whose parts are related to
semicircle about its diameter, whose one another in a consistent and orderly
surface is at all points equidistant from the manner. They are generally stable in
center. nature and symmetrical about one or more
axes. The sphere, cylinder, cone, cube,
CYLINDER and pyramid are prime examples of regular
forms.
a solid generated by the revolution of a
rectangle about one of its sides. A cylinder IRREGULAR FORMS
is centralized about the axis passing
through the centers of its two circular are those whose parts are dissimilar in
faces. Along this axis, it can be easily nature and related to one another in an
extended. The cylinder is stable if it rests inconsistent manner. They are generally
on one of its circular faces; it becomes asymmetrical and more dynamic than
unstable when its central axis is inclined regular forms. They can be regular forms
from the vertical. from which irregular elements have been
subtracted or result from an irregular
CONE composition of regular forms.
a solid generated by the revolution of a
rectangle about one of its sides. A cylinder L2: ANTHROPOMETRICS AND
is centralized about the axis passing ERGONOMICS
through the centers of its two circular
faces. Along this axis, it can be easily ANTHROPOMETRICS
extended. The cylinder is stable if it rests the science of measuring the size and
on one of its circular faces; it becomes proportions of the human body (called
unstable when its central axis is inclined anthropometry), especially as applied to
from the vertical. the design of furniture and machines.
PYRAMID Derives from the Greek words ‘anthropos’
a polyhedron having a polygonal base and (meaning human), and ‘metron’ (meaning
triangular faces meeting at a common point measure)
or vertex. The pyramid has properties
similar to those of the cone. Because all of
its surfaces are flat planes, however, the ANTHROPOMETRICS AND IMPLICATIONS
pyramid can rest in a stable manner on any TO ARCHITECTURE
of its faces. While the cone is a soft form,
the pyramid is relatively hard and angular. Human dimensions and capabilities are
paramount in determining a building’s
CUBE dimensions and overall design. The
prismatic solid bounded by six equal underlying principle of anthropometrics is
square sides, the angle between any two that building designs should adapt to suit
adjacent faces being a right angle. the human body, rather than people having
to adapt to suit the buildings.
 ATHEORY1 LECTURE 2

TWO BASIC AREAS OF ANTHROPOMETRY: MAN AGAINST FURNITURE

1. STATIC ANTHROPOMETRY ANTHROPOCENTRISM

is the measurement of body sizes at literally means human-centered, but in its
restand when using devices such as chairs, most relevant philosophical form it is the
tables, beds, mobility devices, and so on. ethical belief that humans alone possess
intrinsic value. In contradistinction, all other
2. FUNCTIONAL ANTHROPOMETRY beings hold value only in their ability to
is the measurement of abilities related to serve humans, or in their instrumental
the completion of tasks, such as value.
reaching, maneuvering and motion, and
Examples:
other aspects of space and equipment
use. TREATMENT OF ANIMALS - according to
The use of anthropometrics in building an anthropocentric worldview animals can
design aims to ensure that every person is hierarchically be organized with humans at
as comfortable as possible the top. Human characteristics are utilized to
categorize other animals.
MAN AGAINST MAN
ECO CONSCIOUSNESS - we continue to
ERGONOMICS value human life above ecological
Is an applied science concerned with preservation. We fail to make drastic
designing and arranging things people use changes as a species to preserve ecological
so that the people and things interact most balance.
efficiently and safely.
Comparison:
Difference of anthropometrics and ANTHROPOCENTRISM individual humans
Ergonomics: and the human species are seen as the most
valuable
While anthropometrics involves the systematic
measurement of the physical properties of the
human body (height, weight, shape, arm length, BIOCENTRISM all living things are equal
etc.). Ergonomic involves incorporating inherent value.
anthropometric data. In designing products and
environments In addition to the elements.
ECOCENTRISM environmental systems as
SUMMARY: wholes carry inherent value.
The statement explains that in addition to the
materials used in building, human body dimensions
influence the space needed for movement, activity, L3: ANTHROPOMETRICS AND
and rest. It describes three types of fit between body ERGONOMICS II
and space:
1. Static fit - when a person is stationary, like
SPACE AND BODY
sitting in a chair or leaning against a railing. GENDER IN ARCHITECTURE
2. Dynamic fit - when a person is moving,
such as walking through a foyer or climbing o MASCULINE
o FEMININE
stairs.
o GAY
3. Social fit - how a space accommodates
personal and social distancing needs,
allowing control over personal space.
 EMOTIONS IN ARCHITECTURE

EMOTIONAL ARCHITECTURE
is a sublime act of poetic imagination
which involves the user's body and mind.
Experiencing a built form does not relate
only to its spaces, form, and surfaces, but
also in listening to its characteristic
dialogues. As a user enters a space, a
space enters the user as well. The
experience is essentially the exchange and
fusion of the object and the subject.
SPIRITUAL ARCHITECTURE
Spirituality is our attempt to become aware
of our spirit. “Spiritual architecture” refers
to any building system that facilitates this
awareness. It is, an act of highlighting or
bringing forth the self, not by rejecting
matter but by manifesting it in matter, at
various levels and in multiple forms.

ATHEORY1 LECTURE 3

PERSONIFICATION
L1: DIMENSION, SCALE, &
PROPORTION is the related attribution of human form and
characteristics to abstract concepts such as
DIMENSION nations, emotions, and natural forces, such
as seasons and weather.
Is a measure of extension in space that has
a particular direction, like height, width, and
depth of a given thing whereas
ANTHROPOMORPHISM
measurement refers to the act of measuring. Derives from the verb anthropomorphize
Refers to a measurement of things in one Derived from the GREEK word:
direction like the length, width, height, lr ánthrōpos - human morphē - form
depth of an object.
Anthropometric measurements are
MEASUREMENT noninvasive quantitative measurements of
the body. According to the Centers for
Is the basic concept of study of Disease Control and Prevention (CDC),
mathematics and science.
anthropometry provides a valuable
Quantifies the characteristics of an object or
assessment of nutritional status in children
event, which we can compare with other
and adults.
things or events. Measurement is the most
commonly used word, whenever we deal
with the division of a quantity
 How is anthropometric different from VISUAL SCALE
anthropomorphic? the size or proportion an element appears to
have relative to other elements of known or
Anthropomorphic and Anthropometric assumed size.
are not the same. Anthropomorphic
relates to anthropomorphism, a common
literary device relating to animals L3: THEORIES OF PROPORTION
exhibiting human attributes, while
Anthropometric relates to anthropometry, PROPORTION
which is the study of human refers to the proper or harmonious relation of
measurements and proportions. one part to another or to the whole. This
relationship may not only be one of
What is scale in Architectural form? magnitude, but also of quantity or degree.
While the designer usually has a range of
While proportion pertains to an ordered choices when determining the proportions of
set of mathematical relationships among things, some are given to us by the nature of
the dimensions of a form or space, Scale materials, by how building elements respond
to forces, and by how things are made.
refers to how we perceive or judge the
size of something in relation to MATERIAL PROPORTION
something else. In dealing with the
issue of scale, therefore we are always All building materials in architecture have
comparing one thing to another. distinct properties of elasticity, hardness, and
durability. And they all have an ultimate
strength beyond which they cannot extend
L2: TWO TYPES OF SCALE themselves without fracturing, breaking, or
THEORIES OF PROPORTION collapsing. Since the stresses in a material
resulting from the force of gravity increase
with size, all materials also have rational
HUMAN SCALE dimensions beyond which they cannot go.
is based on the dimensions and proportions of
the human body. It has already been For example, a stone slab that is four-inches
mentioned in the section on anthropometric thick and eight-feet long can be reasonably
proportioning that our dimensions vary from expected to support itself as a bridge
individual to individual and should not be used between two supports. But if its size were to
as an absolute measuring device. increase fourfold, to sixteen-inches thick and
thirty-two-feet long, it would probably collapse
GENERIC SCALE under its own weight. Even a strong material
like steel has lengths beyond which it cannot
The most commonly used scales are 2:1, 5:1, span without exceeding its ultimate strength.
10,1. The elements represented thus are larger All materials also have rational proportions
in the plan or model than in reality. As in the that are dictated by their inherent strengths
previous type, when taking measurements on and weaknesses. Masonry units like brick, for
the drawing, we must apply the scale, to example, are strong in compression and
calculate its extension in reality. depend on their mass for strength. Such
materials are therefore volumetric in form.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT SCALE: Materials like steel are strong in both
· Association with nature compression and tension and can therefore
· Position in space relative to the object be formed into linear columns and beams as
· Experiences, Value, Scalar sequences well as planar sheet materials. Wood, being a
· Economics flexible and fairly elastic material, can be used
as linear posts and beams, planar boards,
MECHANICAL SCALE and as a volumetric element in log cabin
the size or proportion of something relative to construction.
an accepted standard of measurement.
STRUCTURAL PROPORTION VISUAL SCALE
In the construction of architecture, structural the size or proportion an element appears to
elements are called upon to span spaces and have relative to other elements of known or
transmit their loads through vertical supports assumed size.
to the foundation system of a building. The
size and proportion of these elements are
directly related to the structural tasks they L3: THEORIES OF PROPORTION
perform and can therefore be visual indicators
of the size and scale of the spaces they help PROPORTION
enclose. refers to the proper or harmonious
relation of one part to another or to the
Beams, for example, transmit their loads whole. This relationship may not only be
horizontally across space to their vertical one of magnitude, but also of quantity or
supports. If the span or load of a beam were degree. While the designer usually has a
doubled, its bending stresses would likewise range of choices when determining the
double, possibly causing it to collapse. But if proportions of things, some are given to
its depth were doubled, its strength would us by the nature of materials, by how
increase fourfold. Depth, therefore, is the building elements respond to forces, and
critical dimension of a beam and its depth-to- by how things are made.
span ratio can be a useful indicator of its
structural role in a similar manner, columns is the equality between two ratios in which
become thicker as their loads and the first of the four terms divided by the
unsupported height increase. Together, fourth.
beams and columns form a skeletal structural
framework that defines modules of space. By
their size and proportion, columns and beams PROPORTIONING SYSTEMS
articulate space and give it scale and a
hierarchical structure. This can be seen in the
way joists are supported by beams, which in Even considering the proportional constraints
turn are supported by girders. Each element imposed on a form by the nature of its
increases in depth as its load and span material, its structural function, or by the
increase in size. manufacturing process, the designer still has
the ability to control the proportion of the
forms and spaces within and around a
MANUFACTURED PROPORTION building. The decision to make a room square
Many architectural elements are sized and or oblong in plan, intimate or lofty in scale, or
proportioned not only according to their to endow a building with an imposing, higher-
structural properties and function, but also by than-normal façade, legitimately falls to the
the process through which they are designer. But on what basis are these
manufactured. Because these elements are decisions made?
mass-produced in factories, they have
standard sizes and proportions imposed on
them by the individual manufacturers or by
industry standards.

Concrete block and common brick, for

example, are produced as modular building
units. Although they differ from each other in
size, both are proportioned on a similar basis.
Plywood and other sheathing materials also
are manufactured as modular units with fixed FIBONACCI SEQUENCE
proportions. Steel sections have fixed In mathematics, the Fibonacci sequence is a
proportions generally agreed upon by the sequence in which each number is the sum of
steel manufacturers and the American the two preceding ones.
Institute of Steel Construction. Windows and
doors have proportions that are set by the
individual manufacturers of the units.
GOLDEN SECTION They were seen previously in the discussion of
the Golden Section, but they can also be used
Mathematical systems of proportion originate
to control the proportion and placement of
from the Pythagorean concept of "all is
elements in other proportioning systems as
number' and the belief that certain numerical
well. Le Corbusier, in Towards a New
relationships manifest the harmonic structure
Architecture, stated the following:
of the universe.
"A regulating line is an assurance against
capriciousness; it is a means of verification
The Golden Section can be defined as the
which can ratify all work created in fervour ... It
ratio between two sections of a line, or the
confers on the work the quality of rhythm. The
two dimensions of a plane figure, in which the
regulating line brings in this tangible form of
lesser of the two is to the greater as the
mathematics which gives the reassuring
greater is to the sum of both. It can be
perception of order. The choice of a regulating
expressed algebraically by the equation of
line fixes the fundamental geometry of the
two ratios:
work... It is a means to an end; it is not a
recipe."
LE CORBUSIER
developed his proportioning system, the CLASSICAL ORDERS
Modulor, to order "the dimensions of that
which contains and that which is contained." To the Greeks and Romans of classical
He saw the measuring tools of the Greeks, antiquity, the Orders represented in their
Egyptians, and other high civilizations as proportioning of elements the perfect
being infinitely rich and subtle because they expression of beauty and harmony. The
formed part of the mathematics of the human basic unit of dimension was the diameter of
body, gracious, elegant, and firm, the source the column.
of that harmony which moves us, beauty." Intercolumniation— the system of spacing
between columns — was also based on the
Le Corbusier began his study in 1942, and diameter of the column.
published The Modulor: A Harmonious
Measure to the Human Scale Universally Because the sizes of columns varied
Applicable to Architecture and Mechanics in according to the extent of a building, the
1948. A second volume, Modulor Il, was Orders were not based on a fixed unit of
published in 1954. measurement. Rather, the intention was to
ensure that all of the parts of any one
Le Corbusier saw the Modulor not merely as building were proportionate and in harmony
a series of numbers with an inherent with one another.
harmony, but as a system of measurements
that could govern lengths, surfaces, and Vitruvius, in the time of Augustus, studied
volumes, and "maintain the human scale actual examples of the Orders and
everywhere." It could lend itself to an infinity presented his ideal proportions for each in
of combinations; it ensures unity with his treatise, The Ten Books on Architecture.
diversity... the miracle of numbers." Vignola recodified these rules for the Italian
Renaissance and his forms for the Orders
are probably the best known today.
REGULATING LINES
If the diagonals of two rectangles are either VITRUVIUS
parallel or perpendicular to each other, they rules for the diameter, height, and spacing
indicate that the two rectangles have similar of columns
proportions. These diagonals, as well as lines They were seen previously in the discussion
that indicate the common alignment of of the Golden Section, but they can also be
elements, are called regulating lines. used to control the proportion and
placement of elements in other
proportioning systems as well. Le
Corbusier, in Towards a New Architecture
The traditional Japanese unit of measure, the
shaku, was originally imported from China. It
is almost equivalent to the English foot and
divisible into decimal units. Another unit of
measure, the ken, was introduced in the latter
half of Japan's Middle Ages.

RELATIVE PROPORTION
Art and architecture must deal with relative
proportion, and this presupposes a unit of
measure that is very human in origin.

ABSOLUTE PROPORTION
Measure must be understood, first of all, not
in terms of arithmetic, but in terms of the
dimensions and the practical, functional
energy of the human body. Pure geometry
can exist without considerations of size or
measure, since it deals only with absolute
proportion.

If you need to demonstrate actual values or

subtle differences, use absolute
measurements. If you want to emphasize
proportions, trends, or how data points relate
to a common baseline, use relative
(percentage) measurements.
 ATHEORY1 LECTURE 4
L1: BALANCE AND RHYTHM
GRAVITATIONAL CURVE
A unifying movement characterized by a
BALANCE patterned repetition or alternation of formal
elements or motifs in the same or a modified
provides stability and structure to a design by form.
placing the elements in such a way that the
visual weight, in terms of objects, colors, DATUM
textures and space, is distributed, i.e.
symmetry. For example a large positioned A line, plane, or volume that, by its continuity
close to the centre can be balanced by a and regularity, serves to gather, measure,
small shape close to the edge. and organize a pattern of forms and spaces.

GRAVITATIONAL CURVE TRANSFORMATION

Is the curvature of space time. The principle that an architectural concept,
Gravity is the curvature of the universe, structure, or organization can be altered
caused by massive bodies, which determines through a series of discrete manipulations
the path that object travel. The curvature is and permutations in response to a specific
dynamical, moving as those objects move. context or set of conditions without a loss of
identity or concept.
What is Balance and Gravitational curve in
architecture? Balance - is an even use of elements
throughout a work of art.
Balance - equal distribution of weight. -
concerned with the distribution of visual Symmetry - is a very formal type of balance
interest. consisting of mirroring of portions of an
Gravitational - natural tendency toward image.
some point or object of incluence.

ORDERING PRINCIPLES
L2: THREE TYPES OF
BALANCE
AXIS SYMMETRICAL BALANCE (CENTER)
a line established by two points inspace, Means that the work of art is the same on one
about which forms and spaces can be side as the other, a mirror image of itself, on
arranged in a symmetrical or balanced both sides of a center line
manner.

SYMMETRY SYMMETRICAL BALANCE (CENTRAL)

the balanced distribution and arrangement of is achieved in works of art when visual
equivalent forms and spaces on opposite elements are arranged both sides of a center
sides of a dividing line or plane or about a line in equal weight.
center or axis.
SYMMETRICAL BALANCE (FORMAL)
HIERARCHY is achieved in work of art when visual
the articulation of the importance or elements are arranged on both sides of a
significance of a form or space by its size, center line in equal weight. Symmetrical
shape, or placement relative to the other balance, also called formal balance, can be
forms and spaces of the organization. thought of as a mirror image of one half of a
work of art on the other half.
SYMMETRICAL BALANCE (RADIAL) PERCEPTION
Radial balance is symmetry in several is the ability to see, hear, or become aware of
directions. Visual elements are arranged something through the senses.
around a central point in the composition, like
the spokes on a bicycle wheel. Often, radially SPACIAL PERCEPTION
balanced designs are circular.
involves not one but many specific abilities.
Within the visual domain these include
UNSYMMETRICAL BALANCE locating points in space, determining the
Asymmetrical balance is when you have two orientation of lines and objects, assessing
dissimilar sides of a design and have location in depth, appreciating geometric
positioned visual weight unequally, and yet relations between objects, and processing
you've still achieved a sense of balance. It motion, including motion in depth.
evokes a sense of modernism and
movement. STERIOSCOPIC VISION
describes the ability of the visual brain to
GRAVITATIONAL BALANCE register a sense of three-dimensional shape
and form from visual inputs. In current usage,
Demonstrates the existence of gravitational
stereoscopic vision often refers uniquely to
forces between masses
the sense of depth derived from the two eyes.
Gravitational -natural tendency toward some
point or object of influenc KINESTHETIC VISION
in human sensory: kinesthetic (motion) sense.
L3: TWO TYPES OF Even with the eyes closed, one is aware of
SYMMETRY the positions of his legs and arms and can
percieve the movement of a limb and its
direction, the term kinesthesis (“feeling of
There are two fundamental types of motion”) has been coined for this sensibility.
symmetry:

1. BILATERAL SYMMETRY refers to the FIGURE GROUND

balanced arrangement of similar or equivalent is defined as human’s ability to visually
elements on opposite sides of a median axis differentiate between an object an its
so that only one plane can divide the whole background. When humans percieve a visual
into essentially identical halves. image, they tend to simplify it by seperating it
into figure and ground. The target object
2. RADIAL SYMMETRY refers to the becomes the observer’s main focus, both
balanced arrangement of similar, radiating visually and mentally.
elements such that the composition can be
divided into similar halves by passing a plane Gestalt: objects observed have innate
at any angle around a centerpoint or along a qualities that make them independent of the
central axis perceiver and the environment.
The theory or doctrine that physiological or
psychological phenomenon do not occur
L4: VISUAL ACUITY AND through the summation of individual elements,
PERCEPTION as reflexes or sensations, but through
gestalts functioning separately or inter-
relatedly.
VISUAL ACUITY (VA)
is a measure of the ability of the eye to REVERSIBLE FIGURE
distinguish shales and the details of object at
a given distance. is an ambiguous two-dimensional drawing
that represents a three-dimensional object in
such a way that it can be seen from two
different perspectives.