Unit - 2

ULTRASONIC MACHINING

PRINCIPLE OF USM
2.1
on the principle that, when a tool vibrating at a very high frequency
Ultrasonic' machining is based between them, the vibrating energy ofthe
workpiece with abrasive particles
is brought closer to the strike the workpiece with a great velocity. The impact of
tool can propel the abrasive particles to removal ofmaterial from the
hard worksurface resulting in the
the abrasive particles fractures the
workpiece.
NEED FOR USM
2.2 are difficult
materials such as glass, ceramics, carbides, precious stones, hardened steels etc.,
Brittle
USM is a non-thermal; non-chemical;
creates no change in
machine by conventional methods.
to
properties of the workpiece and offers virtually stress
the microstructure, chemical or physicalenable hard and brittle materials to be economically and
free machined surfaces. These features difficult to shape by conventional methods.
efficiently machined, which otherwise would have been

2.3 USM EQUIPMENT

equipment are shown in figure 2.1. The equipment
The major componentsofultrasonic machining
consists ofthe following parts:
Power supply
Transducer
Tool holder and horn
Tool, and
" Abrasives

a) Power supply
that converts
u for ultrasonic machiningis ahigh-power sine-wave, generator
The power supplyused (approximately2
the low-frequency electrical power (60 Hz)to ahigh-frequency electric power
kHz). The electrical signal is then supplied to the transducer.
Ipper
The term ultrasonic is used to describe a vibratory wave of a frequency above that of the
frequency limit of the human ear; it generally embraces all frequencies above about 16 kHz.
Ultrasonic Machining

b) Transducer
Atransducer is a device that converts the high-frequency electrical signal to a high-frequency
mechanical motion (vibrations) to the tool and this particular vibration of the tool enables machining
using abrasives. There are two types of transducers working on two different principles:
piezoelectric* and magnetostrictive'. The transducer based on the magnetostrictive efect is
mostly utilized in ultrasonic machining process, due to its high efficiency, high reliability in the
15-30 kHz range, low supply voltage, and simple cooling arrangement.
Transducer

Power supply Excitation coil

Lead

Transducer
cone or horn
Connecting body

Tool ho!der

Direction of
tool motion
Wave guide or horn or concentrator

Abrasive slurry Cutting tool

supplied through nozzle
Abrasive slurry

Workpiece
Vice
Table

Figure 2.1 Ultrasonic machining equipment

Piezoelectric transducer generates mechanical motion through the piezoelectric effect of certain
materials like quartz or lead-zirconate. When an electric current is applied to one of these materials,
the materialincreases mimutely in size, and when the current is removed, the material instantly
to its original shape. returns
he magnetostrictive effect is one, in which the transducer material constructed from a laminated stack
of nickel or nickel alloy sheets changes in dimension in response toa
magneticfield.
10 Non Traditional Mlachining
c) Tool holder
The high frequency mechanical motion obtained from the transducer is transmitted to the tool via a
tool holder. The tool holder, as the name implies, helps to attach and hold the tool to the transducer
In addition, it also transmits the length of stroke (vibration) to the tool by means of wave guide
(horn, or concentrator).
The horn amplifies and focusses the mechanical energy (vibrations) produced by the transducer
and imparts this energy to the workpiece in such a way that energy utilization isoptimum.
Note Tool holders can be either non-amplifying or amplifying type. Non-amplifying tool holders
result in the same stroke amplitude both at the output end the input end, while amplifying tool
holders increase the amplitude of thetool stroke (output end).
d) Tool
The tool is constructed from ductile materials like stainless steel, brass, or mild steel and has the
same shape as that of the cavity to be machined in the workpiece. However, the size of the tool is
slightly smaller than that of the desired shape in the workpiece. The tool is attached to the tool
holder by silver brazing, soft soldering, or by means of screws.
e) Abrasives
Abrasives are usually suspended in liquid (water), and supplied to the cutting zone during the
operation. The liquidwill help in the removal of material due to cavitation effect and also aids in
uniform distribution ofthe abrasive particles into the working gap. Boron carbide, silicon carbide
and aluminum oxide are the most commonly used abrasives. The type of abrasive selected depends
on the hardness ofthe workpiece material.
The abrasive slurry^ is stored in a reservoir and pumped to the tool-work interface (cutting zone)
through a nozzle. The flowing abrasive, apart from fracturing the workpiece, also carries away the
fractured particles of the work material.
2.4 USM OPERATION

USM process begins with the conversion of low-frequency electrical power to a high-frequency
electrical signal, which is then fed to a transducer. The transducer converts the high-frequency
electrical signal to a high-frequency mechanical motion (vibrations), which in tum is amplified by
means of waveguide (horn) and then transmitted to the tool tip. The tool, which is having the same
shape as the cavity to be machined, vibrates or oscillates at a very high frequency in the abras1ve
slurry pumped between the tool-work interface.
The vibration of the tool transmits a high velocity to the abrasive particles, and as a result, tne
abrasive particles strike the workpiece with a great force. This impact fractures the hard a
brittle worksurface resulting in the removal of material in the form of small wear particles.
abrasive slurry flowing at the cutting zone carries away the fractured particles. The tool is press
Abrasive slury isjusta suspension of abrasive particles and nater
Ultrasonic Machining 11

against the workpieceby applying aslight force (in terms of kgs.), while the abrasive slurry is being
pumped in at low pressures till the operation is completed. The tool material, being tough and
ductile, wears out at a much slower rate. The toolis gradually fed with a uniform force by means
of suitablefeeding mechanism.
Mechanism of metal removal
The reasons for the metal removal from the workpiece in USM are believed to be:
a) The direct hammering of the abrasive particles into the work by the tool.
b) The impact of the abrasive particles on the work surface due to throwing action of the
particles.
c) Cavitation induced erosion.
d) Chemicalerosion or cavitation caused by the slurry under the tool.
Ofallhe above, metal removal by hammering, and impact ofabrasive particles resulting from the
throwing action of theparticles are considered to be significant.
2.5 TOOL FEED MECHANISM in USM
In USM, the tool is held against the workpiece by means of the static pressure exerted by a feed
mechanism fitted below the workpiece or above the tool in the USM equipment. The fecd
mechanism must perform the following functions:
a) Bring the tool very slowly, close to the workpiece
b) Apply and sustain a suitable cutting force called the static load between the tool and the
workpiece during machining.
c) Decrease the force at a specified depth.
d) Overrun asmall distance to ensure the required hole size at the exit.
e) Withdraw the tool after machining is completed.
The various feed mechanisms available in USM are illustrated in its simplest form in figure 2.2 and
discussed briefly as follows.
Figure 2.2(a) shows the counterweight type of mechanism, the feed force being the difference
between the weight of the acoustic head (ultrasonic transducer and tool holder) and that of the
counterweight attached through a lever system or using a pulley. The force is adjusted through the
weights. This type of feeding mechanism although simple, is insensitive to changes in cutting and
hence inconvenient to adjust the weights.
Figure 2.2 (b)shows the spring loaded system of feed mechanism, which is quite sensitive to
changes in cutting conditions, but is less efficient; figure 2.2(c) shows the pneumatic (or hydraulic)
type of feeding mechanism which is the commonly used in USM. This system makes use of a
piston-cylinder arrangement witha suitable liquid or air as the working substance through which
the required force is applied to the tool to perform the machining operation.
 Non Traditional Machinin
12

Lever
Acoustic
Acoustic Rope head
head Pulley Counter
Fulcrum
weight
Counter
weight

Concentrator
Concentrator

Counterweight with lever & fulcrum

Counterweight with rope & pulley
(a) Couter-weight system

Fluid in
Spring Piston-cylinder
Fluid out

.Acoustic
head
Acoustic head

Concentrator Concentrator

(b) Spring loaded system (c) Hydraulic (pneumatic) system

Figure 2.2 Feed mechanisms in USM

2.6 PROCESS PARAMETERS in USM

The following are the critical parameters (variables), which affect the metal removal rate (MRK,
surface finish and accuracy of the machined surface:
a) Amplitude and frequency of vibrations of the tool
The metal removal rate (MRR) or cutting rate increases with increase in both amplitude a
vibration of the tool. Refer figure 2.3.The amplitude and frequency of vibration determines
ampliudes
velocityofthe abrasive particles att the interface between thetool and workpiece. At largeri
consequently
the kinetic energy rises, this in turm enhances the mechanical chipping action and however
increases MRR. But, increasing the amplitude tends to increase the surface roughness,
and
the effect is minimal. The frequcncy and amplitude of vibrations ranges from 15-30kKH
25-100 um respectively.
Ultrasonic Machining 13

Increasing frequency
MRR
MRR

Frequency Amplitude

(a) (b)

Figure 2.3 Relation between MRR and amplitude/frequency

b) Slurry (Abrasive-water mixture)
The improved flow of slurry results in an enhanced machining rate. In practice, a volumetric
concentration of about 30 to 35 percent of abrasives is recommended. Achange in concentration
occurs during machining as aresult of theabrasive dust settling on the machine table. The actual
concentration should, therefore be checked at certain time intervals. Metal removal rate increases
with increase in slurry concentration. The machining rate reaches to aoptimum value with 30%
slurry concentation. The metal removal rate drops with further increasing viscosity of the slurry.
Refer figure 2.4.
Machining
rate

Slurry
Concentration
30 %

Figure 2.4 Relation between MRR and slurry concentration

c) Tool & Work material
Since the tool has to withstard the vibrations, it should not fail or wear out quickBy. The harder the
tool material, the faster its wear rate will be, thereby leading to unfavourable metal removal rate
and surface finish on the workpiece. Tough malleable materials such as alloy stel and stainless
steel give satisfactory results. Figure 2.5 shows the relationship between the metal removal rate
and the toolworkpiece hardness.
d) Type of abrasive
The abrasive used should be harder than the workpiece material being machined, else the life time
of the abrasive willbe substantially shortened resulting in poor surface finish during subsequent
14
NonTraditional Machining

machining. Boron carbide is used for high metal removal rates & also for hard workpiece materal
wea
like tungsten carbide, toolsteel & precious stones. However, it is costlier. Aluminum oxide
out fast & loses its cutting power. Silicon carbide is best suited & finds maximum application in USM
Machining
rate

Ratio of workpiece to tool hardness

Figure 2.5 Relation between MRR and ratio of workpiece/tool hardness

e) Abrasive size
The size of the abrasive particle varies between 240-800 grit. Coarse grades are suitable for high
metal removal rates, but result in rough surface finish as shown in figure 2.6. Hence, they are used
for roughing operations only. Finer grades, say 750-800 grit are used for fine surface finish, but the
metal removal rate decreases.

Note The cutting rate increases with increase in grain size, however there is a limit to the effect of
grain size on the rate as a very course abrasive powder may even cause a fll in cutting rate.
Surface
roughness
um

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

Abrasive
size
200 400 600 800

Figure 2.6 Effect of abrasive size.on MRR & Surface finish

) Effect of applied static load (feed force)

In practice, initially with increase in static load on the tool, the depth ofpenetration of the abrasl
particles on the work surface is more, leading to increased MRR. Refer figure 2.7. However e
is alimit to the applied static load, and beyond this limit, the depth ofpenetration is found to dere
leading to low MRR.
Ultrasonie Machining

Amplitude 0,04 mm

0,.036 mm

0,02 mm
0.010 mm

Static load (N)

10 16 20 26

Figure 2.7 ENeet of' statie load on MRR

2.7 PROCESS CAPABILITIES(CHARACTERISTICS) OF USM
Following are a few process capabilities ofUSM process.
a) Metal RenmovalRate (MRR)
Table2.lgives the material vemoval rates tor alew comnonly used materials.
SI, MRR
Work material
No. (mm'min)
Glass 425
Ceramie 185
3. Mica (gluss bonded) 390
4. T'ungsten carbide 40
Toolsteel (hardened) 30

Table 2.1I MRR tor ditlerent materials

It is clear thom table 2.I that,britle non-metallie materials can be cut at higher rates than ductile
materials (steels), USM works satisfactorily only whenworkpiece hardness is greater than HRC
0(landness on Rockwellscale ) andgives excellent results tor workpiecewith hardness greater
than tIRC 60. USM |erefore makes itself'suitable tor haurd and brittle materials.
b) Surface fiuish
0 all theprocess variables, the size ofthe abrasive grit has annajor intluence on the surface finish
pratuccd on the wonk material. The larger the grit sizc (fine sizes ofabrasives), the finer will be
tle surte tislh patued. Surtace finish mayrange fhon 0.2 0.6[un. lowever, finer abrasives
ul nlowcmetalremoval vate.
 Unit -3

ABRASIVE JET &WATER JET MACHINING

3.1 PRINCIPLE OF ABRASIVE JET MACHINING (AJM)

Abrasive jet machining works on the principle that, when astream of abrasive particles carind:
agas medium from a nozzle is made to impinge on the worksurface at a high velocity, material o
be removed from the workpiece. Metal removal occurs due to erosion caused by the ahra
particles impacting the worksurface at high speed. The flowing gas (or air) caries awav ha
fractured particles on the worksurface resulting in a smooth and a fine surface finish. The process
is similar to sand blasting, but differs in that, the abrasives used are of fine grit size and are
camet
in a gas medium to impinge on the workpiece.

3.2 NEED for AJM

Intricate shapes in hard and brittle materials, which are sensitive to heat, inaccessible by ordinary
machining methods, or having atendency to chip casily can be machined efficiently using abrasive
jet machining process. This makes the process to be selected for machining.
3.3 AJM EQUIPMENT
Figure 3.1l shows the layout of the equipment used in abrasive jet machining process.
Pressure gauge Mixing chamber

Hose
Hand holder Exhaust
Valve

Hood

Gas
Cylinder
Nozzle
Vibrator

Workpiece
Support

Figure 3.1I Layout of AJM equipment

Abrasive Jet & Water Jet Machining 23

The equipment consists of the following main parts:

" Nozzle
Abrasive
" Carrier gas, and
" Metering system.
a) Nozzle
Anozzle is used to accelerate the abrasive particles onto the worksurface. Since the abrasive
particles leave the nozzle at a very high velocity, it is subjected to abrasion wear. It is for this
reason, the nozzle is made from a hard material like tungsten carbide or synthetic sapphire.
b) Abrasive
Aluminum oxide and silicon carbide are the commonly used abrasives in abrasive jet machining
procéss. Silicon carbide is effective for the same application as that of aluminum oxide, but is
preferred only when the workpiece material is very hard. The size of the abrasive particle ranges
from 10-50um,with smaller sizes used for polishing and cleaning, while the larger ones used for
cutting and peening operations. However, the abrasive should be fine enough to remain suspended
in the carrier gas and should have excellent flow characteristics. Re-use of abrasives is not
recommended, since the cutting capacity decreases after the first application, and also the chips
from the workpiece material combine with the abrasives and clog the small orifice in the nozzle.
The mass flow rate of the abrasive particles depends on the pressure and the flow rate of the gas.
Apart from machining, there are certain abrasives like sodium bicarbonate, dolomite, glass beads,
etc., used for cleaning, etching, deburring, and polishing operations.
c) Carrier gas
Air, nitrogen or carbon dioxide is generally usedas a carrier gas. Air, when used must be filtered
toremove moisture, oil and other contaminants before entering the nozzle. The pressure required is
in the range of 2- 8 kglcm. Higher pressure leads to nozzle wear, while lower pressure leads to
low metal removal rate. Hence, gas pressure must be adjusted accordingly.
d) Metering system
The metering system includes mixing chamber, regulator, valves and other devices. The system
must inject a uniform, adjustable flow of abrasive particles into the gas stream. This is accomplished
by apowder hopper (not shown in figure) that feeds into avibrating chamber, which in turn causes
the powder to be metered uniformly into the jet stream. The amplitude of vibration of the mixing
chamber controls the uniform metering of the powder.
3.4 AJM OPERATION

In operation, the filtered gas is supplied under pressure into the mixing chamber containing fine
abrasive particles. The vibrating action of the mixing chamber entrains the abrasive particles into
the jetstream. The abrasive and the gas mixture is then passed into the nozzle through the connecting
 Non Traditional Machinin
24

mixture emerging from the nozzle at a high velocity is directed onto the
hose. The stream of
on the worksurface produce suflicien
worksurface to be machined. The impactof the particlesremoving
or oxides and other surface fims
force to cut a small hole or slot; deburring, trimming worksurface usually occurs due to erosion or
from the worksurface. The metal removal from the worksurface at highspeed.
chipping caused by the abrasive particles impacting the
nozzle is usually mounted on afixture. Either the workpiece or the nozzle is moved by cams.
The the size and shape ofthe cut. Adust hood or
pantographs or other suitable mechanisms to control
keep the operators viewing clear.
vacuum dust collector is used to draw the dust particles and
3.5 PROCESS PARAMETERS (VARIABLES) of AJM
removalrate in AJM process:
The following are the critical parameters that aftect the metal
a) Abrasive flow rate and velocity
rate, because more abrasive
Increase in the flow rate of abrasives,increases the metalremovalexceeds 14 g/min, the abrasive
particles are available for cutting. However, when the flow rate
velocity decrcases, thereby reducing the metalremoval rate.
minimum jet velocity is found to be
For the erosion of the worksurface by the abrasives, the
is a function of the nozzle pressure, nozzle design, abrasive grain size,
150 m/sec. The jet velocity
and the mcan number of abrasivesper unitvolume of the carrier gas.
b) Nozzle tip distance (NTD) or Stand-off-distance (SOD)
The nozzle tip distance refers to the distance between the tip of the nozzle and the worksurface.
removal rate initialy
Figure 3.2 shows the eflect of NTD on metal removalrate. The material acceleration of the
increases with increase in the distance of nozzle from the worksurface due to
abrasive particles leaving the nozzle. The increase is maximum up to a distance of about8mm;
beyond this range, the metal removal rate decreases due to increase in machining area for he
todrag. However,
same amount of abrasives and decrease in velocity ofabrasive particle stream duelarge
for certain machining processes, a NTID above 8 mm proves to be useful, A NTD leads t0
poor accuracy of the machined surface.
10*
x
(g/s)
MRR
Abrasive = Al, O,
Grain size = 40 microns
Work material =Glass
Pressure = 0.03 N/ mm

-NTD (mm)
4 6 8 10

Figure 3.2 Effect ofNTD on MRR

Abrasive Jet & Water Jet Machining 25

Note The nozzle tip distance (NTD) not only affects metal removal rate, but also the shape and
size ofthe cavity produced. Figure 3.3 shows the effect of NTDon the machining accuracy ofthe
work material. Alarge NTD results in the flaring up of the jet: the jet spreads over a wide area
decreasing its intensity and thereby leading to poor accuracy (irregular shape) of the machined
surface.

Nozzle Diameter
NTD of cut (d) Shape of cut
0.75 mm 0.5 mm |d

d
5 mm 0.7 mm
Flaring
abrasive jet

10 mm 1.5 mm

70

Figure 3.3 Effect ofNTD on machining accuracy

c) Abrasive grain size
The size ofthe abrasive grain ranges from 10-50um. An abrasive with larger particle size removes
material faster from the worksurface than with the small particle sizes. Coarse grains are
recommended for cutting, while fine grain abrasives for polishing, deburring, etc.
d) Mean number of abrasive particles per unitvolume of the carrier gas
The mean number ofabrasive particles per unit volume ofthe carrier gas can be obtained from the
mixing ratio M, which is defined as,
volume flow rate of the abrasive per unit time
M=
volume flow rate of the carrier gas per unit time
Alarge value of M
should result in higher rates of metalremoval; however alarge abrasive flow
rate has been found to adversely influence jet velocity and may sometimes even clog the nozzle.
Thus for agiven condition, there is an optimum value of M
that gives maximum metal removal rate.
e) Nozzle design
Since the abrasive particles leave the nozzle at a very high velocity, it is subjected to abrasion wear.
Toovercome this effect, wear resistant materials like tungsten carbide, sapphire, etc., are used for
manufacturing nozzles. Further, the nozzle should be carefully designed so that the pressure loss
due to bends, friction, etc., is minimum. Nozzles may be either circular or rectangular in cross
section with suitable dimensions.
 Non Traditional Machinin.
26
of AJM
PROCESS CAPABILITIES (CHARACTERISTICS)
3.6
Following are a few process capabilities ofAJM process.
a) Metal removal rate (MRR)
rate for AJM is l6 mm³lmin in cutting glass. Aminimum width of abou
Atypical metal removal nozzle with an orifice of0.075x1.5 mm placed at a disan os
0.1mm can be cut using a rectangular
of0.08 mm from the worksurfacc.

b) Accuracy
machining conditions, a tolerance in the region of 0.05 mm can be obtained. and
Under optimum mm.
production work, the tolerance value extends to 0.1
under a normal
c) Surface finish
depends on the abrasive particle
Surface finish ranges from 0.4-1.2 um in most applications,and
size and the material being machined.
taper is around 0.05 mm per 10 num
d) The corner radius obtained is limited to 0.1 mm, while
penetration (metal removal).

3.7 ADVANTAGES, LIMITATIONS & APPLICATIONS of AJM

ofAJM.
Following are a few major advantages, limitations and applications
Advantages
materials.
a) Ability to cut intricate shapes in hard, brittle and heat-sensitive
in
b) No workpiece chatter or vibrations. The large quantity and smallmass of abrasives result
the unifom loading on the part.
c) Low capital cost, and Low power consumption.
Limitations
a) Metal removal rate is low.
b) High impinging velocity of the abrasives result in its embedding in the workpiece.
c) Resilient materials, such as rubber and some plastics resist the chipping action, and thu
cannot be eftectively processed by the process.
d) Abrasives cannot be reused.
e) Short nozzle tip distance (NTD) when used for cutting may damage the nozzle.
Applications
a) Used for machining of brittle:eand heat sensitive materials like glass, quartz. semiconducto
materials, mica etc.
b) Used in drilling holes, cutting slots, deburring, trimming and removing oxides and other sur
films on the workpiece.