Oxford Open Materials Science, 2023, 3(1), itad017

https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfmat/itad017
Advance Access Publication Date: 19 September 2023
Review

Textile architecture for composite materials:

back to basics
1,
Amit Rawal *, Abhijit Majumdar1, Vijay Kumar2
1
Department of Textile and Fibre Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi, India
2
The Swedish School of Textiles, University of Borås, Borås, Sweden

*Correspondence address. Department of Textile and Fibre Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi, India.
Tel/Fax: þ91-11-26591472. E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
In the last several decades, textile-reinforced composites have emerged as a unique class of materials offering intricate features,
reduced fabrication costs, introduced multiaxial reinforcement, and enhanced damaged tolerance. Despite these benefits, textile-
reinforced composites face challenges as predicting their performance often relies on heuristics and past experiences without gain-
ing insights into the underlying structure of the textile material and its constituents. This tutorial-based mini-review aims to delve
into the fundamentals of textile architecture in the context of textile-reinforced composites and provide an overview of their signifi-
cant physical and structural features that influence the performance characteristics of textile-reinforced composites.

Keywords: fiber; braid; knitted; nonwoven; woven; textile-reinforced composites

Introduction This customization serves the dual purpose of obtaining the de-
sired properties of the composite material and facilitating the in-
In the realm of textile innovation, the past decade has witnessed
filtration of the matrix during the forming process. As a result,
an impressive maturation of techniques that have seamlessly in-
the textile-reinforced composites can be designed to fulfill the
tegrated into the development of composite materials.
specifications based on a quantitative description of the entire
Composites comprise one or more discontinuous (reinforcement)
component’s shape, along with its site-specific performance and
phases embedded in a continuous (matrix) phase such that the
functional requirements. The architecture of the textile preform
former is usually stronger than the latter [1]. Therefore, certain
can further be tailored and optimized based on topological
materials are categorized as composites when significant prop-
aspects and a detailed understanding of the properties of the con-
erty changes arise due to the combination of constituents. These
stituent materials [5]. Conventional textile technology allows the
pronounced property changes typically become most apparent in
architecture to be remarkably adaptive, enabling diverse func-
cases where one of the phases takes the form of platelets or
tionalities ranging from hermeticity, controlled transpiration,
fibers, the volume fraction exceeds 10%, and the property of one
pressure vessel containment, and excellent mechanical proper-
constituent greatly surpasses that of the other (5 folds). The ties, to name a few [6]. For instance, the presence of 3D weave
properties of composite materials can be customized to meet spe- architecture can suppress delamination failure, which permits
cific end-use requirements, depending on the composition, proc- the fabrication of very thin (<1 mm) skins, and sustain extreme
essing of components, and forming techniques employed. Over thru-thickness thermal gradients leading to a successful demon-
the past few decades, composites have revolutionized a new par- stration in turbine engine combustor liners, thermal protection
adigm using textile materials, also known as textile-reinforced systems, prototype rocket nozzles, and hypersonic flowpath com-
composites, which currently represent a unique class of fiber- ponents [6].
reinforced polymeric and ceramic composites [2, 3]. While tradi- Similarly, the arrangement of thru-thickness fibers in carbon/
tional composite manufacturing involves manual lay-up of two- carbon (C/C) and carbon/silicon carbide (C/SiC) based needle-
dimensional (2D) laminates to achieve the required shape and punched composites can yield higher delamination resistance,
thickness, textile-reinforced composites use textile preforms as higher interlaminar fracture toughness properties, and have
reinforcement material that can even be produced in three-di- higher interlaminar impact damage tolerance [7]. Although di-
mensional (3D) near-net-shape of the final component using verse applications of textile-based composites can be served
traditional manufacturing processes [4]. This allows direct fabri- based on their in-depth knowledge of their architecture, the pre-
cation of complex parts with minimal manual intervention. The dictive modeling of such materials still relies on heuristics and
structure of textile preforms can be customized to achieve spe- past experiences due to the lack of understanding of their under-
cific structural attributes, such as the pore size distribution, the lying structure. This tutorial-based mini-review aims to explore
fiber volume fraction, and the orientation distribution of fibers. the architectural principles of underlying textile materials. It

Received: July 21, 2023. Revised: August 21, 2023. Accepted: September 11, 2023
C The Author(s) 2023. Published by Oxford University Press.
V
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which
permits unrestricted reuse, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
2 | Oxford Open Materials Science, 2023, Vol. 3, No. 1

offers an overview of their notable physical and structural attrib- shielding [20], oil-water separation [21], ballistic protection [22],
utes that play a crucial role in shaping the performance charac- to name a few. Targeting these applications require an in-depth
teristics of textile-based polymeric and ceramic composites. understanding of the physical and structural features of these
Generally, textile preforms or fabrics are categorized into four textile materials. In certain instances, the textile structure is mis-
main types—woven, knitted, braided, and nonwoven. A woven conceived and ill-defined [8, 21]. For example, a ceramic fiber-
fabric comprises two sets of yarns interlacing orthogonally, creat- based nonwoven has been misinterpreted as a braid due to the
ing a regular and repetitive pattern [8], as illustrated in Fig. 1a. lack of understanding of textile structures [8]. Nevertheless, Fig. 2
On the contrary, knitted fabric is produced by looping a continu- provides an overview of key structural and physical features of
ous length of yarn to create an intermeshed structure (see various textile materials useful for composite applications.
Fig. 1b) [9]. A braid is ‘a flat, round or tubular narrow fabric made Here, we define key structural and physical features of woven,
by intertwining a single set of yarns to form a definite pattern’ knitted, nonwoven, and braid. Although most of the structural
[10] (see Fig. 1c). A nonwoven fabric, on the other hand, is defined and physical features of these textile materials are distinct, a few
as a sheet, web or batt of randomly or preferentially aligned structural commonalities are expressed as mass per unit area,
fibers/filaments bonded by friction and/or cohesion and/or adhe- fabric cover, fiber volume fraction and porosity.
sion [11], as depicted in Fig. 1d. Based on the above definitions, it
is evident that woven, knitted, and braided fabrics exhibit a regu-
lar and ordered geometry. In contrast, nonwoven fabrics possess Woven fabrics
irregular and heterogeneous characteristics. Nevertheless, fibers As aforementioned, woven fabrics are sheet-like structures cre-
are the building blocks of all textile materials. ated through regular and recurring interlacements of longitudi-
The Textile Institute (Manchester) defines fiber as a ‘textile nal (warp) and transverse (weft) yarns. Unlike a polymer sheet,
raw material, generally characterized by flexibility, fineness and woven fabrics demonstrate shear deformation, making them
high ratio of length to thickness’. In other words, fibers refer to suitable for applications requiring mouldability, a key ingredient
the flexible entities of textile materials with a length significantly for a range of composite materials, including integral ceramic
greater than their diameter. It is worth mentioning that fibers of textile structures (ICTSs) [5, 6]. Some of the important structural
limited length are known as staple fibers, whereas those of infi- parameters of woven fabrics are defined below:
nite length are called filaments. A bundle of these fibers or fila-
• Types of weave: It is defined by the interlacement pattern be-
ments is twisted to form spun yarn or continuous filament yarn,
tween the warp and weft yarns. Plain weave creates the firm-
respectively. Fiber or yarn count is the key metric that indicates
est fabric as the yarn float1 is only ‘one’ (see Fig. 3a). In
its fineness and is the relationship of length to weight. Over the
years, the ‘tex’ expressed as linear density has developed into a contrast, twill weaves have floats more than ‘one’ and thus
standardized system for numbering fibers or yarns and is defined possess fewer interlacements than plain weave, as illustrated
as the weight in grams of a strand having a length of 1 km [12– in Fig. 3b . Twill weave offers higher tearing strength in addi-
15]. As textile fibers, yarns, and fabrics are compressible materi- tion to lower bending and shear rigidities than a plain weave.
als, their weight is regarded as a benchmark rather than the area Matt or basket weave is a derivative of plain weave where two
of their cross-section [16]. Consequently, the significance of spe- or more neighboring warp and weft yarns interlace in the
cific stress denoted as ‘N/tex’ (equivalent to MPa/kg/m3) has be- same manner (see Fig. 3c).
• Ends and picks per unit length: The number of warp and weft
come more prevalent in the textile industry, and this unit’s
merits are discussed elsewhere [17]. yarns in the lengthwise and widthwise directions of a woven
Woven, knitted, nonwoven, and braided fabrics have been ex- fabric is expressed by the ends per unit length and picks per
tensively used in a myriad of applications, including composites unit length, respectively. In addition to the yarn’s linear den-
[6, 18], battery separators [19], electromagnetic interference sity, ends per unit length and picks per unit length are the im-
portant construction parameters of woven fabrics. They
determine the mass per unit area and cover of woven fabrics.
• Yarn crimp: It is a measure of waviness present in a yarn inside
the woven fabric. If the length of a straightened yarn unrav-
eled from the fabric and the corresponding length of the fab-
ric are Ly and Lf, respectively, then the crimp (%) is expressed
L L
as yLf f  100.
• Mass per unit area: This is the most commonly used parameter
to define a woven fabric. It implies how heavy or otherwise
the fabric is. If the linear density of warp and weft yarns are t1
tex and t2 tex, respectively; ends per cm and picks per cm are
n1 and n2 respectively; and warp and weft yarn crimp (%) are
c1 and c2 , respectively, then mass per unit area (g/m2) of the
h    i
1 c1 c2
fabric would be 10 n1 t1 1 þ 100 þ n2 t2 1 þ 100 .
• Fabric cover: It is the ratio of the area covered by the yarns
(warp and weft) to the area of a repeating unit of fabric. This
parameter influences all the permeability characteristics of
woven fabrics. If d1 and d2 are the diameters of warp and weft
yarns, respectively, and p1 and p2 are the distance between
the two consecutive warp and weft yarns, respectively, then
Figure 1. Schematic (not scaled to realistic dimensions) depicting the
structure of (a) woven, (b) knitted, (c) braided, (d) nonwoven fabric. the fractional cover of fabric is given by d1 p2 þ d2 p1  d1 d2
p1 p2 .
 Rawal et al. | 3

Figure 2. Overview of key structural and physical features of various textile materials.

Figure 3. Schematics of different weaves (a) plain, (b) 2/1 twill, (c) 2/2 matt or basket. Here the magnified images present the repeat unit.

created by employing two sets of warp yarns—stuffer and binder,

Recently, 3D woven fabrics have been extensively used as re- alongside a single set of weft yarns. Figure 5 depicts various
inforcement in composite materials [23]. These fabrics require structural forms of noninterlaced 3D fabric. In the case of orthog-
three sets of yarns to produce a thick structure offering excel- onal structure, the binder yarns move vertically to bind the
lent thru-thickness properties. To weave a ‘true’ 3D woven fab- stuffer warp and weft yarns. On the other hand, binder yarns are
ric, one set of stuffer warp and two sets of weft (horizontal and aligned at an angle in case of an angle interlock structure. The
vertical) are arranged in multiple layers. The resultant structure movement of binder yarns in orthogonal and angle interlock fab-
produced after the interlacement of warp and weft is shown in rics can be thru-thickness or between the layers of weft, resulting
Fig. 4. in thru-thickness interlocked and layer-by-layer interlocked
In the absence of a real 3D weaving system, a noninterlaced structures, respectively. Important structural parameters of non-
3D fabric structure, also known as a ‘noobed’ configuration, is interlaced 3D fabrics are defined below [23]:
4 | Oxford Open Materials Science, 2023, Vol. 3, No. 1

• Number of layers: It represents the number of stacked layers of high strength and remarkable stiffness. Consequently, these wo-
weft yarns. ven fabrics find practical applications in the aerospace, transpor-
• Binding step: It denotes the number of weft yarns positioned tation, energy, and construction sectors, to name a few [24, 25].
between two interlacing points of the binding warp yarn While woven fabrics offer remarkable mechanical properties, it is
within the same layer. important to highlight knitted fabrics’ notable stretchability and
• Binding depth: It signifies the number of weft yarn layers inter-
formability.
connected by the binding warp yarn.

The 2D woven fabrics possess good drapability along with Knitted fabrics
higher in-plane properties. Conversely, 3D woven fabrics offer Knitted fabrics are manufactured by intermeshing loops, which
improved out-of-plane characteristics owing to the inclusion of
are the building blocks of these structures. In general, they are
yarns in z-direction. Moreover, 3D woven preforms demonstrate
more stretchable and porous than their woven counterparts. The
enhanced tensile, flexural, and compressive stiffness and
important structural parameters of knitted fabrics are defined
strength in comparison to their 2D counterparts. In general, wo-
below:
ven preform-based composites have proven successful in incor-
porating various fibers and matrices, such as carbon-fiber • Loop length: It is the most important structural parameter of
reinforced polymers, glass-epoxy composites, ceramic matrix knitted fabrics and is defined as the length of a straightened
composites, etc. The adaptability of woven fabrics has led to the loop (see Fig. 6).
development of lightweight and heat-resistant structures with

Figure 6. Schematic representing wales, courses in a single jersey knitted

Figure 4. Schematic of a true ‘3D woven fabric’. fabric.

Figure 5. Schematics of noninterlaced 3D fabric structures: (a) orthogonal thru-thickness, (b) orthogonal layer-by-layer, (c) angle interlock thru-
thickness, (d) angle interlock layer-by-layer.
 Rawal et al. | 5

• Wales and courses per unit length: The columns and rows of advantages in terms of excellent processability, formability, rapid
loops in a knitted fabric are known as wales and courses, re- manufacturing of components in complex shapes, and energy
spectively (see Fig. 6). If the loop length is l cm, then the wales absorption characteristics [26, 27]. Typical examples of knitted-
per cm and courses per cm are are Klw and Klc , respectively, preforms-based composites include weft-knitted carbon fiber
where Kw and Kc are the wale and course constants, respec- composites [28], polypropylene/glass weft-knitted composites
tively. [29] and glass/epoxy biaxial weft-knitted reinforced composites
• Types of knitted structure: Knitted fabrics are primarily classified [30]. While knitted fabrics have higher porosity than their woven
as warp and weft knitted structures. Warp-knitted structures counterparts, nonwoven fabrics display substantially greater po-
are produced by simultaneous loop formation using multiple rosity. Such higher levels of porosity aid in the transfer of resin
needles (see Fig. 7), while weft-knitted structures rely on se- during composite fabrication.
quential loop formation by needles fed with the same yarn.
• Stitch density: It is defined as the total number of loops in a
unit area of a knitted fabric. The stitch density can be Nonwoven fabrics
obtained by the product of wales per unit length and courses As aforementioned, the nonwovens are created through a two-step
per unit length. Therefore, the expression for stitch density process—web formation that enables the arrangement of fibers in a
(cm2) is given by, Kwl2Kc : stochastic or nonstochastic manner, and web bonding, which
• Tightness factor: It is the ratio of the area covered by a loop to imparts strength to the fibrous via mechanical, chemical, or ther-
the area of a repeat unit of knitted fabric. It is analogous to mal means. This two-step preparation of nonwoven materials has
the cover of woven fabric. For single jersey knitted fabric, the led to various types: air-laid, spunbonded, meltblown, needle-
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
yarn tex punched, hydroentangled, adhesive bonded, thermally bonded,
expression for tightness factor is given by, l :
stitch bonded, etc. In particular, needlepunched nonwoven materi-
Weft knitted fabrics can have four basic structural forms—single als are extensively used in polymeric and ceramic composites. They
jersey, rib, purl, and interlock. In a single jersey, all the heads of are prepared by utilizing the barbed needles that transport some of
the loops are away from the face side of the fabric, as depicted in the fibers from the surface to the thru-thickness direction resulting
Fig. 6. Rib patterns exhibit a unique appearance where the heads in a 3D structure. A detailed classification of nonwoven fabrics and
of the loops are visible on the face side of the fabric in some of their structural characteristics is given elsewhere [31]. Although
the wale lines, while they appear on the back side for the remain- these nonwoven materials are prepared distinctly, the structural
ing wale lines (see Fig. 8a). When this difference in the appear- commonalities stem from fiber segments, fiber-fiber contacts, and
ance of loop heads arises along the course lines, the resultant irregularly shaped pores, as shown in Fig. 9. Now, we define some of
structure is termed as ‘purl’. Rib fabrics are thicker than single the key structural parameters of nonwoven materials and the
jerseys and are generally reversible. Combining two rib structures details of these parameters are given in our published review [32].
produces an interlock structure (see Fig. 8b), which is less exten- • Fiber orientation: It is defined as the angle formed between the
sible and porous than single jersey and rib structures. tangent to the fiber curl and one of the principal axes, such as
Knitted fabrics generally possess high stretchability and po- the machine (production) or orthogonal to the machine direc-
rosity, lower mechanical properties and low dimensional stability tion. Figure 9a and b shows the orientation of a typical fiber in
compared to their woven counterparts. Nonetheless, they offer two- and three-dimensions by considering the fiber network
as two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D), respec-
tively.2
• Type of fiber-fiber contact: The fiber-fiber contacts are classified
as shown below.
(a) Frictional contacts: Such fiber-fiber contacts are created
due to the entanglement of fibers in a nonwoven material.
For instance, in a needlepunched nonwoven material, the
fiber-fiber contacts are established by friction.
(b) Fused contacts: These types of fiber-fiber contacts are
formed due to the melting or rubbery behavior of the ther-
moplastic material. A thermally bonded nonwoven mate-
rial is a typical example that comprises fused fiber
networks.

Figure 7. Schematic of a typical warp-knitted structure. Figure 8. Schematics of (a) rib (b) interlock knitted structures.
6 | Oxford Open Materials Science, 2023, Vol. 3, No. 1

Figure 9. A representative image of a nonwoven material depicting key morphological parameters in two and three dimensions. Here, the magnified
images show the determination of fiber orientation in (a) 2D and (b) 3D fiber networks. Fiber-fiber contacts form typical pore (shown with a red color
circle) with diameter dp in (c) 2D and (d) 3D fiber networks. A typical spherical pore passing through the tortuous layers of fiber networks demonstrates
the influence of tortuosity in nonwoven material. Here, D is the fiber diameter, / is the in-plane orientation angle of the fiber, Le is the actual length of
the flow path, T is the straight length or thickness of the material, h is the out-of-plane orientation angle formed with the Z-axis, and v is the angle
formed between the axes of two fibers [32]. Reproduced with permission [32] Copyright 2019, Elsevier.

(c) Hydrogen bonding: Acidified water, commonly used in the The fiber volume fraction (Vf ) is related to the mass per unit
wet laying nonwoven process, can facilitate the formation area (m), thickness (T), and fiber density (qf ) using a simple re-
m
of such bonds by allowing the tetrahedral molecules of sil- lation, i.e., Vf ¼ Tq .
f

icon dioxide to create hydroxyl groups. As a result, hydro- • Porosity: It refers to the ratio of the volume occupied by pores

gen bonds are formed between the glass fibers, enhancing in a given volume of the nonwoven material. Apparently, the
their cohesion characteristics. The readers are referred to porosity (e) of nonwoven is given by, e ¼ 1  Vf .
• Pore size distribution: As aforementioned, nonwoven materials
reference [33] for other types of fiber-fiber contacts.
• Mean distance between the fiber-fiber contacts: This is defined as are made up of fibers arranged in irregular arrays, resulting in
the average distance between the two adjacent contacts pores within the structure that have varying dimensions.
formed on a given fiber. In contrast to regular structures where Typically, pore size is determined based on the maximum di-
the distance between fiber-fiber contacts is uniform, nonwoven ameter of a spherical object that can pass through the pore.
Thus, the pore size distribution is defined as the frequency
materials have varying distances between such contacts.
distribution of pore sizes expressed in terms of their spherical
Accordingly, the mean distance between the contacts has to be
diameters (see Fig. 9c).
determined via measurable parameters—fiber volume fraction,
• Tortuosity: It refers to the ratio between the length of the ac-
fiber orientation distribution, and fiber diameter [31].
tual flow path (Le ) and the straight length or thickness of the
• Fiber volume fraction: It refers to the ratio of the volume occu-
material (T), i.e., s¼ LTe (see Fig. 9d).
pied by fibers in a defined volume of the nonwoven material.
 Rawal et al. | 7

Nonwoven preforms find interest due to the possibility for 3D

preforming and the ability to engineer the directional mechanical
properties, rapid processing, and greater production rate [34, 35].
Typical examples of nonwoven-preform-based composites in-
clude flax/ polylactic acid (PLA) composites [36], flax/epoxy com-
posites [37], Jute/PLA composites [38] and ceramic matrix
composites [39]. Nonwoven preforms are generally characterized
as soft, voluminous, and porous textile materials with relatively
lower stiffness and strength than their woven and braided coun-
terparts.

Braided fabrics
A braid is defined as a narrow tubular or flat fabric produced by
intertwining three or more yarns so that their paths are not par-
allel to the braid axis [40]. Some of the key parameters that char-
acterize braids are discussed below.
• Braid type: The intertwining of yarns in a braid resembles the
interlacements of ribbons formed in the Maypole dance. This
leads to a tubular structure where the individual yarns follow Figure 10. Schematic of (a) biaxial braid, (b) triaxial braid, (c) diamond
trellis as a structural repeat unit of a typical braided structure
helical paths, creating interlacements between them. On the characterized by plait spacing, h, line spacing, w, and the braid angle, a,
other hand, a flat braid has a ribbon-like appearance and is (d) mean braid radius, R ð¼ Rin þ dÞ. Here Rin and d are the radius of the
similar to a tubular braid. However, in a flat braid, each yarn inner layer of the braid and single yarn thickness, respectively.
follows a zig-zag path from side to side while interlacing with
other yarns [40]. The mechanical properties of braids can be Although we have discussed some of the advantages and limi-
predicted by investigating the synergistic deformation behav- tations of different preforms (fabrics), they are summarized and
ior of both twisted yarns and square woven fabrics [41]. listed in Table 1. While a brief overview of the classification of
Accordingly, these braids can exhibit diamond (1/1 repeat), textile materials and the key set of parameters governing their
regular (2/2 repeat), and Hercules (3/3 repeat) weave patterns performance characteristics has been presented, a new class of
analogous to woven fabrics. Braids are generally classified as polymeric and ceramic composites emerges due to advanced 3D
2D and 3D structures, similar to woven fabrics. Tubular and textile structures catering to the cutting-edge applications [6, 51].
flat braids belong to the category of 2D braids, and the de- Since composites are heterogeneous at all length scales, under-
tailed classification of 3D braids is given elsewhere [42]. standing ensemble properties remains a complex issue that can
Braids can also be categorized in the form of biaxial and triax- be partially resolved by gaining insights into the textile structures
ial braids. Both types consist of two sets of yarns arranged in and their preparation routes.
clockwise and counter-clockwise directions, but triaxial
braids also feature an additional set of axial yarns placed in
the direction of the braid axis [41], as illustrated in Fig. 10a Conclusions and outlook
and b. Nevertheless, the diamond trellis is a structural repeat In summary, we have provided a brief overview of the classifica-
unit of any braid (Fig. 10c) tion of textile materials and defined a key set of parameters that
• Braid angle: It refers to the angle measured between the braid
influence the performance characteristics of textile-reinforced
and constituent yarn axes (see Fig. 10c) [41]. composites. This overview justifies the significance of the struc-
• Plait and line spacings: The spacing of one repeat measured
ture of textile materials, and incorporating them as a mere rein-
along and across the braid axis is defined by plait and line forcement for composite applications would not be a viable
spacings, respectively (see Fig. 10c) [40, 43].
solution. Advanced textiles are poised to shape the future of
• Mean braid radius or diameter: The braid comprises two inter-
textile-reinforced composite applications. Such a paradigm shift
twined layers, and the mean braid radius is the sum of the
can only be attained in tandem collaboration between textile en-
distance from the geometric center-line of the inner layer of
gineering and composite manufacturing, profoundly driven by
the braid and single yarn thickness, as depicted in Fig. 10d.
like-minded researchers, scientists, designers, and engineers.
The mean braid diameter of the braid is twice that of the
Anticipated advancements in textile production, achieved
mean radius.
through the integration and automation of weaving, braiding,
Braided preforms possess higher delamination resistance, im- and 3D printing techniques, are poised to generate complex
pact damage tolerance, and less sensitivity to notch [44]. textile-reinforced composites with enhanced precision and effi-
Additionally, they entail a straightforward and cost-effective pro- ciency. These innovations are expected to minimize material
cess for creating intricate near-net shapes, rendering them suit- waste and elevate the properties of these composites. Future
able for scaling up. Typical examples of braided-preform-based endeavors of sustainability and circularity within textile-
composites include braided composite pressure vessels [45], sili- reinforced composites involve developing bio-based fibers and
con carbide (SiC)-fiber reinforced SiC-matrix nuclear fuel clad- modeling advanced textile structures for precision and use of
ding [46] and braided carbon fiber-reinforced poly ether ether eco-friendly resins, which will eventually reduce the environ-
ketone (PEEK) composites for bone fixations [47]. mental impact of manufacturing and end-of-life disposal.
8 | Oxford Open Materials Science, 2023, Vol. 3, No. 1

Table 1. Summary of advantages and limitations of different textile preforms for composite applications

Type Advantages Limitations

Woven preforms • Possess high strength and dimensional stabil- • 2D woven preforms possess low transverse and
ity. out-of-plane properties.
• 2D woven preforms possess better in-plane • Compared to 2D woven preforms, 3D woven
properties and drapability. preforms possess lower in-plane properties and
• 3D woven preforms possess improved out-of- poor drapability.
plane properties and robust structures with • Limited tailorability for off-axis properties.
high interlaminar strength and damage toler-
ance.
• Possibility to produce near-net shapes with ap-
propriate weft insertion methods and jacquard
mechanisms.
Nonwoven preforms • Possess high porosity, which facilitates resin • Possess relatively lower stiffness performance
transfer during the composite fabrication pro- and strength.
cess. • Usually possess lower fiber volume fraction
• Direct fiber preforming of nonwoven preforms than usually required for structural compo-
allows production with minimum waste and sites.
high repeatability.
Braided preforms • Possess excellent shear resistance, and high • Maximum preform size is determined by the
strength and stability characteristics with in- machine size.
creased resistance to impact damage.
• Offer a good balance in off-axis properties.
• Can be produced in near-net shapes for com-
plex components with varying cross-sections.
Knitted preforms • Possess stretchability, drapability, and form- • Lower in-plane stiffness and strength.
ability. • Extensible and unstable structure.
• Can be fabricated in complex shapes and vari- • Loop structure can lead to distortion during the
able widths. composite fabrication process.
• Quick and easy change of yarn during
manufacturing.

Adapted from [48–50].

CRediT authorship contribution statement for Composites’ (co-funded by the European Union. Grant
Agreement no. 101079009 Call: HORIZON-WIDERA-2021-
The authors declare that they do not have any known financial
ACCESS-03/Twinning. Acronym: SustDesignTex) for financially
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
supporting this work.
influence the work reported in this paper.

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