Elementary Vector Calculus

Introduction
 A physical quantity having magnitude and direction is called vector.
 For example, displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, electric and
magnetic field, etc.
 A vector is represented by an arrow whose length is proportional to its
magnitude and the direction of the arrow representing its direction.
 A vector having unit magnitude is called unit vector. If any vector 𝐴 is of
𝐴
magnitude 𝐴, then the unit vector is represented by 𝑎 = .
𝐴
 A vector which has a linear motion in a particular direction and
changes its sign under inversion or reflection is called a polar vector.
 A vector corresponding to the rotation about a certain axis is called an
axial vector.

2
 Introduction
 Any vector can be resolved into component vectors along the three
axes of the Cartesian coordinate system. If 𝑖, 𝑗 & 𝑘 be the unit vectors
along 𝑥, 𝑦 & 𝑧 axes and 𝐴𝑥 , 𝐴𝑦 & 𝐴𝑧 be the components of vector 𝐴
along 𝑥 , 𝑦 & 𝑧 axes respectively then 𝐴 = 𝑖𝐴𝑥 + 𝑗𝐴𝑦 + 𝑘𝐴𝑧 . Also,
𝐴= 𝐴 = 𝐴2𝑥 + 𝐴2𝑦 + 𝐴2𝑧 .
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧
 Unit vector along 𝐴 is 𝑎 = = 𝑖 𝑥 +𝑗 +𝑘 .
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧
 = cos 𝛼 = 𝑙, = cos 𝛽 = 𝑚 and = cos 𝛾 = 𝑛 are called direction
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
cosine of vector 𝐴.
 𝑙 2 + 𝑚2 + 𝑛2 = cos 2 𝛼 + cos 2 𝛽 + cos 2 𝛾 = 1, i.e., the sum of squares of
the directional cosines is equal to unity.

3
 Scalar or Dot Product
 The scalar or dot product of two vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵 is defined as the product
of their individual magnitudes 𝐴 & 𝐵 multiplied by the cosine of the angle
𝜃 between them, i.e., 𝐴 ∙ 𝐵 = 𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃.
 The product is not a vector, it is a scalar, hence called scalar product. Also it
is represented by dot sign ∙ , hence the name dot product.
 If two vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵 are perpendicular to each other then, we must have
𝐴 ∙ 𝐵 = 𝐴𝐵 cos 90° = 0.
 If 𝐴 = 𝑖𝐴𝑥 + 𝑗𝐴𝑦 + 𝑘𝐴𝑧 and 𝐵 = 𝑖𝐵𝑥 + 𝑗𝐵𝑦 + 𝑘𝐵𝑧 , then
𝐴 ∙ 𝐵 = 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑧

 Magnitude of a vector 𝐴 is evaluated as 𝐴 = 𝐴2𝑥 + 𝐴2𝑦 + 𝐴2𝑧 = 𝐴 ∙ 𝐴.

4
 Vector or Cross Product
 The vector or cross product of two vectors 𝐴 & 𝐵 is defined as a vector
whose magnitude is equal to the product of their individual magnitudes
𝐴 & 𝐵 multiplied by the sine of the angle 𝜃 between them and its
direction is perpendicular to the plane containing them following the right
hand rule. If their cross product be 𝐶 , then 𝐶 = 𝐴 × 𝐵 = 𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜃 𝑛, where 𝑛
is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane containing 𝐴 and 𝐵.
 The product is a vector, hence called vector product. Also it is represented
by cross sign × , hence the name cross product.
 If two vectors are parallel or anti-parallel, then 𝐴 × 𝐵 = 𝐴𝐵 sin 0° 𝑛 = 0.
 If 𝐴 = 𝑖𝐴𝑥 + 𝑗𝐴𝑦 + 𝑘𝐴𝑧 and 𝐵 = 𝑖𝐵𝑥 + 𝑗𝐵𝑦 + 𝑘𝐵𝑧 , then
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
𝐴 × 𝐵 = 𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧
𝐵𝑥 𝐵𝑦 𝐵𝑧

5
 Triple Product of Vectors
 Consider three vectors 𝐴, 𝐵 & 𝐶 . If the product of any two of these
vectors is also a vector, then the product vector can also be multiplied
with the third vector. This is called triple product of vectors.
 If the final product is a scalar, then it is called scalar triple product,
i.e., 𝐴 ∙ 𝐵 × 𝐶 .
 Scalar triple product is represented by
𝐴𝐵𝐶 =𝐴∙ 𝐵×𝐶 =𝐵∙ 𝐶×𝐴 =𝐶∙ 𝐴×𝐵
 If 𝐴 = 𝑖𝐴𝑥 + 𝑗𝐴𝑦 + 𝑘𝐴𝑧 , 𝐵 = 𝑖𝐵𝑥 + 𝑗𝐵𝑦 + 𝑘𝐵𝑧 and 𝐶 = 𝑖𝐶𝑥 + 𝑗𝐶𝑦 + 𝑘𝐶𝑧 ,
then their scalar triple product is given by
𝐴 𝑥 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧
𝐴 ∙ 𝐵 × 𝐶 = 𝐵𝑥 𝐵𝑦 𝐵𝑧
𝐶𝑥 𝐶𝑦 𝐶𝑧

6
 Triple Product of Vectors
 If the final product is vector, then it is called vector triple product, i.e.,
𝐴× 𝐵×𝐶 .
 Vector triple product is given by
𝐴× 𝐵×𝐶 =𝐵 𝐴∙𝐶 −𝐶 𝐴∙𝐵
 If 𝐴, 𝐵 & 𝐶 represent the three sides of a parallelepiped, then volume
of the parallelepiped is equal to the scalar triple product of them, i.e.,
𝑉 = 𝐴𝐵𝐶 .
 Three vectors 𝐴, 𝐵 & 𝐶 are coplanar if 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 = 0.

7
 Vector Differential Operator
 Vector differential operator is defined as
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇≡𝑖 +𝑗 +𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
 It is also called the DEL operator.
 This vector operator possesses properties analogous to those of ordinary
vectors.
 This operator produces a vector when operated on a scalar.
 This operator produces a scalar for dot operation with a vector.
 This operator produces a vector for cross operation with a vector.

8
 Gradient of a Scalar
 Let 𝜙 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 be a well defined scalar function and differentiable at all points
𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 in space.
 The gradient of the scalar function 𝜙, is defined as
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙
∇𝜙 = 𝑖 +𝑗 +𝑘 𝜙=𝑖 +𝑗 +𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
 As gradient has both magnitude and direction, hence it represents a vector.
 According to the theory of partial derivatives, any change in 𝜙 due to any
change in position is given by
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙
𝑑𝜙 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖 +𝑗 +𝑘 ∙ 𝑖 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑗 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑘 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
∴ 𝑑𝜙 = ∇𝜙 ∙ 𝑑𝑟
where 𝑑𝑟 = 𝑖 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑗 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑘 𝑑𝑧 is the infinitesimal displacement vector

9
 Gradient of a Scalar
 The change 𝑑𝜙 in 𝜙 due to the infinitesimal displacement vector 𝑑𝑟, is
maximum when the angle between ∇𝜙 and 𝑑𝑟 is zero, i.e.,
𝑑𝜙
= ∇𝜙
𝑑𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑥
 So, for fixed distance ‘𝑑𝑟’, 𝑑𝜙 is greater, if we move in the direction of ∇𝜙.
 So, we conclude that the gradient of a scalar function is a vector whose
magnitude is equal to the maximum rate of change of the scalar function and
direction is along that change.

10
 Directional Derivative
 Suppose 𝜙 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 be a well defined scalar function and differentiable at all
points 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 in space and 𝑎 be a unit vector along a specific direction.
 The directional derivative of 𝜙 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 is the rate at which the function
𝜙 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 changes at a point 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 in the direction of 𝑎.
 The directional derivative of 𝜙 along 𝑎 is determined as the component of
∇𝜙 along 𝑎, i.e., ∇𝜙 ∙ 𝑎.
 As ∇𝜙 ∙ 𝑎 ≤ ∇𝜙 , hence, gradient of 𝜙 is equal to the largest directional
derivative of 𝜙.

11
 Divergence of a Vector
 Let 𝐴 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑖𝐴𝑥 + 𝑗𝐴𝑦 + 𝑘𝐴𝑧 be a well defined vector function and
differentiable at all points 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 in space.
 The divergence of the vector function 𝐴, written as ∇ ∙ 𝐴, is defined as
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑧
∇∙𝐴= 𝑖 +𝑗 +𝑘 ∙ 𝑖 𝐴𝑥 + 𝑗 𝐴𝑦 + 𝑘 𝐴𝑧 = + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
 Divergence of a vector is the measure of how much of the vector spreads out
(i.e., diverges) from the point in question.
 Positive value of divergence of a vector at a point indicates a net outflow and
the point is called a source. Negative value of divergence of a vector at a
point indicates a net inflow and the point is called sink.
 If the value of divergence of a vector at a point is zero ∇ ∙ 𝐴 = 0 , then it
indicates no spreading at all and the vector is called solenoidal.
 For fluid motion the total flux of the fluid per unit volume per unit time is
equal to 𝛻 ∙ 𝑣, where 𝑣 is the vector associated with the fluid motion.
12
 Curl of a Vector
 Let 𝐴 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑖𝐴𝑥 + 𝑗𝐴𝑦 + 𝑘𝐴𝑧 be a well defined vector function and
differentiable at all points 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 in space.
 The curl of the vector function 𝐴, written as ∇ × 𝐴, is defined as
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇×𝐴 = 𝑖 +𝑗 +𝑘 × 𝑖𝐴𝑥 + 𝑗𝐴𝑦 + 𝑘 𝐴𝑧 =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧

𝜕𝐴𝑧 𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝜕𝐴𝑧 𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑥

∇×𝐴 =𝑖 − +𝑗 − +𝑘 −
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
 Curl is a measure of how much the vector ‘curl around’ the point in question.
 If curl of a vector exists at a point, then the vector rotates around that point.
 The direction of the curl is the axis of rotation and the magnitude of the curl
is the magnitude of rotation.
 If the curl of vector is zero ∇ × 𝐴 = 0 , then the vector has no rotational
motion and the vector is called irrotational.
13
 Some Important Relations
𝜕2 𝜙 𝜕2 𝜙 𝜕2 𝜙
 𝛻 ∙ 𝛻𝜙 = 𝛻2𝜙 = + +
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2

 𝛻 × 𝛻𝜙 = 0

 𝛻∙ 𝛻×𝐴 =0

 𝛻 × 𝛻 × 𝐴 = 𝛻 𝛻 ∙ 𝐴 − 𝛻2𝐴

14
 Vector Integration
 If 𝑅 𝑢 = 𝑅𝑥 𝑢 𝑖 + 𝑅𝑦 𝑢 𝑗 + 𝑅𝑧 𝑢 𝑘 be a vector depending on single
scalar variable 𝑢, then the indefinite integral of 𝑅 𝑢 is defined as

𝑅 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑖 𝑅𝑥 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑗 𝑅𝑦 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑘 𝑅𝑧 𝑢 𝑑𝑢

𝑑
 If there exist a vector 𝑆 𝑢 such that 𝑅 𝑢 = 𝑆 𝑢 , then
𝑑𝑢
𝑑
𝑅 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑆 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑆 𝑢 + 𝑐
𝑑𝑢
where 𝑐 is an arbitrary constant vector independent of 𝑢.
 The definite integral between 𝑢 = 𝑎 and 𝑢 = 𝑏 can be written as
𝑏
𝑏
𝑅 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑆 𝑢 + 𝑐 𝑎
=𝑆 𝑏 −𝑆 𝑎
𝑎

15
 Line Integral
 Let 𝑟 = 𝑥 𝑖 + 𝑦 𝑗 + 𝑧 𝑘 , be the position vector of the point 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 on a curve 𝐶
joining two points 𝑃1 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 and 𝑃2 𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 .
 If 𝐴 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑖𝐴𝑥 + 𝑗𝐴𝑦 + 𝑘 𝐴𝑧 , be a well defined vector function of position
and continuous along 𝐶, then line integral of 𝐴 along 𝐶 from 𝑃1 to 𝑃2 , is
𝑃2

𝐴 ∙ 𝑑𝑟 = 𝐴 ∙ 𝑑𝑟 = 𝐴𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑑𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑑𝑧
𝐶 𝐶
𝑃1
 If 𝐶 is a closed curve, the integral around 𝐶 is denoted by

𝐴 ∙ 𝑑𝑟 = 𝐴𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑑𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑑𝑧
𝐶 𝐶
 If the line integral depends only on the initial and final points in the vector field
and is independent of path then the vector field is said to be conservative field.

𝐴 ∙ 𝑑𝑟 = 0
𝐶

16
 Surface Integral
 Let 𝑆 be an arbitrary surface and at any point 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 the unit normal is 𝑛.
Around the point consider an elementary surface area 𝑑𝑆, so that associated
elementary vector area is 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑖 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑗 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑘 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 around
the point. If 𝐴 = 𝑖𝐴𝑥 + 𝑗𝐴𝑦 + 𝑘𝐴𝑧 be a vector function, then surface
integral of 𝐴 over 𝑆 is

𝐴 ∙ 𝑑𝑆 = 𝐴 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = 𝐴𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑆 𝑆 𝑆
 If the surface 𝑆 is closed, then the surface integral is denoted by

𝐴 ∙ 𝑑𝑆 = 𝐴𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑆 𝑆
 This surface integral of 𝐴 is called the flux of 𝐴 over the surface 𝑆.

17
 Volume Integral
 Consider a closed surface in space enclosing a volume 𝑉. If an elementary
volume element in 𝑉 be 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 and 𝐴 = 𝑖𝐴𝑥 + 𝑗𝐴𝑦 + 𝑘𝐴𝑧 be a
single valued continuous vector function in 𝑉, then volume integral of 𝐴 over
𝑉 is

𝐴 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑖𝐴𝑥 + 𝑗𝐴𝑦 + 𝑘𝐴𝑧 𝑑𝑉

𝑉 𝑉

𝐴 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑖 𝐴𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑗 𝐴𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑘 𝐴𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉

18
 Stokes’ Theorem
 If 𝑆 is an open, two-sided surface bounded by a closed, non-intersecting
curve 𝐶 traversed in the positive direction and 𝐴 is a vector having
continuous derivatives then according to Stokes’ Theorem

𝐴 ∙ 𝑑𝑟 = ∇ × 𝐴 ∙ 𝑑𝑆 = ∇ × 𝐴 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝑆
𝐶
𝑆 𝑆
 The physical significance of Stokes’ theorem is that the circulation of a vector
field 𝐴 around a closed path 𝐶 is equal to the flux of vorticity of the field
through the surface 𝑆 bounded by 𝐶. Curl is the measure of rotation of a vector.
The flux of curl of a vector through a surface can be evaluated from the line
integral of the vector around the closed path that bounds the surface.

19
 Consequence of Stokes’ Theorem
 For a conservative field 𝐹 , according to Stokes’ theorem

𝐹 ∙ 𝑑𝑟 = ∇ × 𝐹 ∙ 𝑑𝑆 = 0
𝐶
𝑆
 This is only possible if ∇ × 𝐹 = 0, i.e., if the curl of a vector is zero, then it
must be conservative.
 As curl of gradient is always zero hence, for conservative field we must have
a scalar function 𝜙 such that 𝐹 = ∇𝜙.
 The scalar function 𝜙 is called the potential function of the field 𝐹 .

20
 Gauss’ Divergence Theorem
 If volume 𝑉 is bounded by a closed surface 𝑆 and 𝐴 has continuous
derivatives in 𝑉, then according to Gauss’ Divergence Theorem

𝐴 ∙ 𝑑𝑆 = 𝐴 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = ∇ ∙ 𝐴 𝑑𝑉
𝑆 𝑆 𝑉
 The physical significance of Gauss’ divergence theorem is that surface
integral of a vector 𝐴 over the closed surface is the net amount of flow across
the boundary. Volume integral of the divergence of the vector 𝐴 is the source
or sink inside the volume. Thus divergence theorem is a conservation
law which states that the total of all sinks and sources of material in the
volume is equal to the net flow across the volume's boundary.

21
 Consequence of Gauss’ Theorem
 For a solenoidal field 𝐴, we have ∇ ∙ 𝐴 = 0.
 Hence, according to divergence theorem flux of a solenoidal field 𝐴 will be

𝐴 ∙ 𝑑𝑆 = ∇ ∙ 𝐴 𝑑𝑉 = 0
𝑆 𝑉
 Thus we conclude that the flux of a solenoidal vector is zero.

22
 Green’s Theorem in the Plane
 If 𝑅 is a closed region in the 𝑥𝑦-plane bounded by a simple closed
curve 𝐶 and if 𝑀 and 𝑁 are continuous functions of 𝑥 and 𝑦 having
continuous derivatives in 𝑅, then according to Green’s Theorem in the
plane

𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀
𝑀 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁 𝑑𝑦 = − 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝐶 𝑅
 Green’s Theorem in the plane is a special case of Stokes’ theorem.
 Gauss’ divergence theorem is a generalization of Green’s Theorem in
the plane where the region (plane) 𝑅 and its closed boundary (curve) 𝐶
are replaced by a region (space) 𝑉 and its closed boundary (surface) 𝑆.
For this reason, the divergence theorem is often referred as Green’s
theorem in space.

23
 Green’s Theorem in the Plane
 Consider a closed path 𝐶 in the 𝑥𝑦-plane that bound an area 𝑑𝑆.
 The unit normal to the 𝑥𝑦-plane is 𝑘 and hence, 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑘.
 In the 𝑥𝑦-plane, a vector 𝐴 = 𝑀 𝑖 + 𝑁 𝑗 and a displacement vector
𝑑𝑟 = 𝑖 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑗 𝑑𝑦 can be defined, such that
𝐴 ∙ 𝑑𝑟 = 𝑀 𝑖 + 𝑁 𝑗 ∙ 𝑖 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑗 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑀 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁 𝑑𝑦
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀
∇×𝐴= =− 𝑖+ 𝑗 + − 𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝑀 𝑁 0
 Thus, Stokes’ theorem can be written as

𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀
𝐴 ∙ 𝑑𝑟 = 𝛻 × 𝐴 ∙ 𝑑𝑆 ≡ 𝑀 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁 𝑑𝑦 = − 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝐶 𝑅 𝐶 𝑅
 So, Green’s theorem in the plane is a special case of Stokes’ theorem.
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 Green’s Theorem in the Plane
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
 Again, 𝑀 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁 𝑑𝑦 = 𝐴 ∙ 𝑑𝑟 = 𝐴 ∙ 𝑑𝑆 = 𝐴 ∙ 𝑇 𝑑𝑆, where 𝑇 = is unit
𝑑𝑆 𝑑𝑆
tangent vector to 𝐶.
 If 𝑛 is the out ward drawn unit normal to 𝐶, then 𝑇 = 𝑘 × 𝑛, so that
𝑀 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁 𝑑𝑦 = 𝐴 ∙ 𝑇 𝑑𝑆 = 𝐴 ∙ 𝑘 × 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = 𝐴 × 𝑘 ∙ 𝑛𝑑𝑆
 Thus, a vector 𝐵 can be defined such that
𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀
𝐵 = 𝐴 × 𝑘 = 𝑁 𝑖 − 𝑀 𝑗 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − =𝛻∙𝐵
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
 Thus, Green’s theorem in the plane can be written as

𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀
𝑀 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁 𝑑𝑦 = − 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 ≡ 𝐵 ∙ 𝑛𝑑𝑆 = 𝛻 ∙ 𝐵 𝑑𝑅
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝐶 𝑅 𝐶 𝑅
 So, generalization of Green’s Theorem in the plane where arc length
𝑑𝑆 in curve 𝐶 is replaced by surface area 𝑑𝑆 in surface 𝑆 and plane
surface 𝑅 enclosed by 𝐶 is replaced by volume 𝑉 enclosed by surface 𝑆,
to Gauss’ divergence theorem.
25
 Coordinate System
For solving three-dimensional problems, we
require different types of coordinate systems
for different types of problem symmetry.
The most widely used coordinate systems are –
Rectangular Cartesian Coordinate System
Spherical Coordinate System
Cylindrical Coordinate System

26
 Curvilinear Coordinate System
 A coordinate system is composed of intersecting surfaces.
 The point of intersection of all these surfaces is the origin of the coordinate
system.
 The space curves formed by their intersection in pairs are the coordinate
curves.
 The tangents to the coordinate curves at the origin are the axis of the
coordinate system.
 The unit vectors along these tangents are the unit vectors of the coordinate
system.
 This type of coordinate system is referred as the curvilinear coordinate
system.
 If the coordinate curves of a curvilinear coordinate system intersect at right
angles, then it is referred as the orthogonal curvilinear coordinate system.
 Cartesian, spherical and cylindrical coordinate systems are the most
common examples of orthogonal curvilinear coordinate system.

27
 Curvilinear Coordinate System
 Consider, three curved surfaces
represented by- 𝑢1 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑐1 ,
𝑢2 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑐2 and 𝑢3 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑐3
(where- 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 and 𝑐3 are constants).
 The corresponding coordinate curves
are 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 and 𝑢3 .
 The point of intersection of all these
surfaces is at 𝑃. Hence, 𝑃 is the origin
of the curvilinear coordinate system.
 If there exist some unique relation
between 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 and 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 so
that 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 ,
𝑦 = 𝑦 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 and 𝑧=
𝑧 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 . Then, if 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 is an
orthogonal curvilinear coordinate set,
then 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 will also be an
orthogonal curvilinear coordinate set.
28
 Curvilinear Coordinate System
 Let 𝑟 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑥 𝑖 + 𝑦 𝑗 + 𝑧 𝑘 be the position vector of a point 𝑃 in 𝑥𝑦𝑧
coordinate system.
𝜕𝑟
 A tangent vector to the 𝑢1 -curve at 𝑃 is with 𝑢2 and 𝑢3 being constant.
𝜕𝑢1
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟
 Then a unit tangent vector along this is 𝑒1 = so that
𝜕𝑢1 𝜕𝑢1
𝝏𝒓 𝝏𝒓
= 𝒉𝟏 𝒆𝟏 where 𝒉𝟏 = .
𝝏𝒖𝟏 𝝏𝒖𝟏
 Similarly, 𝑒2 and 𝑒3 are unit tangent vectors to 𝑢2 and 𝑢3 curves at 𝑃
respectively, then
𝝏𝒓 𝝏𝒓 𝝏𝒓 𝝏𝒓
= 𝒉𝟐 𝒆𝟐 and = 𝒉𝟑 𝒆𝟑 where 𝒉𝟐 = and 𝒉𝟑 = .
𝝏𝒖𝟐 𝝏𝒖𝟑 𝝏𝒖𝟐 𝝏𝒖𝟑
 The quantities ℎ1 , ℎ2 and ℎ3 are called the scale factors. 𝑒 is a unit vector in
the increasing direction of 𝑢.
 For an orthogonal curvilinear coordinate, one must have
𝒆𝟏 ∙ 𝒆𝟏 = 𝒆𝟐 ∙ 𝒆𝟐 = 𝒆𝟑 ∙ 𝒆𝟑 = 𝟏 and
𝒆𝟏 ∙ 𝒆𝟐 = 𝒆𝟐 ∙ 𝒆𝟑 = 𝒆𝟑 ∙ 𝒆𝟏 = 𝒆𝟐 ∙ 𝒆𝟏 = 𝒆𝟑 ∙ 𝒆𝟐 = 𝒆𝟏 ∙ 𝒆𝟑 = 𝟎.
29
 Differential
 Let the position vector of a point in the orthogonal curvilinear coordinate
system is 𝑟 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 with respect to origin 𝑃.
 The infinitesimal line element in the orthogonal curvilinear coordinate
system is
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟
𝑑𝑟 = 𝑑𝑢1 + 𝑑𝑢2 + 𝑑𝑢3 = ℎ1 𝑑𝑢1 𝑒1 + ℎ2 𝑑𝑢2 𝑒2 + ℎ3 𝑑𝑢3 𝑒3
𝜕𝑢1 𝜕𝑢2 𝜕𝑢1
 Differential arc lengths along 𝑒1 , 𝑒2 and 𝑒3 are ℎ1 𝑑𝑢1 , ℎ2 𝑑𝑢2 and ℎ3 𝑑𝑢3
respectively.
 The infinitesimal volume element in the orthogonal curvilinear coordinate
system is
𝑑𝑉 = ℎ1 𝑑𝑢1 𝑒1 ∙ ℎ2 𝑑𝑢2 𝑒2 × ℎ3 𝑑𝑢3 𝑒3 = ℎ1 ℎ2 ℎ3 𝑑𝑢1 𝑑𝑢2 𝑑𝑢3

30
 Jacobian
 Suppose 𝐹 is a vector function whose first-order partial derivatives
exist for each point in 𝑥𝑦𝑧 coordinate system. To change the function
from 𝑥𝑦𝑧 coordinate system to another orthogonal curvilinear
coordinate system 𝑢1 𝑢2 𝑢3 , the function 𝐹 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 takes a point in the
𝑥𝑦𝑧 coordinate system as input and produces the vector 𝐹 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3
as output.
 The Jacobian, denoted by 𝐽, of 𝐹 is defined to be a 3 × 3 matrix as
𝝏𝑭𝒙 𝝏𝑭𝒙 𝝏𝑭𝒙
𝝏𝒖𝟏 𝝏𝒖𝟐 𝝏𝒖𝟑
𝝏𝑭𝒚 𝝏𝑭𝒚 𝝏𝑭𝒚 𝝏 𝑭𝒙 , 𝑭𝒚 , 𝑭𝒛
𝑱= =
𝝏𝒖𝟏 𝝏𝒖𝟐 𝝏𝒖𝟑 𝝏 𝒖𝟏 , 𝒖𝟐 , 𝒖𝟑
𝝏𝑭𝒛 𝝏𝑭𝒛 𝝏𝑭𝒛
𝝏𝒖𝟏 𝝏𝒖𝟐 𝝏𝒖𝟑
such that 𝒅𝑭 𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛 = 𝑱 𝒅𝑭 𝒖𝟏 , 𝒖𝟐 , 𝒖𝟑 .
31
 Jacobian
 The Jacobian represents the volume depicted by the rows of the
matrix viewed as vectors.
 Volume here is taken in the general sense and does not depend
on the dimensionality (in 1D, volume=length, in 2D,
volume=area, in 3D, volume=actual 3D volume).
 Thus, here, the Jacobian represents the transformation of one
volume unit from one coordinate space to another.

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 Jacobian
 The expressions of gradient, divergence, curl and Laplacian in
orthogonal curvilinear coordinate system 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 , are
1 𝜕𝜓 1 𝜕𝜓 1 𝜕𝜓
∇𝜓 = 𝑒 + 𝑒 + 𝑒
ℎ1 𝜕𝑢1 1 ℎ2 𝜕𝑢2 2 ℎ3 𝜕𝑢3 3

1 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇∙𝐴 = × ℎ ℎ 𝐴 + ℎ ℎ 𝐴 + ℎ ℎ 𝐴
ℎ1 ℎ2 ℎ3 𝜕𝑢1 2 3 𝑥 𝜕𝑢2 3 1 𝑦 𝜕𝑢3 1 2 𝑧

ℎ1 𝑒1 ℎ2 𝑒2 ℎ3 𝑒3
1 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇×𝐴 = ×
ℎ1 ℎ2 ℎ3 𝜕𝑢1 𝜕𝑢2 𝜕𝑢3
ℎ1 𝐴𝑥 ℎ2 𝐴𝑦 ℎ3 𝐴𝑧

2 1 𝜕 ℎ2 ℎ3 𝜕𝜓 𝜕 ℎ3 ℎ1 𝜕𝜓 𝜕 ℎ1 ℎ2 𝜕𝜓
∇ 𝜓= × + +
ℎ1 ℎ2 ℎ3 𝜕𝑢1 ℎ1 𝜕𝑢1 𝜕𝑢2 ℎ2 𝜕𝑢2 𝜕𝑢3 ℎ3 𝜕𝑢3

33