Précis Writing

Definition:
Précis writing is the art of summarizing a passage or a text by conveying its essential points
in a concise and clear manner, without altering the original meaning. The goal is to retain the
core idea and tone while significantly reducing the length of the text.

Key Features of a Good Précis:

1. Clarity: The précis should clearly communicate the main ideas of the original
passage.
2. Conciseness: It should be much shorter than the original passage, usually about one-
third of the length.
3. Coherence: The précis should flow logically, connecting ideas smoothly and
maintaining the structure of the original.
4. Objectivity: The précis should not include any personal opinions, interpretations, or
commentary. It must strictly reflect the author's viewpoint.
5. Completeness: Even though it’s a condensed version, a précis should contain all the
essential points of the original text.

Steps for Writing a Précis

1. Read the Passage Thoroughly:

o Read the passage multiple times to fully understand its meaning, tone, and
main ideas.
o Identify the thesis or central theme of the text and the key supporting points.
2. Underline or Note the Key Points:
o As you read, underline important ideas, arguments, or facts that are crucial to
the overall message.
o Pay attention to the introduction and conclusion, as they often contain the
main idea.
3. Outline the Main Idea:
o Once you've identified the key points, organize them in a logical order to
ensure the flow of the passage is maintained.
4. Start Writing the Précis:
o Begin by stating the main idea or thesis of the original passage. Make sure to
use clear and simple language.
o Use your own words to convey the key points while keeping the length as
short as possible.
5. Avoid Personal Interpretation:
 o The goal is to reflect the original text, not to analyze or critique it.
o Use neutral language and avoid inserting personal opinions or altering the tone
of the text.
6. Revise and Edit:
o After writing, review your précis to ensure it accurately reflects the original
passage.
o Check for clarity, grammatical errors, and ensure that unnecessary details are
omitted.

Guidelines for Précis Writing

1. Length:
The length of the précis should be approximately one-third of the original passage.
Ensure you focus only on the most important aspects.
2. Use Third Person:
Always use third-person narration, even if the original passage is written in the first
person.
o Example: If the original text says, “I believe that education is the most
important factor for progress,” you would write: “The author believes that
education is the most important factor for progress.”
3. Use of Language:
The language used in a précis should be simple, formal, and concise. Avoid flowery
expressions or complex sentence structures.
4. Main Ideas:
Only include the main ideas, facts, or arguments presented in the original passage.
Subordinate or minor details should be omitted.
5. Maintain the Author's Tone:
Keep the tone of the original passage, whether it is critical, persuasive, informative, or
descriptive.

Example of Précis Writing

Original Passage:

"With the increasing emphasis on technology in education, many educators worry that
students are losing touch with the basics of learning. While it’s true that technology offers
innovative ways of engaging students and making lessons more interactive, it also leads to
over-reliance on gadgets. Students are now more focused on using their phones and
computers than understanding core concepts. Furthermore, the habit of constantly referring to
search engines for answers has diminished their critical thinking skills. While there is no
doubt that technology has a place in modern education, it is essential to strike a balance
between tech use and traditional methods of learning. Teachers must guide students in using
technology appropriately, ensuring that it complements rather than replaces fundamental
learning."

Précis:

The author expresses concern that while technology enhances education by making lessons
interactive, it has led to an over-reliance on gadgets. Students focus more on devices than
grasping core concepts, and their critical thinking suffers due to frequent dependence on
search engines. Although technology is important, a balance between it and traditional
learning is necessary. Teachers should ensure that technology supplements rather than
replaces essential learning.

Another Example:

Original Passage:

"Climate change is one of the greatest challenges facing humanity today. Rising
temperatures, melting glaciers, and more frequent extreme weather events are just a few of
the many consequences. The world's governments have been slow to respond to the growing
crisis, despite overwhelming evidence from scientists. There is a pressing need for concerted
global action to reduce carbon emissions, switch to renewable energy sources, and mitigate
the effects of climate change. Without significant efforts, future generations will face even
more severe environmental, economic, and social repercussions. It is critical that leaders and
citizens alike recognize the urgency of the situation and work towards sustainable solutions."

Précis:

The passage highlights climate change as a critical challenge, marked by rising temperatures
and extreme weather. Despite scientific evidence, global governments have been slow to act.
The author stresses the need for coordinated efforts to reduce carbon emissions, embrace
renewable energy, and mitigate climate change. Failure to act will lead to severe
consequences for future generations.

Do’s and Don’ts of Précis Writing

Do’s:

 Be clear and concise.

 Stick to the original meaning and tone of the passage.
 Include all essential points.
 Write in your own words without adding personal opinions.
 Maintain coherence and logical flow.
Don’ts:

 Don't insert any personal comments or interpretations.

 Avoid using the exact phrases or sentences from the original passage.
 Don’t include unnecessary details or examples that are not critical to the main point.
 Don't exceed one-third of the original length.

Practice Exercise

Original Passage:

"The importance of water to life on Earth cannot be overstated. Every living organism
requires water to survive, and it plays a critical role in maintaining the health of ecosystems.
Water helps regulate the Earth's temperature, enables plants to photosynthesize, and supports
a wide range of biological processes. However, water scarcity is becoming an increasingly
serious issue due to factors like overuse, pollution, and climate change. Many regions are
experiencing droughts, and freshwater sources are becoming contaminated, leading to a crisis
that could have devastating consequences for both the environment and human societies."

Literary Appreciation: A Comprehensive Guide

Definition:
Literary appreciation refers to the critical evaluation, analysis, and enjoyment of a literary
work. It involves understanding the deeper meanings, themes, techniques, and stylistic
choices made by the author. Through literary appreciation, readers engage with texts not just
for pleasure but for deeper understanding, recognizing the artistry behind the words.

Key Elements of Literary Appreciation

1. Theme:
The central idea or underlying message of the work. It is what the author wants to
convey through the story, poem, or play.
o Example: In George Orwell’s Animal Farm, the theme of power and corruption is
explored through the actions of the animals and their transformation into tyrants.
2. Plot:
The sequence of events in the literary work. It includes the exposition, rising action,
climax, falling action, and resolution.
 o Example: In William Shakespeare’s Macbeth, the plot follows Macbeth’s journey
from a nobleman to a tyrannical king and his eventual downfall due to his ambition.
3. Characters:
The individuals in the story, poem, or play who drive the narrative forward.
Characterization refers to how the author develops these individuals, whether they are
flat, round, static, or dynamic.

o Example: In Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice, Elizabeth Bennet is a dynamic

character who grows and changes, especially in her views about Darcy and her
understanding of love and pride.
4. Setting:
The time and place where the events of the literary work occur. It helps establish the
atmosphere and context for the story.

o Example: The setting of Emily Brontë’s Wuthering Heights plays a vital role in
reflecting the emotional and moral atmosphere, with the wild moors symbolizing
the passionate and often destructive relationships.
5. Point of View:
The perspective from which the story is told. It can be first-person, second-person, or
third-person, with variations like omniscient or limited.

o Example: In F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby, the story is narrated by Nick
Carraway in the first person, giving readers a subjective view of Gatsby’s life.
6. Tone:
The author’s attitude toward the subject or the audience, reflected through the choice
of words and style. Tone can be serious, humorous, ironic, or any other attitude
conveyed through the text.

o Example: The tone in Jonathan Swift’s A Modest Proposal is satirical, as Swift mocks
the British government’s treatment of the Irish through a mock-serious suggestion
of solving famine by eating children.
7. Style:
The distinctive way in which an author writes. It encompasses sentence structure,
diction, figurative language, and literary devices.

o Example: Ernest Hemingway is known for his minimalist style, with short sentences
and an emphasis on dialogue. This can be seen in his work The Old Man and the Sea.
8. Symbolism:
The use of symbols to represent abstract ideas or concepts. A symbol can be a person,
object, situation, or action that carries deeper meaning.

o Example: In Nathaniel Hawthorne’s The Scarlet Letter, the scarlet letter “A”
symbolizes adultery, shame, and sin, but it also evolves to represent strength and
resilience.
 9. Imagery:
The use of descriptive language to create vivid pictures in the reader’s mind, often
appealing to the senses (sight, sound, touch, taste, smell).

o Example: In John Keats’ poem Ode to a Nightingale, rich imagery is used: “The
murmurous haunt of flies on summer eves” creates a vivid sensory experience.
10. Literary Devices:
Literary techniques or tools used by writers to enhance their work. Some common
devices include metaphors, similes, personification, and irony.

o Example: In Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet, the metaphor “Juliet is the sun”
compares Juliet to the warmth and light of the sun, emphasizing her importance to
Romeo.

Analyzing Different Literary Forms

1. Poetry:

Poetry is a form of literary expression that uses rhythmic and aesthetic qualities of language
to evoke emotions and meanings. To appreciate poetry, readers should focus on the
following:

a. Form and Structure:

The arrangement of lines, stanzas, rhyme scheme, and meter.

 Example: The Shakespearean sonnet consists of 14 lines, written in iambic pentameter with
the rhyme scheme ABABCDCDEFEFGG.

b. Sound Devices:
Tools like alliteration, assonance, consonance, rhyme, and rhythm that affect the musicality
of the poem.

 Example: In Edgar Allan Poe’s The Raven, repetition of the word “Nevermore” creates a
haunting and rhythmic effect.

c. Figurative Language:
Language that goes beyond the literal meaning to create deeper meanings through metaphors,
similes, and personification.

 Example: In Robert Frost’s The Road Not Taken, the roads are a metaphor for life’s choices.

d. Theme and Tone:

The central idea or message of the poem and the poet’s attitude toward the subject.

 Example: In Maya Angelou’s Still I Rise, the theme of resilience and empowerment is
conveyed with a defiant and triumphant tone.
2. Prose (Fiction):

Prose is the ordinary form of written language without a formal metrical structure, usually in
the form of novels, short stories, or essays. When analyzing prose, readers should focus on:

a. Plot and Structure:

How the story unfolds, including the conflict, climax, and resolution.

 Example: In Charles Dickens’ A Tale of Two Cities, the plot follows the French Revolution and
the personal stories of its characters, culminating in Sydney Carton’s self-sacrifice.

b. Characterization:
The development of characters through actions, dialogue, and thoughts.

 Example: In Mark Twain’s The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, Huck’s growth from a boy
influenced by society’s prejudices to someone who rejects racism shows strong character
development.

c. Setting and Atmosphere:

How time and place contribute to the mood of the story.

 Example: The oppressive and decaying setting in The Fall of the House of Usher by Edgar
Allan Poe enhances the Gothic atmosphere of horror and dread.

3. Drama:

Drama is a genre of literature intended for performance. It includes plays with dialogues and
actions that bring characters to life. Literary appreciation of drama involves understanding:

a. Dialogue and Monologue:

How characters communicate and express their inner thoughts.

 Example: In Shakespeare’s Hamlet, Hamlet’s soliloquies, especially “To be or not to be,”

reveal his internal conflict and philosophical musings about life and death.

b. Stage Directions:
Instructions in the text of the play, indicating movement, emotion, or setting.

 Example: In A Doll’s House by Henrik Ibsen, stage directions describe Nora’s actions to
emphasize her emotional state and transformation.

c. Conflict:
The central struggle between characters, forces, or within a character.

 Example: In Arthur Miller’s The Crucible, the conflict between individual morality and public
hysteria drives the narrative.
Approach to Literary Appreciation

1. Close Reading:
o Pay attention to each word, sentence, and paragraph to capture the nuances of the
text. Close reading helps to discover patterns, symbols, and themes that may not be
immediately obvious.
2. Contextual Understanding:

o Consider the historical, cultural, or social context in which the work was written.
Knowing the background can enhance understanding and appreciation.
o Example: Charles Dickens’ Hard Times reflects the industrialization era in England
and critiques the mechanization of education and society.
3. Literary Criticism:

o Engage with different schools of literary criticism (e.g., formalist, Marxist, feminist)
to view the text from multiple perspectives.
o Example: A feminist reading of Charlotte Brontë’s Jane Eyre highlights themes of
gender inequality and female empowerment.
4. Comparative Analysis:

o Compare the work with others of the same genre, time period, or by the same
author to deepen appreciation.
o Example: Comparing Shakespeare’s Othello with his other tragedies like Macbeth or
Hamlet can highlight common themes of ambition, betrayal, and downfall.

Example of Literary Appreciation

Poem: “The Road Not Taken” by Robert Frost

Theme:
The poem explores the theme of choices and the impact they have on one’s life. The speaker
reflects on the choice between two roads, which metaphorically represent life’s decisions.

Tone:
The tone of the poem is contemplative and introspective, as the speaker ponders the
consequences of his decision.

Symbolism:
The “two roads” symbolize the different paths or choices one can take in life. The choice of
road represents the decisions we make and how they shape our future.

Imagery:
Frost uses vivid imagery to describe the roads: “Two roads diverged
UNIT 4

Linguistics: Introduction, Scope, Branches, and Basic Concepts

Introduction to Linguistics

Definition:
Linguistics is the scientific study of language and its structure. It involves analyzing language
form, language meaning, and language in context. Linguists traditionally analyze human
language by observing an interplay of sound (phonetics, phonology), meaning (semantics),
and structure (syntax).

Language is central to human interaction, culture, and cognition, making linguistics a vital
field in understanding how we communicate.

Scope of Linguistics

The scope of linguistics is vast and includes a variety of subfields and areas of study. The
primary areas include:

1. Theoretical Linguistics: Focuses on developing models to describe the nature of

language knowledge, its underlying structure, and universal principles.
o Examples:
 Syntax (the rules governing sentence structure).
 Phonology (the study of sound systems).
2. Applied Linguistics: Concerned with practical applications of linguistic theories in
areas such as language teaching, translation, and language policy.

o Examples:
 Teaching English as a second language (TESL).
 Machine translation and natural language processing (NLP).
3. Sociolinguistics: Studies the relationship between language and society, including
how language varies based on social factors like region, class, or gender.

o Examples:
 Dialects and social registers.
  Code-switching (the practice of alternating between two or more languages
or dialects in conversation).
4. Psycholinguistics: Examines how language is processed in the brain, including
language acquisition and comprehension.

o Examples:
 How children acquire their first language.
 How bilinguals process and switch between two languages.
5. Historical Linguistics: Deals with the history and development of languages over
time, including the study of language families and how languages evolve.

o Examples:
 The evolution of Latin into the Romance languages (Spanish, French, Italian).
 Language change, such as the Great Vowel Shift in English.

Branches of Linguistics

1. Phonetics: The study of the sounds of human speech. Phonetics deals with the
physical production and perception of speech sounds.
o Types of Phonetics:

 Articulatory Phonetics: How sounds are produced by the vocal organs.

 Acoustic Phonetics: The physical properties of speech sounds, such as
frequency and amplitude.
 Auditory Phonetics: How speech sounds are perceived by the ear.
o Example:
The sounds /p/ and /b/ differ in voicing, with /p/ being voiceless and /b/ being
voiced.

2. Phonology: The study of how sounds function within a particular language or

languages. Phonology focuses on the abstract, cognitive aspects of sounds.

o Example:
In English, /t/ in "top" and "stop" is pronounced differently, but these differences
are not meaningful contrasts in English.
3. Morphology: The study of the structure of words and the rules for word formation.
Morphology looks at how morphemes (the smallest units of meaning) are combined to
form words.

o Example:
The word “unhappiness” consists of three morphemes: "un-" (a prefix), "happy" (a
root), and "-ness" (a suffix).
 4. Syntax: The study of sentence structure. Syntax looks at how words are arranged to
form grammatically correct sentences.

o Example:
In English, the standard word order is Subject-Verb-Object (SVO), as in "She (S) reads
(V) books (O)."
5. Semantics: The study of meaning in language. Semantics explores how words and
sentences convey meaning.

o Example:
The sentence "John kicked the bucket" has two meanings: a literal meaning (John
actually kicked a bucket) and an idiomatic meaning (John died).
6. Pragmatics: The study of how context influences the interpretation of meaning.
Pragmatics looks at how speakers use language in social interactions.

o Example:
If someone says, "Can you pass the salt?" at the dinner table, it is understood as a
request rather than a question about ability.

Some Basic Concepts in Linguistics

1. Competence vs. Performance:

o Competence refers to the knowledge of language that a speaker possesses.
o Performance refers to the actual use of language in real situations.

Example:
A native speaker of English has the competence to form grammatically correct
sentences, even if they occasionally make mistakes in performance (e.g., slips of the
tongue).

2. Langue vs. Parole (Ferdinand de Saussure):

o Langue refers to the abstract, systematic rules and conventions of a language (the
system).
o Parole refers to the actual speech acts or instances of language use (the individual
utterances).

Example:
Langue is the grammar rules that govern how sentences should be formed, while
parole is the actual sentence someone might say in conversation.

3. Signifier and Signified (Saussure’s Theory of Signs):

o Signifier: The form that a word takes (the actual sound or word).
o Signified: The concept or meaning that the word represents.

Example:
The word “tree” (signifier) represents the concept of a tree (signified).
 4. Phoneme vs. Allophone:
o Phoneme: The smallest unit of sound that can distinguish meaning in a language.
o Allophone: Variations of a phoneme that do not change the meaning of a word.

Example:
In English, the sounds [p] in "pin" and "spin" are allophones of the phoneme /p/
because they are pronounced differently depending on their position but don’t change
the word’s meaning.

5. Descriptive vs. Prescriptive Grammar:

o Descriptive Grammar: Describes how language is actually used by speakers without
judging its correctness.
o Prescriptive Grammar: Dictates how language should be used according to
established norms and rules.

Example:
Descriptive grammar would note that many English speakers say "gonna" instead of
"going to," while prescriptive grammar would label "gonna" as incorrect.

Examples and Case Studies

1. Phonology Example (English Phonemes): In English, the sounds /t/ and /d/ are
distinct phonemes, as demonstrated by the words "ten" and "den," which differ in
meaning due to the initial sound.
2. Morphology Example (Word Formation): Consider the word "unbelievable":

o "un-" (prefix meaning 'not'),

o "believe" (root word),
o "-able" (suffix meaning 'able to be').

The word means "not able to be believed."

3. Syntax Example (Sentence Structure): In English, the sentence "The cat chased the
mouse" follows the SVO (Subject-Verb-Object) structure. In contrast, in Japanese, the
standard word order is SOV (Subject-Object-Verb), so the same sentence would be
structured as "The cat the mouse chased."
4. Semantics Example (Polysemy): The word "bank" can refer to both a financial
institution and the side of a river. This is an example of polysemy, where a single
word has multiple related meanings.

5. Pragmatics Example (Speech Acts): When a teacher says, "Can we focus, please?"
in a classroom, the statement is not just a question but also a request for the students
to pay attention, illustrating how context alters the interpretation of meaning.
Conclusion

Linguistics is a comprehensive field that covers everything from the sounds we produce
(phonetics and phonology) to the way we construct sentences (syntax) and the meanings
behind words (semantics and pragmatics). Understanding the different branches and concepts
in linguistics helps in analyzing how language works, evolves, and is used in human
communication.

Unit 5

Syllable Structure, Supra-segmental Features, General Indian English (GIE),

Phonemic Transcription, and Morphology and Syntax in English

1. Syllable Structure

A syllable is a basic unit of speech sound and can be considered as the building block of
words. It generally consists of a vowel sound, often accompanied by consonants.

Parts of a Syllable:
1. Onset: The consonant(s) that come before the vowel. For example, in the word “bat,” the
/b/ is the onset.
2. Nucleus: The central part of a syllable, typically a vowel. Every syllable must have a nucleus.
In the word “bat,” /æ/ is the nucleus.
3. Coda: The consonant(s) that come after the vowel. In “bat,” the /t/ is the coda.

 Example:
o Word: “bat” → Onset: /b/, Nucleus: /æ/, Coda: /t/

Syllable Types:
1. Open syllables: Syllables that end in a vowel. For example, "he" (/h/ + /i:/).
2. Closed syllables: Syllables that end in a consonant. For example, "bat" (/b/ + /æ/ + /t/).

Syllable Structure in English:

 Syllables in English can be represented as (C)V(C), where:
o C = Consonant

o V = Vowel
This means syllables can have an onset, a vowel as the nucleus, and optionally, a coda.

Example of English Syllable Structures:

 CV: "me" (/m/ + /i:/)

 CVC: "cat" (/k/ + /æ/ + /t/)
 CCV: "tree" (/t/ + /r/ + /i:/)
 CVCC: "mask" (/m/ + /æ/ + /s/ + /k/)

2. Supra-segmental Features

Supra-segmental features, also known as prosodic features, go beyond individual sounds

(segments) and deal with larger units such as syllables, words, or phrases. They are critical in
determining meaning and interpretation in spoken language.

Key Supra-segmental Features:

1. Stress:
o Definition: Stress refers to the emphasis placed on certain syllables in words or on
words in sentences.
o Example:
 In “record” (noun), the stress is on the first syllable (/ˈrɛkɔːd/).
 In “record” (verb), the stress is on the second syllable (/rɪˈkɔːd/).
2. Intonation:

o Definition: Intonation is the variation of pitch when speaking. It can affect the
meaning of a sentence and convey emotions or emphasis.
o Types:
 Rising intonation: Often used in yes/no questions (e.g., "Are you coming?").
 Falling intonation: Common in declarative statements (e.g., "He is
coming.").
3. Pitch:

o Definition: The degree of highness or lowness of a tone. In speech, pitch can be used
to distinguish between statements and questions.
o Example: "She’s going." (falling pitch implies a statement) vs. "She’s going?" (rising
pitch implies a question).
4. Rhythm:
 o Definition: Rhythm in language refers to the pattern of sounds, especially the
alternation between stressed and unstressed syllables.
o Example: English is a stress-timed language, meaning stressed syllables occur at
regular intervals, with unstressed syllables compressed in between.
5. Tone:

o Definition: Tone refers to the pitch used on individual syllables, especially in tonal
languages like Chinese. In English, tone can be used to show mood or politeness.

3. General Indian English (GIE)

General Indian English (GIE) refers to the standardized form of English spoken by
educated speakers across India. It is distinct from the regional varieties and shows features
that differ from native varieties such as British or American English.

Phonological Features of GIE:

1. Consonant Sounds:
o Many Indian languages lack the /v/ and /w/ distinction. As a result, in GIE, /v/
and /w/ may be pronounced the same (e.g., “vine” and “wine” may sound
identical).

o Retroflex Sounds: Indian speakers may retroflex certain consonants,

especially /t/ and /d/, where the tongue curls back in the mouth, a feature
common in Indian languages.

2. Vowel Sounds:

o Indian English often lacks the schwa sound /ə/ found in native English varieties.
Words like "sofa" (/ˈsoʊfə/) may be pronounced with a full vowel (e.g., /ˈsoʊfa:/).
3. Stress Patterns:

o GIE often shows a more syllable-timed rhythm (where each syllable takes roughly
the same time) compared to the stress-timed rhythm of British or American English.
4. Example:

o The word "vegetable" in GIE is typically pronounced with stress on the second
syllable (/ˌvɛʤɪˈtæbəl/), while in British English, the stress is on the first syllable
(/ˈvɛʤtəbl/).

4. Phonemic Transcription
Phonemic transcription involves writing down speech sounds in terms of phonemes, the
smallest units of sound that can differentiate meaning. Phonemes are typically represented
using the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).

Phonemic Symbols for English:

1. Vowels:
o /iː/ as in “see” [siː]
o /ɪ/ as in “sit” [sɪt]
o /ʊ/ as in “put” [pʊt]
o /uː/ as in “blue” [bluː]
o /e/ as in “bed” [bed]
o /æ/ as in “cat” [kæt]
o /ɑː/ as in “car” [kɑː]

2. Consonants:

o /p/ as in “pat” [pæt]

o /b/ as in “bat” [bæt]
o /t/ as in “tap” [tæp]
o /d/ as in “dip” [dɪp]
o /k/ as in “cat” [kæt]
o /g/ as in “go” [ɡəʊ]

Example of Phonemic Transcription:

 Word: “cat”
 Transcription: /kæt/

 Word: “ship”

 Transcription: /ʃɪp/

Phonemic transcription provides a consistent way to write down speech sounds regardless of
accent or dialect.

5. Morphology

Morphology is the branch of linguistics that deals with the structure of words and the rules
for word formation.
Morpheme:
 A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning in a language. Morphemes can be free
(standing alone) or bound (attached to other morphemes).

1. Free Morphemes:
o Can stand alone as words.
o Example: “book,” “run,” “happy.”
2. Bound Morphemes:
o Must be attached to a free morpheme.
o Example: “-s” in “books,” “-ed” in “played,” “un-” in “unhappy.”

Types of Morphemes:

1. Derivational Morphemes:
o Used to create new words or change the grammatical category of a word.
o Example: “happy” (adjective) → “happiness” (noun), “act” (verb) → “actor” (noun).

2. Inflectional Morphemes:

o Indicate grammatical relationships such as tense, number, possession, or

comparison without changing the word class.
o Example: “walk” → “walks” (third person singular), “big” → “bigger” (comparative).

6. Word Formation Processes in English

1. Affixation:
o Prefixation: Adding a morpheme to the beginning of a word.
 Example: “un-” + “happy” = “unhappy.”
o Suffixation: Adding a morpheme to the end of a word.
 Example: “play” + “-ful” = “playful.”
2. Compounding:

o Combining two or more free morphemes to form a new word.

o Example: “blackboard” (black + board), “sunflower” (sun + flower).

3. **Conversion

4o