TOPIC TWO

BASIC C O M P U T E R HARDWARE

2.1 Introduction

Having learned about what a computer is in topic 1 and its history as well as the
various types of computers. It is now important for us to have a glimpse inside a
standard desktop computer. This topic introduces you the parts of a computer, also
called the computer system. It explores the computer hardware besides mentioning
the types. After which you will be walked through each type of hardware in details.
The topic has eight sections namely:

1) The basic computer organization, I/O, processor, memory and buses

2) Introduction to computer hard ware
3) Input devices and criteria for selection
4) Processing devices, CPU functions and components
5) Primary memory and types
6) Secondary memory output devices storage devices

2.2 Objectives
At the end of the chapter the learner shall be able to;
1) Explain the different hardware units of a computer system such as
input, output, Central Processing Unit (CPU), main memory and secondary
storage.
2) Explain how the different units of a computer interact witch each other
to give the user output.
3) Explain how information is stored in a computer
4) Explain the different storage units of a computer such as byte, kilobyte,
megabyte, gigabyte and terabyte.

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Activity 1

a). In groups of three discuss amongst yourselves what a system is?

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b) What is a computer system?

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c) Explain what you understand by the term computer hardware

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Topic Overview
You will notice that in order to respond to any of the above questions, you have to
have known what a computer is and its various parts. However, there are very many
parts of a computer and this topic is designed to help you understand them. Let us
now go through each section for better understanding.

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2.3 Basic Computer System
As you saw in topic 1, computers come in many types, from the tiny computers built
into household appliances, to the astounding super computers that have helped
scientists map the human genome. But no matter how big it is or how it is used every
computer is part of a system. A complete computer system consists of four parts,
namely;

Hardware: These are the mechanical devices of a computer, identified as the physical
or tangible parts of a computer. Computers hardware consists of interconnected
electronic devices that you can use to control the computers operations, input and
output.

Software: This is a set of instructions that makes the computer to perform various
tasks, they are mainly the intangible parts of a computer.

Data: Data consists of individual facts or pieces of information that by themselves may
not make sense to the person. A computers primary job is to process these tiny pieces
of data in various ways, converting them into useful information.

Firmware: These are the computer users

2.3.1 Information Processing Cycle

Using all the parts named above together, a computer converts data into information
by performing various actions on the data. These operations are part of a process
called the ‘information processing cycle, which is a set of steps the computer follows
to receive data, process the data according to instructions from a program, display
the resulting information to the user and store the results.

Basic Computer System Interaction

The information processing cycle has four parts as shown above, and each part
involves one or more specific components of the computer:

Input: During this part of the cycle the computer accepts data from some source, such
as the user or program for processing.

Processing: During this part of the cycle, the computers processing components
perform actions on the data, based on instructions from the user or program.

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Output: Here the computer may be required to display the results of its processing.
The computer also can send output to a printer or transfer the output to another
computer through a network or the internet. Output is an optional step in the
information processing cycle but may be ordered by the user or program.

Storage: In this step, the computer permanently stores the results of its processing on
a disk, tape, or some other kind of storage medium. As with output, storage is
optional and may not always be required by the user or program.

2.4 Computer Hardware

Computer hardware refers to the physical components of a computer such as the
monitor, Keyboard, Mouse, system unit etc. shown in the diagram below.

Physical Computer System

The physical parts of a computer system are called hardware and any device
connected to and under the control of the CPU is called peripheral device. The
computer hardware is divided into the input devices, output devices, processing
devices and storage devices.

We shall now discuss each group.

Activity 1
Mention various parts of the computer that you think make up input devices.

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2.4.1 Input Devices
A personal computer would be useless if you could not interact with it because the
machine could not receive instructions or deliver the results of its work. Devices can
be directly connected to a computer and under its control, in which case they are on-
line, or else separate from the computer, in which case they are off-line. Input devices
accept data and instructions from the user or from another computer system. There
are various types of input devices and these include:

2.4.1.1Keying Devices
These are devices that allow data entry into the computer by pressing a set of keys.
Keying devices are an indispensable accessory for a computer. One of the most basic
input devices is the keying devices, which are used in navigation, execution of
processes, programming and several other purposes. Several software based
application directly derive their existence from a keying device. For instance, social
networking websites, programming languages, navigation over the computer menus
etc. utilize a keying device.

The best example here is the keyboard.

It’s used to type data into the computer. It has special keys for giving the computer
commands called command or function keys. Data are typically entered through
keyboards and displayed on the screens, VDT and PC users welcome improvements
in these interface components. Features that make keyboards easier to use and more
comfortable to use are:

Figure 1: Keyboard

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Function keys

Some keyboards have less than 60 keys, while others add dozens more. Some of these
extra keys carry labels to indicate the types of function they perform. For example,
HOME and END keys allow users to move instantly to the beginning or end of a
stored document, ARROW keys move the screen pointer up, down, left, and right, the
PAGE UP and PAGE DOWN keys allows users to move through a stored document
a page at a time, the INSERT and DELETE keys permit users to add and erase stored
characters, and the PRINT SCREEN key can be used to produce a printed copy of the
information displayed on the screen. Other function keys are merely stamped F1, F2,
and F3 and so on, and are used in many different ways by the programs being run.
For example, a word processing program can use the F8 key to underline text, and the
F9 key to designate that the text should be printed in bold typeface. As long as this
word processing is being used, these keys will always perform the same functions.
But different software will program the same keys to perform other functions.
Numeric keypads: A row of numeric keys appears near the top of almost all
keyboards. But many VDT and pc units also include a separate numeric keypad.
These keys are arranged like those on a calculator to permit rapid entry of numeric
data. Apart from digits, the numeric keypad has some mathematical symbols.

Special keys: These are a set of keys on the keyboard that perform specific functions.

Alphabet keys: Is a combination of keys on the keyboard, made up of the alphabetical

letters, marked on them in capital form? When you press that particular key, the lower
case alphabet is shown on the monitor. The letters are not in the alphabetical order. Apart
from the 26 letters, punctuation marks are also a part of the alphabet.

Navigational keys: Also known as the arrow keys they enable the user to move within
the document they are working on.

Numeric Keys: These are keys marked with the digits 0 to 9 and are used to type
numeric data.

2.4.1.2 Document Readers

Another input device that is of importance to the user and which we should discuss is the
document reader. A document reader is a device which can read data directly from the
source documents. Documents can come in different shapes and sizes.

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Examples include a bank cheque, a multiple choice question paper, and electricity
meter reader form. There are many types of documents readers which include:

2.4.1.2.1Optical Character Recognition (OCR)

Optical character recognition (OCR) requires its own specially shaped characters. The
shapes of these characters permit easy recognition by OCR reading devices. An
Optical Character Reader can recognize characters from their shape. The OCR
techniques were primarily designed for manual, not mechanical, input of data. OCR
has the advantage of not requiring special inks as in MICR to be discussed latter. One
of the original uses of OCR was in educational and psychological testing. It let
researcher’s code data they derived from their projects. With OCR reading devices,
this data could be input to a computer for processing. Optical character recognition
eliminates the delay and effort of converting this data to punch cards. Test data was
input directly from the source document.

Optical character recognition is also used in other fields. The New York State Motor
Vehicle Bureau uses OCR in its renewal of car registration and drivers’ licenses. The
renewal of magazine subscriptions is selectively accomplished through the use of
OCR. One of the newer uses of OCR – supported devices is in Sales. Tags carry OCR
characters, and when an item is purchased, the sales tag is read by a device called a
point-of –sale (POS) terminal. The POS terminal serves as a cash register, terminal,
and OCR reading device.

Discuss areas in real life where we can use the OCR What are the advantages
and disadvantages of the OCR.

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2.4.1.2.2 Optical Mark Reader (OMR)
Next we discuss the Optical Mark Reader; the OMR is a system of reading marks or
lines which have been made in exactly the right positions on a card or document. It
allows the direct transfer of data from source document to computer. Information is
collected on a pre- printed OMR form by marking predetermined positions with
a pencil or a pen to indicate each selected response. Large volumes of data can be
collected quickly and easily without the need for specially trained staff. A device
called an optical mark reader converts the marks into computer readable data. The
reader detects the presence (or absence) of a mark on a form by sensing reflected infra-
red light. The software in the reader interprets the marks into meaningful characters
which can be passed to the computer for storage and analysis.

Advantages
• Sensitivity can be altered to allow for different surfaces and pencils and
inks.
• Has a better recognition rate than OCR.
• Can be prepared where the data originates, without machines.
• Errors are easily corrected.

Disadvantages
• Mark readers are relatively slow.
• Verification of marked data is difficult.
• Document reader will have to be reprogrammed for each new document
design.

2.4.1.2.3 Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)

Another well- known document reader is the MICR. This one recognizes characters
formed from magnetic ink. Characters are printed in ink containing iron oxide. When the
document is passed in the reader the ink is magnetized so that the magnetic pattern
formed by the characters can be identified. There are three MICR fonts:

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• E13b
• CMC7
• E13B

This font was developed in the United States for the America Banks Association, and
has been adopted by British banks. Each character is made as unique as possible, in
order to avoid misinterpretation. Magnetic ink characters can be overwritten with
ordinary ink without affecting their reliability for interpretation by the reader/sorter.
If any attempt is made to alter a magnetic ink character the subsequent mutilation is
detected when the character is being interpretation by the reader/sorter. The E13B
repertoire consists of ten numeric characters, 0- 9, and four symbols to signify the
meaning of fields.

CMC7 (Character Magnetic Code)

This font is the continental standard, and although the characters are encoded in
magnetic ink their structure is altogether different from E13B. The characters are
formed from a ‘gapped font’ code, consisting of seven vertical bars. Each character is
identified by the format of the bars, which create a six- bit code. Each bar is separated
by a gap; a wide gap equals 1 and a narrow gap equals 0. The magnetic ink character
reader recognizes each character by the variable distance between the vertical bars.

The CMC7 repertoire consists of ten numeric characters, 0-9, 26 alphabetic characters
and five special symbols. Usually MICR devices use font E13B which contains only
14 characters (0-9 and 4 special characters).

The main applications are in:

• Some local authorities for payment of rates by installment.

• The banking industry: In a cheque the space below the signature line is left
so that the amount can be added in MICR after the cheque has been given to the
bank. The cheque can then enter the banks computer system for processing.

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The function of the MICR device is as noted to read and recognize the characters at
the bottom of the cheque. Once the details of the customers, branch and amount are
known they can be used by the computer to update the individual bank accounts. The
vast number of cheques which banks have to handle requires the use of some sort of
document reading device. MICR devices can read up to 2500 cheques per minute.

Advantages of MICR

• Cheques may be roughly handled, folded, smeared, and stamped, but they
can still be read with a high degree of accuracy.
• Processing is speeded because checks can be fed directly
into the input device.
• People can easily read the magnetic ink character.

Disadvantages

• Only the 10 digits and the 4 special characters needed for bank processing
are used.
• No alphabetic characters are available.

As we conclude sharing on document readers it’s we should understand that there

are two types of optical readers and a Magnetic Ink Character Reader.

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Activity 2

What is the main difference between the OCR and MICR?

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The optical readers use ……………………….to sense the document content while the
magnetic readers use the ……………………………to sense the document characters
that have been written using……………………………………………………………….

As we finish with document readers the next set of devices will be quite different.

2.4.1.3 Pointing and Touching Devices

These devices have variety of uses complementary to the keyboard and are of
particular value when used in conjunction with graphical displays. In simple cases
they can be used to move the cursor about the screen.

2.4.1.3.1 Mouse

A computer mouse is a pointing device (hand control) that detects two-dimensional

motion relative to a surface. This motion is typically translated into the motion of a pointer
on a display, which allows for a fine control of the graphical user interface. Physically, a
mouse consists of an object held in one's hand, with one or more buttons. Mice often also
feature other elements, such as touch surfaces and "wheels", which enable additional
control and dimensional input. As the mouse is moved about the desktop the cursor
moves about the screen. A button on top of the mouse can be pressed when the desired
position is reached. The motion of the mouse is sensed by a rolling ball, which is mounted
in the underside of the use and in
contact with the desktop.

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Figure 2: Mouse

What are the advantages and disadvantages of using the mouse?

2.4.1.3.2 Track Ball

Another commonly used pointing device is the Track ball. A track ball is really a
validation on the mouse. The ball is on the top side of the track ball, rather than on
the underside as in a mouse. The ball is moved by passing the palm of the hand over
it. Track balls are intended for use where desktop space is limited or not available, for
example, when using a lap-top computer away from a desk. A track ball does not
require a flat surface to operate.

Figure 4: A Track Ball

What is the difference between the mouse and the track ball?

2.4.1.3.4 Joysticks
Another pointing device that we discuss is the Joystick. This is a handheld device used
for playing computer games. A joystick is an alternative to a mouse. They have proved
more popular for computer games than they have for serious applications. The
joystick can be moved left, right, up or down to move the cursor and also has a button
used like that on the mouse. The movement of the joystick is detected by cause
electrical contacts to be made.

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Figure 5: Joystick

2.4.1.3.5 Light Pen

A light pen is another pointing device that can be used to choose a displayed menu
option. The pen consists of a photocell placed in a small tube. As the user moves the
tip of the pen over the screen surface, it’s able to detect the light coming from a limited
field of view. The light from the screen cause the photocell to response is transmitted
to the processor, which can identify the menu option that’s triggering the photocell.
The light pen is also useful for graphics work. The light pen is also used to draw
directly on the screen.

Figure 6: Light pen

2.4.1.3.6 T o u c h Screens
A touch screen is a screen through which data can be entered into a computer just by
touching it with a finger. Items are selected just as they would be with a mouse pointer
or light pen. The touch screen can display a series of menus and displays through
which options can be selected.

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2.4.1.4 Voice Input Systems
A microphone or telephone is used to convert human speech into electric signals. The
signal patterns are then transmitted to a computer where they are compared to a
‘dictionary’ of patterns that have been previously placed in storage. When a closed
match is found, a word is
‘recognized’ and the computer then produces the appropriate output. Most voice
recognition system is speaker- dependent. That is, they can’t be used until after the
speaker has repeated a word several times to ‘train’ the system to recognize his or her
particular voice pattern. Recently, however, speaker-independent systems have been
developed that can recognize words spoken by anyone. In the meantime,
vocabularies of all current systems are limited, users must speak distinctly, and they
must pause between each word or each short phrase. In one experiment, the words
recognize speech’ were interpreted as ‘wreck a nice beach’ by the computer. Although
speech recognition is in its infancy, it is being used in situations where a person’s
hands are busy, where a worker’s eyes must remain fixed on a display or measuring
instrument, or when telephone input is desirable.

2.4.1.5 Digitizer
This is a device that can be moved over a drawing or images to convert the picture to
digital data, which can then be stored in a displayed on a CRT screen, or printed out
of paper.

Figure 7: Digitize

2.4.1.6 Scanners
Scanners consist of two components. First a data capturing subsystem illuminates the
documents so that the image can be recorded. Then an image processing subsystem
uses sophisticated software to convert the optical images into digital form and store
the data in a file. Unfortunately, scanners often make errors that require manual
correction. So the data files invaluably require some editing at a CAD terminal.

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Scanners are of two types:

• Hand held device which is moved across the picture being scanned
• Flatbed scanner where the picture is laid flat and the image captured

Figure 8: Scanner

2.4.1.7 Point of Sale Terminals

These types of input devices are found in computerized wholesale or retail
organizations such as supermarkets. A wand or barcode reader or a credit card or a
Kimball tag reader could be attached to a POS terminal to reduce the data entry.

Activity 3

Read and make notes on Barcode readers and Kimball tags

2.4.2 Processing Devices

The procedure that transforms raw data into useful information is called processing.
To perform this transformation, the computer uses two components; the processor
and the memory. The processor is like the brain of the computer; it organizes and
carries out instructions that come from either the user or the software. In a personal
computer the processor is usually consists of one or more specialized chips called the
microprocessors. These microprocessors are also called the Central Processing Unit
(CPU).

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Early Personal Computers were not much large than a thumbnail. Processors such
as Intel Pentium 4 are considerably large.

2.4.2.1 Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The CPU receives data from input devices, processes it, and prepares information for
output devices. Data could be entered into the computer with cards, terminals, or data
collection devices. Data could be output on printers, CRTs, or video display terminal.

Functions of the Central Processing Unit

1) To perform all the processing, including all computations.
2) To control the sequence of operations.
3) Gives commands to all parts of the computer system
4) Controls the use of main memory storage to store data and
instructions.
The CPU consists of three components:
1) The control unit.
2) The arithmetic logic unit (ALU)
3) The primary storage unit

Each unit has a particular function

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2.4.2.1.1 Control Unit
As we start this discussion we might say that the Control Unit is the major part of the
CPU. The control unit essentially governs all the computer activities and monitors the
execution of programs. It coordinates and controls the computer system much as the
brain directs the body. The control unit executes program instruction to be fetched
from main memory via the MDR and placed into the IR. When main memory storage
receives an appropriate signal from the control unit it transfers the instruction, whose
address is specified in the MAR, into the processor’s MDR via the data bus. The
control unit interprets the instruction in the IR and causes the instruction to be
executed by sending command signals to the appropriate hardware devices. E.g., it
might cause main storage to transfer data in the MDR or it might cause the ALU to
perform some operation on data registers. The cycle is then repeated with the next
instruction being fetched.

2.4.2.1.2 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

The next part of the CPU that is of great importance especially during processing is
the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) has two main functions:

It is responsible for performing all arithmetic, e.g., add, subtract, multiply and
divide etc. It performs all ‘logical’ operations e.g. testing whether two data
items match.
Data items to be processed are taken from the main storage, as directed by the control
unit, and pass via the MDR into the data registers (accumulators) in the ALU, where
they are stored. This step is referred as ‘loading’ data into the data register from the
main storage. It should be noted that at this point the location address of this data will
have been specified in the IR, from where they will have been transferred to the MAR
prior to loading the data. The ALU then performs the required operation(s) on the
data (e.g. adding) as directed by the control unit. The ALU leaves the result in a data
register. While the ALU is carrying out an operation it may make use of other registers
of its own such as the ‘OPERAND’ and ‘RESULT’ registers. For example, it may build
up a result in the RESULT register before sending the complete result to a designated
data register. The results are taken from data registers and placed in main memory,
again under the direction of the control unit. This step is referred as ‘storing’ data.

2.4.2.1.3 Primary Storage Unit

One might ask themselves, so where does all the data we introduce in the computer
go to? It will be interesting to learn that the computer has to storage unit that stores
all programs and data.

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Memory of the Computer
Memory or storage capacity is one of the important components of a computer. Any
storage unit of a computer system is classified on the basis of the following criteria:

Access time: This is the time required to locate and retrieve stored data from the
storage unit in response to program instructions.

Storage capacity: It is the amount of data that can be stored in the storage unit.
Cost per bit of storage.
Units of memory: The computer stores a character in the storage cells with binary
(0,1) mechanism. Thus the basic unit of memory is a bit (binary digit – 0,1). To store a
character, a computer requires 8 bits or 1 byte. This is called the ― word length‖ of the
storage unit. Hence the storage capacity of the computer is measured in the number
of words it can store and is expressed in terms of bytes. The different units of
measurement are:

1) 8 Bits = 1 Byte
2) 210 (or) 1024 Bytes = 1 Kilo Byte (KB)
3) 210 (or)1024 KB = 1 Mega Byte (MB)
4) 210 (or)1024 MB = 1 Giga Byte (GB)

The storage capacity of the CPU is called primary storage unit. Over the years, the
storage unit has been called main storage, internal storage, primary storage, or
memory. Primary storage provides the capacity to store software in the form of
operation system, application programs and utility routines, etc. in addition, the data
input for processing is stored in the memory as the results of processing until they are
output either to backing storage or to an output device such as a printer or VDU. Next
we discuss the types of primary storage.

2.4.2.1.3.1 Types of Primary Storage

They are:
• Core storage
• Semiconductor memory (MOS)

Core storage: We go back a little bit to understand the history of core storage. During
the 15 years between 1960 and 1975 the dominant computer design used tiny rings or
cores of magnetizable material in the primary storage section. Current

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flowing in one direction produced a 0-bit state. Since the core permanently retained its
magnetic state in the absence of current, it was a non-volatile storage medium. Core
storage was popular for 15 years because it was safe, durable and reasonably fast. But
the new storage devices that appeared in the 1970’s offered even faster performance at
a lower cost, and so the popularity of the cores quickly faded.

Semiconductor memory: Now this one is different. Virtually all computers made
today use semiconductor elements in their primary storage sections. It is produced
from silicon chips and is based on two types of technologies i.e. the faster and more
expensive bipolar semiconductors chip and slower and less expensive metal-oxide
semiconductor (MOS) chips. There are two types of semiconductor memory:

Random Access Memory (RAM): This is the first type of semiconductor memory. These
are referred as random access memory (RAM) chips because any of the locations on a
chip can be randomly selected and used to directly store and retrieve data and
instructions. This type of memory can be both read, to retrieve information, and written
into, to store information. RAM chips may be classified as dynamic or
static.
The storage cell circuit’s dynamic RAM chips contain:

• Transistor that acts in much the same way as a mechanical on-off switch.
• Capacitor that’s capable of storing an electric charge.

Depending on the switch action of the transistor, the capacitor either contains no
charge (0 bit) or does hold a charge (1 bit). Since the charge on the capacitor tends to
‘leak off’ provision is made to periodically ‘regenerate’ or refresh the storage charge.
A dynamic RAM thus provides volatile storage. That is, the data stored are lost in the
event of a power failure.

Static RAM chips are also volatile storage device but as they are supplied with
power, they require no special regenerator circuits to retain the stored data. In real
sense the contents of the static RAM remain stable forever, as long as power is
available.

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Activity 4
In discussion groups of three learners list the differences between the Static and
Dynamic RAM.

Read Only Memory (ROM)

A ROM is a read only memory that can only be produced by the manufacturer. The
contents of ROM are physically fixed and cannot be accessed to alter them as can be
done with RAM. Micro programs control instructions that cause the machine to
perform certain operations are usually stored in ROM. The contents of ROM are not
destroyed when the computer is switched off as ROM is non-volatile because its
contents have been burnt in during manufacturer ROM also stores the operating
system.

Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM)

These are variations of ROM i.e. PROM stands for ‘programmable read-only
memory’. Whereas ordinary ROM is pre-programmed at the factory, PROM can be
programmed by the user. A special device is required for putting the ‘bit’ pattern into
a PROM chip; this is called a PROM programmer.

What is the main disadvantage of the PROM?

Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM)

This is further variation of ROM, which stands for ‘erasable programmable read-only
memory’. When data is recorded on this type of memory it is in effect the same as
ordinary ROM in its behaviour but if the user requires to change the contents of the
chip an ultraviolet light is used to revert all the cells to ‘1s’. New data or programs
can be then be written on the chip.

What is the disadvantage of the EPROM?

Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM)

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EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable read-only memory) is user-modifiable
read- only memory (ROM) that can be erased and reprogrammed (written to) repeatedly
through the application of higher than normal electrical voltage. Unlike EPROM chips,
EEPROMs do not need to be removed from the computer to be modified. However, an
EEPROM chip has to be erased and reprogrammed in its entirety, not selectively. It also
has a limited life - that is, the number of times it can be reprogrammed is limited to tens
or hundreds of thousands of times. In an EEPROM that is frequently reprogrammed
while the computer is in use, the life of the EEPROM can be an important design
consideration.

Flash EEPROM memory

Flash memory is a type of nonvolatile memory that erases data in units called blocks.
A block stored on a flash memory chip must be erased before data can be written, or
programmed, to the microchip. Flash memory retains data for an extended period of
time whether a flash- equipped device is powered on or off.

2.4.2.2 Registers
To understand how the above components (i.e. control unit and ALU) of the CPU
works first we need to first understand registers which are special-purpose
temporary-storage locations within the processor or and other devices within the
computer system. They are quite separate from the location in main storage, although
they can be similar in structure.

Types of registers and their functions

Registers may be classified into two main groups:

• Registers out of –the processor

• Registers in the processor

Registers Out of the Processors

Memory Data Register (MDR)

All data and instructions pass in and out of the processor through this register.
Memory Buffer Register (MBR)
All data and instructions pass in and out of main memory through this
register.

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Memory Address Register (MAR)

Prior to each transfer between the processor’s MDR and main storage’s MBR the
exact source or destination of the data in the main storage must be specified. This is
done by loading the appropriate location address into the MAR. Main memory
receives this address information through the address bus. It also receives control
signals from the processor via the control bus which is able to decode into commands
for it to save or retrieve data.

Data Buffer Registers (DBR)

Another important register is the DBR on which I/O units connected to the processor
via a bus also have these registers which serve a similar purpose to the
MBR.

Registers in the processor

This are constructed so that the contents can be accessed and altered much faster than
the contents of locations of main memory.

Instructions Register (IR)

This is the first register you encounter in the processor where the next executable
instruction is first taken from main memory via the MDR and placed. Once in the IR
the instruction can be rapidly decoded and executed.

Note: that the IR is also sometimes called the Current Instruction Register
(CIR).

Data Registers (DR)

This register is within the ALU in which data to be processed (e.g. numbers about to
be added or subtracted) is placed from the main memory via the MDR. The required
arithmetic or logic operation is then rapidly performed. The ALU will provide the
results in one data register, from which it can be taken and stored in main memory
storage.

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Status Register (SR)

This is used by the control unit as a means of detecting conditions which have
occurred such as the ALU detecting the arithmetic error of diving by zero. Primary
components of the processor will now be considered in detail.

List three types of processor registers and state their functions.

2.4.2.3 Bubble Memory

From the processor we look at a different type of memory called bubble memory.
Bubbles may be described as cylindrical magnets which are formed from magnetic
regions called ‘domain’ after the application of a critical bias value magnetic field. The
bubbles are created on memory chips of thumbnail size, with capacities of typically
64 and 256 Kbytes (about 240 typewritten pages of information). The ICL DNX-2000
digital PABX systems use bubble memory so it seems that this type of memory is
likely to be used widely in future.

2.4.2.4 Holographic (optical) Memory

This is a ROM optical memory system whereby a pattern is recorded on a photo-
sensitive plate by mixing laser light from reference beam and laser light scattered
from the object bearing the information to be recorded.

The data in the hologram is effectively ‘smeared’ over the whole of the plate. A degree
of redundancy is built into the system so that dust and scratches on the emulsion have
little effect on the recorded information.

Data in the reconstructed image is arranged as an array of dots-one dot for each ‘bit’.
Information may be read out by directing a laser beam on the hologram so that the
reconstructed image falls on to a photodiode array on a silicon chip. At present the
main limitations is that information on a holographic store is generally fixed and is
presently of value for storing large amounts of fixed information such as machine
instructions.

2.4.2.5 Cache Memory

It’s a high-speed memory capable of keeping up with the CPU. It acts as a buffer
between the CPU and the slower main memory. As the CPU is not delayed by the
memory access the overall speed of processing is increased. Segments of program and
data are transferred from disc backing storage into the cache buffer by the operating
system. This type of memory is mainly applicable to the larger computer.

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2.4.2.6 Buses
Let us now look at a different item used in processing called a computer bus. A
computer processor consists of four types of ‘bus’: address, data, control and
peripheral. A bus is a channel or pathway for the processor to another, including
transferring data from the internal memory to the arithmetic unit. Buses also provided
the channels for:

a) Transmitting signals relating to the address of the data to be operated on;

b) The input and output of and from specific peripheral devices;

c) The transmission of signals for controlling all processing activities.

After knowing these factors above it’s important for us to discuss each bus on its
own and what it does.

2.4.2.6.1 Address Bus

The first type of bus used in processing is the address bus which is used to send
address details between the memories and address register. The address of the data
to be operated on the operand – is stored in the address register. The number of
channels on an address registers. The larger the address register the possible internal
memory capacity because the larger the number of addresses that can be generated.
The value of binary digit doubles each time the ‘1’moves into a higher order position,
i.e. to the left. This follows from the binary progression 2n.

2.4.2.6.2 Data Bus

These are bidirectional buses that carry information and data to and from the
microprocessor. The data bus determines the width of the microprocessor hence the
denotation as 8-bit, 16-bit and 32-bit. They are normally created by the microprocessor
registers.

2.4.2.6.3 Control Bus

These are unidirectional buses that carry command signals from the microprocessor
and sometimes the signals are to the microprocessor itself. The direction of the transfer
on the data bus is indicated by the control signals from the control bus.

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2.4.2.6.4 Peripheral Channel
These facilitate the connection of the devices.

What is a computer bus? List three types of computer buses and explain their
function.
After dealing mainly with devices that concentrate on converting data into
information for ease of use let us now move further to a new section that will enable
the user to communicate with the computer by giving them results called the output
devices.

2.4.3 Output Devices

In this section we discuss various devices that can be used to give feedback to the user.
The results of any form data processing are output. An output device is a peripheral,
which shows the computer output either in softcopy or hardcopy. The output can be
used immediately or stored for later use Output can take many forms. Output might
be human-sensible, which means that it can be recognized and understood by human.
It requires special machines for it to be accessed by people-e.g. computer output on to
microfilm or microfiche, where microfilm or microfiche readers are needed to access
the stored data. An output should also be computer-sensible, with the output data/
information stored for later processing by another computer.

Human Sensible Output

Human sensible output consists of:
• Printed output
• VDU display

2.4.3.1 Printers
This is an important output device besides the monitor. Generally, the printers fall
into two categories. Printers can be classified by whether they print a character, a line
or a page at a time.

Character printers
Prints serially (one character at a time) much like a typewriter. As a result, speeds are
very slow (from 10 to 150 characters per second). They are relatively cheap and are
commonly found in small business systems. When a keyboard device has a character
printer attached it is called a teletype (or teletypewriter). The keyboard acts as the
input medium, the printer as the output device.

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Line printers

Are much faster devices which print a line at a time. Some are capable of printing
up to 3000 lines per minutes. They are accordingly more expensive.

Page printers

Print a whole page at a time.

They are expensive and are intended to deal with very large volumes of printed
computer output in large organizations.
Printers can be classified according to their technology.

Impact printers

Require the hitting of inked ribbon against paper (like ordinary typewriter), impact
printers are noisy in operation.

Non- impact printers

Such as laser printers use different technology such as ink spray, heat, xerography
or laser to form printed copy, i.e. characters are not formed by mechanical impact.

Differentiate between impact and non-impact printers?

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 Printers can be classified by the quality of print they produce as below

Dot matrix printers

These are impact character printers that provide character prints in terms of dots.
They print characters as in array of points or dots. The quality of print varies
according to the number of dots that make up a character. However, it is a slow
printer.

Daisy wheel printers

It’s the oldest kind, of printer, which is an impact printer, works like a typewriter
where a piece of metal or plastic with a raised letter strikes an inked ribbon against a
sheet of paper leaving an image of the letter on the paper.

Near Letter Quality (NLQ)

A printer offers NLQ is one that provides a quality of print that is near (but not quite)
as good as a typed letter. Additionally, printers can be classified in terms of speed.
The basic types of printers will now be explained in details.

Impact Character Printer

There are two basic types of impact character printer: dot matrix and moving print
head (ball or wheel).

Dot matrix

Printers print pattern of dots in the shape of the desired character. Speed of up to
around 165 characters per second (C.P.S). Are possible but the print quality may be
low. However, some dot matrix printers have NLQ print.

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Ball printer

Uses a rotating and / pivoting ball as a print head. The printing characters are on the
surface of the ball which strikes a ribbon to transfer the character on to the paper (e.g.
IBM golf-ball electric typewriter).

Wheel (or daisywheel) printer

Use a wheel as a print head with the characters forming a band around the
circumference of the print wheel. To print a character, the wheel is rotated and a
hammer strikes the back side of the spoke and presses it against the paper.

Daisywheel

Some ball and wheel printers can print left to right on the next thus increasing the
effective print speed. They print at relatively slow speeds (typically 10-50 c.p.s.).
But produce good- quality print, i.e. ‘full’ letter quality characters.

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A dot matrix printer and a graph plotter could both be used by a shop that designs
and sells fitted kitchens t o produce t h e kitchen plans on different paper sizes and
using colour. Explain which one would be better in the situation.

Non-Impact Character Printers

These are printers that use other means to create an image. Ink-jet printers for example
use tiny nozzles to spray droplets of ink onto the page, while laser printers work like
photocopiers, using heat to bond microscopic particles of dry toner to specific parts
of the page. There are various types of non- impact printers;

Thermal printers

Creates print images on special heat sensitive paper by use heated wires in the
print head and they operate at speeds of 160 c.p.s.

Inkjet printers

These printers use the concept of spraying ink onto the paper. Fire ink on to paper by
using an electrostatic field. No special paper is needed and the print quality can be
good, but it is not possible to produce multiple copies and they can be unreliable.

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Line printers

These are mainly three types;

Impact line printer

There are two main types of impact line printer: print characters are mounted on a
moving chain or belt or engraved on the face of a rotating drum. Typical line printer
speeds range from 200 to 3000 lines per minute. Multiple copies can easily be
produced and characters are of ‘letter-quality’.

Non- impact line printer

The main non- impact line printer is the electrostatic printer. This places electrostatic
charges in the shape of the required characters on a special sensitive paper. They are
not common in business operations.

Magnetic printer

A magnetic printer operates much like the electrostatic printer except that the
magnetic charges are placed on a belt rather than on a sensitized paper. Magnetic
printers are much slower than electrostatic printers (up to 200 lines per minute) but
do not require a special paper.

Page printers

Page printers are non-impact, very high speed printers capable of printing a page at
a time. They can be:

• Electrostatic Xerographic Laser

• Electrostatic page printers

Is a printer that uses electrostatic charges? The characters are created using tiny dots
(200 to the inch) giving a high quality which does not look like matrix printing. The
document outline is coded and stored for printing with the data when ready.
Letterheads and logos can be created electro statically using chargeable metal
cylinders; pre-printed stationery can also be handled.

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Xerographic printers

It’s a printer that has an in-built processing power of production of multiple copies is
possible. These are an adaptation of the Xerox office copier. (Xerography is the process
of electrostatic printing or dry photography in which negatively charged powder is
sprinkled on an appositively charged surface.

Xerographic printer produces sharp character images on letter-sized paper. The

printer usually has an in-built microcomputer and can produce and collate multiple
copies. It operates at about 4000 R.p.m.

Laser printers

These are probably the most advanced printers and use a laser beam to produce
character images on the surface of a rotating drum. A toner that adheres to the light
images is then transferred to paper. Some laser printers are running at speed
equivalent to 21000 1.p.m.so they are needed only in large volume applications e.g.
mailing shots, price lists in major companies.

2.4.3.2 Plotters
A plotter (or graph-plotter) is a device for producing graphical output on paper. It
converts digital computer output into illustrations such as graphs, bar charts, pie
charts, maps or technical drawings. A digital plotter works by converting digital
coordinates (rather like map reference) into pen movements. Alternatively, an
incremental plotter sends signals to tell the pen how far to move from its present
position.

Plotters are not always directly connected to the computer (they are off-+line) because
pen output is fairly slow, thus wasting computer time. Rather, a program magnetic
tape. The tape can then be run later by a small processor (reader) which will control
the specialized plotter system. There are two types of plotter:

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Flatbed plotter
This is fixed, flat table or bed on which the writing pen can move over the paper: up (to
move without drawing), down (to draw) and in north, south, west, east directions.

A drum plotter
Here a roll of paper, mounted on a drum, can be moved back and forth whilst the
pen moves across the paper. A combination of drum and pen movements allows a
line3 to be drawn anywhere on the paper.

Having looked at the plotters that give output in hard copy let us now look at
output devices that give out softcopy as a form of output.

2.4.3.3 Monitors
Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit VDU, are the main output device
of a computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a
rectangular form. The sharpness of the image depends upon the number of pixels. It
is similar to TV screen- either a monochrome (black & white) or color – and it displays
the output. It is also referred as Visual Display Unit (VDU). Several types of monitors
are in use. Some of them are Color Graphic Adapter (CGA), Enhanced Graphics
Adaptor (EGA), Video Graphics Adapter (VGA) and Super Video Graphics Adapter
(SVGA). The screen sizes differ from system to system. The standard size is 24 lines

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by 80 characters. Most systems have provision for scrolling which helps in moving
the text vertically or horizontally on the screen.

The monitor technology is mainly;

• Cathode ray tube
• Flat panel Display
• Thin Film Transistor (TFT) Plasma
• Light emitting diodes

2.4.3.3.1 Cathode-Ray Tube CRT Monitor

The C R T display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller the
pixels, the better the image clarity, or resolution. It takes more than one illuminated
pixel to fo r m whole character, such as the letter ‘e’ in the word help. A finite number
of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The s c r e e n can b e divided into
a series of character boxes-fixed location on the screen where a standard character can
be placed. Most screens are capable of displaying 80 characters of data horizontally
and 25 lines vertically. There are some disadvantages of CRT:

• Large in size

• High power consumption

2.4.3.3.2 Flat-Panel Display Monitor

The flat-panel display refers t o a class o f video d evice s t h a t have reduced volume,
weight and power requirement in comparison to the CRT. You can hang them on
walls or wear them on your wrists. Current uses of flat-panel displays include
calculators, video games, monitors, laptop computer, graphics display.

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The flat-panel display is divided into two categories:

Emissive Displays- The emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy
into light . Example is plasma panel and LED Light – Emitting Diodes.

Non-Emissive Displays -The Non-emissive displays use optical effects

to convert sunlight or l i g h t from some other source into Example
graphics patterns. is LCD Liquid–Crystal Device.

Activity 6

Distinguish the following terms.

• LCD and CRT

• ALU and Control unit

• Keyboard and Scanner

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• Hard copy and Soft copy

Having looked at output devices it’s important to have some form of storage for
the data and programs either temporarily when the program is running or long
term to preserve the programs and data using backing storage.

2.4.4 Storage Devices

A computer can function with only processing, memory, input and output devices.
However, to be really useful, a computer also needs a place to keep program files and
related data when they are not in use. The purpose of storage devices is to hold data
permanently, even when the computer is turned off.

There are three major distinctions between storage and memory:

There is more room in storage than in memory, just as there is more room in a file
cabinet than there is on top of a table. Contents are retained in storage when the
computer is turned off, whereas programs or the data in memory disappear when you
shut down the computer. Storage devices operate much slower than memory chips,
but storage is cheaper than memory.

We now look at the types, there are two main types of computer storage: magnetic
and optical. They are covered in the following sections.

2.4.4.1 Backing Storage

Although a computer could retain all business information in its internal memory
(primary memory) it would be rather impractical to do so as it would require millions
of bytes of storage capacity such as semiconductor memory in the form of RAM’s i.e.
random access memory. It is usual to provide the computer system with offline
storage, referred to as auxiliary or secondary storage, for the storage of master files
and programs relating to specific applications until they are required and transferred
into the internal memory. Backing storage is also used for restoring data to the
computer when power is interrupted. Computers generally employ magnetic storage
of one type or another but new development are taking place such as optical disc
which record data by means of laser.

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Advantages of backing storage
• It is cheaper to store in secondary devices like magnetic media than in a filing
cabinet or in the main memory.

• There is more capacity in secondary storage than in primary storage. You

people or from hazards.

• Data stored in secondary storage is safe from tapering by unauthorized

people or from hazards.

• They facilitate easy movement of data stored electronically.

Types of backing storage

There many media for backing storage. The main devices and
media are:
• Magnetic tape unit-magnetic tape magnetic disc unit- magnetic disk
• Magnetic diskette unit- magnetic diskette (floppy disk)
• Optical disc unit- optical disk solid state storage devices
• Mass storage devices and media

2.4.4.1.1 Magnetic Tape

This was the first kind of secondary storage. This is mainly a flexible plastic ribbon
on which data can be stored using a magnetic process. It has some peculiar
characteristics:

Physical characteristics

Plastic base coated with metal oxide film, Data recorded as magnetized spots- each
one representing a binary digit, Standard width- 1.72cm. –though size varies
between0.86cm (cassette) and 2.54 (high capacity), Standard reel- 720m in length, but
again sizes vary.

Recording on tape

Data are recorded in binary coded decimal (BCD) format. The most common
forms of coding are:

7-track ASCII. The American Standard Code for Information Interchange which
consists of a 7-bit coded character plus a parity bit.

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9-track EBCDIC. The extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code has 8 bits
(four zone bits and four numeric bits) plus a parity bit. The tape width is divided into
series of Tracks (or channels) – usually 7 or 9.A character is recorded across the tracks.
In a row called a frame.

Rate of reading

The rate at which data can be read from tape is called the transfer rate which depends
on the recording density and tape speed. For example, a tape with 1600 bpcm density
and speed of 125 centimeters per second has a transfer rate of: 1600*125= 200 000 bytes
per second.
This is known as the instantaneous transfer rate- the actual average transfer rate
would be less because of the inter block gaps.

Advantages magnetic tapes

Speed –The transfer rate (typically) 50 000 -100 000 or more characters per second
is quite adequate for many applications.

Capacity- A standard reel can hold 10 million or more characters depending on the
blocking factor. Thus tapes can be used for large files or for dumping from disk
files.

Cost – Magnetic tape is the cheapest magnetic

medium.

Convenience – It is light, compact and easy to store in racks. Some organizations

have thousands of reels in storage ‘libraries’ or ‘banks’.

Disadvantages magnetic tapes;

• Tape is a serial medium and therefore searching is necessary. This makes it

impractical for direct access applications.

• A record on magnetic tape cannot be update in place (‘in situ’). Records to be

updated have to be read, updated and then written to a second tape. (This does have
safety benefits, however, in that the original is preserved (father-son principle).

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• Tape must be stored in a suitable environment where humidity, temperature
and dust are tightly controlled; otherwise read errors, etc. occur.

• Tape has a limited shelf life (about 2 years) for reliable results and is therefore
not suitable for long – term storage of historical files.

Uses of magnetic tape

• Offline storage of large sequential files. Tapes can be conveniently kept in

storage racks and are loaded onto tape drives and processed as they are needed.

• Back-up storage for offline disk files. To prevent loss of data, disk files can be
periodically ‘dumped’ on to tape.

• Medium for key-to-tape data entry (now largely superseded by

key-to-disk).

2.4.4.1.2 Magnetic Disk

Looking at a magnetic disk it’s a flat circular platter on which data can be stored.
Magnetic disk is the most commonly used form of backing storage, although other
media e.g. optical disks may become one cost- effective for some applications.
However, magnetic disks themselves continue to be improved in terms of cost and
performance. Disks are excellent for large data files and data bases at a reasonable
cost. Their characteristics include:

Physical Characteristics

• A disk pack is made up of a stack of rotating metal disks (six or more)

mounted on a spindle.

• Several disks can be stacked on a spindle and enclosed in a unit called as disk
pack (or module).

• Each disk is a thin metal rigid platter (similar in size and concept to an LP)
coated on both sides with magnetic material, e.g. ferrous oxide.

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• Data are recorded on surface in the form of magnetized spots. The presence
or absence of spot denotes binary 1 or 0.

• The surface of the disk is divided into tracks; which is in turn

divided into sectors.

• The recording density is greater towards the middle of the disk so that all
tracks contain the same amount of data.

• The disk pack can be loaded into a disk drive for reading and writing The
capacity of a disk pack is of the order of several hundred gigabytes. Reading and
writing to disk
• Data reading and writing is done by read/write heads similar to those
used in a tape recorder. There is usually one head for each disk surface.

• Access arms position these heads in the desired locations. The heads do not
actually touch the surface of the disk- they ‘float’ above it.

• When the access arms are moved across all the read/ write heads are moved
together so that each is positioned over the same track of each recording surface.

• The set of tracks under the heads form a vertical cylinder and if related records
are stored on the same cylinder, they can be accessed without moving the access
assembly. This is called the cylinder concept.

• A record may be accessed directly by specifying the cylinder, track and

sector number.

Disk capacity
Disk capacity depends on:

• The number of recording surfaces

• The number of cylinders
• The recording density (bytes/track)
• It is usually stated in terms of megabytes (MB) e.g. for disc pack:
Bytes/track 8500
• Tracks/cylinder 24
• Cylinders/pack 1000 giving a total of about 209 Gb.

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Advantages
• Data can be accessed directly- there is no need to search through
other records. Sequential processing is possible if needed.
• Very high capacity at a low cost (per character stored). Disk packs are
convenient to handle and store. Currently the most popular storage method in
business.

Disadvantages

• Disk drives and disks are more expensive than tape drives and
tapes, respectively.
• Slower than newer ‘forms’ of storage, e.g. magnetic bubble.
• Can be unreliable – susceptible to dust, static electricity, head crashes, etc. Uses
Most business situations particularly useful in on –line enquiry/response systems, where
direct access is essential e.g. reservation/booking systems.

2.4.4.1.3 Magnetic Diskette (Floppy Diskette)

Don’t get confused, this is a type of magnetic disk, a floppy disk is a single, flexible
disk held in a protective jacket. It is made of polyester film coated with metal oxide
compound and resembles a 45 rpm record. They are typically 8 in, 51/4 in and 31/2
in (micro- floppies) in diameter with either 40 or 80 tracks. Every new disk requires to
be formatted i.e. preparing the disk for receiving and storing information. By lining
up the index hole at the starting point, the computer lays in a specific pattern of tracks
and sectors that define where information will be stored and found.

All the other storage devices we have been discussing were using magnetic
technology, now we focus on devices that use light.

2.4.4.1.4 Optical Disk

In recent years, optical disks or compact disks have become very popular. This are
made up of thin metal film/polymer compound on to which a laser burns digital

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information in the form of microscopic pits. These are read by another laser which
converts the pattern of pits into a digital message. The storage capacity is vast- up to
1 gigabyte (1 GB, i.e. 1 billion characters) has been quoted. Tracks on an optical disk
can be packed very closely together. The latter is known as compact disk read only
memory (CD-ROM) and a typical storage capacity is 700 Mb of user data.

Advantages

• They have massive capacity.

• High-quality pictures and sound can be achieved without
noticeable deterioration, even after continuous use.
• Information can be retrieved quickly by random access (although not as
quickly as from magnetic hard disk).
• Reliable. They have longer life than magnetic media – no mechanical contact
between disk and optical system. Disks are coated against and scratches.
• Exchangeable.
• The disks themselves are fairly expensive but are relatively cheap in
terms of cost per character stored.
• Hard to copy (useful for copyright reasons)

Disadvantages
• Costly hardware for reading: Expensive to produce master disk Little
software, often of poor quality
• Late development of standard sizes and formats (but CD-ROMs have an
agreed standard).
• Temporary read/record only. It is still problems to write to disks. Even
harder is erasing and re-recording (although storage capacity is so great that
erasing is not all that important).

For this reasons, optical disks will not be replacing existing storage media just yet.

The next step- making optical disks read and write – is still at the experimental
stage.

CDs have much higher recording density than conventional magnetic disks. CDs
come in two variations:

2.4.4.1.4.1 CD – RW (Re - writable)

Data written on them can be overwritten or erased.

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2.4.4.1.4.2 CD – R (Recordable)/ CD – WORM (Write once read many)
It holds data that is permanent (No overwriting). They hold data that is not likely
to change in the future. Once data is written onto the surface of the worm disk, it
cannot be changed.

2.4.4.1.4.3 Digital Versatile Disc (DVD)

DVD stands for Digital Versatile Disc. It is similar to a CD-ROM, except that it can
Store Larger amounts of data. The storage capacity of a DVD is at least 4.7GB. DVDs
that can store up to17GBs are also available. Because of their capacity, DVDs are
generally used to store a very large multimedia presentations and movies that
combine high quality sound and graphics.

2.4.4.2 Solid State Storage Devices

Other forms of storage have been developed which are called solid –state (i.e. no moving
parts). The (comparative) slowness of current disks and tapes is caused by the physical
movement of the recording surface and (with disks) of the heads. There is no such
physical movement in the solid-state devices. These devices are another category of semi-
conductor memory but give somewhat slower access speeds to the data than RAM and
ROM and are therefore not suitable for main storage. The two common types of solid state
storage devices used for backing storage are:

• Magnetic bubble memory CCDs (charge couple devices)

• Flash memory
• Magnetic bubble memory

In ‘bubble memories’ data is stored as tiny magnetic domains (the bubbles) which
continually circulate past read- write heads. Some materials in natural form are
magnetized and Application of bias field results into magnet bubbles. The presence
of a bubble can represent a bit. Application of drive field, a bubble generator, bubble
detector, bubble annihilator constitutes the bubble memory.

CCDs (Charge Coupled Devices) these produced by a form of MOS technology. They
are relatively fast compared with bubble memory but are volatile whereas bubble
memory is not. In the current state of development, solid-state of development, solid-
state storage is halfway between established memory systems and backing storage. It
provides access to data that is faster than conventional backing storage devices but
slower than memory. On the other hand, it has a capacity higher than memory but
lower than backing storage. Disk technology

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continues to improve at such a pace that a solid state devices have not yet made a
breakthrough.

Flash drive: It is a small, portable device that can be used to store, access and transfer
data. Due to its small size, it is commonly called Pen drive. It is also called USB drive.
We can read, write, copy, delete, and move data from computer to pen drive or pen
drive to computer. It comes in various storage capacities of 2GB, 4GB, 8GB etc. It is
popular because it is easy to use and small enough to be carried in a pocket. This
device is plugged into the USB port of the computer and the computer automatically
detects this device

Mass storage devices and media

Some large corporations and government agencies have a need for vast data storage
capacities. This need can be met by mass storage devices. These devices are
“automated libraries” of disk and tape cartridges, rather like jukeboxes. The total
capacity of such a system tends to be expressed in terms of Gigabytes (thousands of
millions of bytes).

Summary
In this topic you have learnt the computer system is. In defining the computer system,
we had to look at the four parts. We then followed this up by looking at the computer
hardware and classifying the various parts in details

In topic 3, we will discuss the computer software, that is, procedures or programs that
enable the user to use the computer hardware. We will also look at how the various
groups of computer software work to help the user work well on their tasks on the
computer. But before you go topic 3, let us see how well you have understood topic
2.

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Self-check

1) Giving examples define a computer hardware (3 marks)

2) Draw a schematic representation on classification of computers (10marks)
3) With definition identify the categories of computer hardware (8marks)
4) List four units of measure for computer memory and storage (4 marks)
5) Describe the information processing cycle using a diagram (5 Marks)

Scoreboard
Marks Remarks
25–30 Excellent
20–25 Very Good
15–20 Good
10–15 Fair
0- 10 Go through the topic again

Further Reading

Norton, P. (2006). Introduction to Computers,6th ed. London: Mc Graw Hill.

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