Solution, Crystalloid, Colloid,

Dialysis & Isotopes

Dr. Umme Shaila

Assistant Professor
Department of Biochemistry(SSMC)
pH scale
Mole
• It is symbolized as Mol (mol)
• It is the gram molecular weight of a
substance (if compound) or gram
atomic weight of a substance (if
element).
• Ex- atomic weight of Na =23. So 1mole
Na = 23 g Na
• Atomic weight of Cl =35.5. so 1mole
Cl=35.5 g Cl.
Continue….
• Molecular weight of NaCl=
(23+35.5) 58.5. so 1 mole NaCl =
58.5 g NaCl.
Equivalent
• It is symbolized as Eq (eq)

• It is the gram equivalent weight of a

substance.
• Equivalent weight of Na = 23. so 1
equivalent Na =23 g Na.
• Equivalent weight of NaCl =58.5. so 1
equivalent NaCl= 58.5 g NaCl.
Continue…..
• Equivalent weight = Molecular
weight or Atomic weight / Valency
Osmole
• Symbolized as Osm (osm).
• It is the amount of osmotically active
substance in gram, which in 1 L
solution with water exerts osmotic
pressure 22.4 atmosphere & depresses
the freezing point of water by 1.86 C.
• Osmotically active substance means
any substance which can exert osmotic
pressure in solution with water.
Relation between Mole &
Osmole
• Osmole = Mole/ No. of particles given
by each molecule in solution by
dissociation
• Ex- 1 mole NaCl = 2 osmole, because
NaCl dissociates into 2 particles ( Na &
Cl) in solution. 1 mole NaCl = 58.5 g
• So, 1 osmole NaCl =1Mole NaCl(58.5
g)/2 = 29.25 g NaCl
• For undissociated substances ( Na,K)
osmole & mole are same.
solution
• Solution is the homogenous
mixture of solute and solvent
where solute is dissolved in the
medium of solvent & losing its
physical properties.
• Solute : Solute is the component of
solution which becomes dissolved in
the solvent & loses its physical state.
Ex- sugar, NaCl.

• Solvent : Solvent is the component of

solution which can disperse the solute
& retain its physical state. Ex- Water.
 Classification of solution
• 1. Qualitative
• 2. Quantitative

• Qualitative :
• A. Crystalloid
• B. Colloid
• Quantitative
• A. Standard
• B. Non- satandard
 Standard solution
• a) Normal solution
• b) Molar solution
• c) Molal solution
• d) Osmolar solution
• e) Osmolal solution
• f) Percent solution ( w/w%, w/v%, v/
v%)
Non-standard solution
• a)Saturated
• b)Unsaturated
• c)Supersaturated
According to Tonicity
• According to tonicity with respect
to plasma :
• Hypertonic solution
• Hypotonic solution
• Isotonic solution
Standard Solution
• It is the solution in which the relative
strength & concentration of solute &
solvent are known. The following are
standard solutions :
• Normal solution : It is the solution
containing 1 equivalent weight of
solute per liter solution. Ex- Serum
sodium concentration 140 mEq/L.
• Molar solution : concentration 5mmol/
L. : It is the solution containing 1 mole
of solute per liter solution. Ex- Blood
glucose
• Molal solution : It is the solution
containing 1 mole of solute per kg
solvent. Ex- Blood glucose level 5 mmol/
kg.
• Osmolar solution : It is the solution
containing 1 osmole of solute per liter
solution. Ex- Plasma osmolarity 300
mosm/L.
• Osmolal solution : It is the solution
containing 1 osmole of solute per kg
solvent. Ex- Plasma osmolarity 300
mosm/kg.
• Percent solution : The solution where
relation between solution & solvent is
expressed in percentage is called
percent solution. There are 3 types of
percent solution :
• Weight/Weight solution(w/w) :It is
the gram of solute per 100 gm of
solution. Ex-5% dextrose w/w means
5gm dextrose present in 100gm of
solution.
• Weight/volume solution(w/v) :It is the
gram of solute per 100 ml of solution.
Ex- 5% dextrose w/v means, 5 gm
dextrose present in 100ml of solution.
It is most commonly used.
• Volume/volume solution(v/v): It is the
ml of solute per 100ml of solution. Ex-
5% alcohol v/v means, 5ml alcohol
present in 100ml of solution.
Isotonic Solution

• The solution that has the same

osmotic pressure to that of
plasma is called isotonic
solution.

• Ex- 0.9% NaCl solution.

Hypertonic solution

• The solution that has the

greater osmotic pressure to that
of plasma is called hypertonic
solution.

• Ex- 3% NaCl solution.

Hypotonic solution

• The solution that has the less

osmotic pressure to that of
plasma is called hypotonic
solution.

• Ex- 0.45% NaCl solution.

Normal saline
• It is 0.9% NaCl solution in water .
• It has osmolarity same as the
osmolarity of plasma. So, 0.9% NaCl
solution is isotonic & isosmotic to
plasma.
• It is called saline because it contains
NaCl.
• The osmolarity of normal saline & the
osmolarity of ICF of our cells are same.
Therefore size & shape of cells
suspended in normal saline remain
Continue……
• Cells don’t lose or gain water. That is
why 0.9% NaCl solution is called
normal saline.
• Normal saline is clinically used for :
• Volume correction in hypovolemic
disorders.
• Stomach wash, bladder wash,
conjunctival wash, peritoneal toileting.
Conc. Of Solution
• It is the amount of solute present
in a given quantity of solvent or
solution.
Concentration of the solution

• Concentration of the solution

can be expressed by various
ways. For example: percent
solution, molarity, molality,
normality, osmolarity &
osmolality.
• Molarity: It is the no of mole of solute
per liter solution. Ex- 5 molar glucose
solution means 5 mole glucose present
in 1 L solution.

• Molarity = No. of mole of solute / Liter

of solution (mol/L )
• Molality : It is the no of mole of solute
per kg solvent. Ex-5 molal glucose
solution means, 5 mole glucose present
in 1 kg solvent.

• Molality : No. of mole of solute/ kg of

solvent (mol/kg)
• Normality: It is the no of equivalent of
solute per liter solution. Ex- 2 N HCl
means 2 equivalent HCl present in 1 L
solution.

• Normality = No. of gm equivalent of

solute / Liter of solution ( gm
equivalent / L )
 Osmolarity : It is the no of osmole of
solute per liter solution. Ex-3 osmolar
glucose solution means, 3 osmole
glucose present in 1 L solution.

Osmolarity : No. of osmole of solute /

Liter of solution (mosm/ L )
• Osmolality : It is the no of osmole of
solute per kg solvent. Ex- 3 osmolal
glucose solution means 3 osmole
glucose present in 1 kg solvent.

• Osmolality : No. of osmole of solute /

kg of solution (mosm/kg )
Relation between Molarity &
Osmolarity
• Osmole = Mole / Number of particles
given by each molecule in solution by
dissociation
• Osmole × no. of particles = Mole
• No. of Osmole= No. of Mole × No. of
particle
• No. of Osmole/ L= No. of Mole/L × No.
of particles
Continue…
• So Osmolarity = Molarity × No. of
particles given by each molecule
• 1 molar CaCl2 solution = 3 osmolar
CaCl2 solution because 1 molecule
CaCl2 gives 3 particles ( 1 Ca & 2 Cl )
• For undissociated substances
osmolarity & molarity are same. Ex- 3
mmol/L glucose is equivalent to 3
mosm/L glucose
Continue….
• Or univalent undissociated ions ( Na, K)
Normality = Molarity = Osmolarity
• Ex- for Na, 135 mEq/L= 135 mmol/L=
135 mosm/L
 Relation between Molarity & Normality
Equivalent (Eq) = Mole / Valency or Eq
× Valency = Mol
So number of Eq = number of Mol ×
Valency
• Ex- 1Eq Ca = 20 g & 1 mol Ca = 40 g. So,
60 g Ca is equal to 3 Eq Ca.
• Number 0f Eq/L = Number of Mol/L ×
Valency
• So, Normality = Molarity × Valency
Continue….
• Ex- 2.5 mmol/ L Ca = 5 mEq/L Ca
• For univalent substances ( Na, K, Cl)
normality & molarity are same.
• Ex- Plasma Na conc. = 135 mmol/L or
mEq/L
 Osmolarity vs Tonicity
• Osmolarity is the total conc. of all osmotically
active solutes (both permeable & non
permeable) per liter solution. So, osmolarity is
determined by the total solute conc. in a fluid
compartment.
• Tonicity of a solution is the conc. of only non
permeable osmotically active solutes per liter
solution. Tonicity generates osmotic pressure
gradient or osmotic pressure difference to
cause osmosis between 2 solution when
solutions are separated by semipermeable
membrane.
 Isoosmotic vs Isotonic solution
• Solutions having same osmolarity
(same total solute conc. Permeable &
non permeable) are known as
isosmotic solutions & solutions
having same tonicity (non permeable
solute conc. Only) are known as isotic
solutions.
Continue…..
• If two solutions differ with respect to
tonicity irrespective of their osmolarity;
water movement will occur rom
hypotonic to hypertonic solutions. But
if two solutions are isotonic to each
other then there will be no osmosis
between two solutions whatever may
be their osmolarity status.
Clinical importance of tonicity
• Intravenous infusion of hypotonic fluid
reduces ECF/plasma tonicity leading to
cellular overhydration, cerebral edema
& coma due to water entry into cells
by osmosis.
• IV infusion of hypertonic fluid
increases ECF/plasma tonicity leading
to cellular dehydration, cerebral
dehydration & coma due to water loss
from cells by osmosis.
 Continue….
• IV infusion of isotonic fluid does not
disturb ECF/plasma tonicity & maintain
osmotic equilibrium between ECF & ICF
causing no water movement between
ECF & ICF. So there will be neither
cellular overhydration/cerebral edema
nor cellular dehydration/cerebral
dehydration.
 Crystalloids
• Crystalloids are substances with size <
1nm which can pass through
semipermeable membrane. Ex-
electrolytes, minerals etc.

• Important plasma crystalloids :

• Glucose
• Amino acid
• Urea
Colloids
• Colloids are substances with size 1 to
100nm which can’t pass through
semipermeable membrane. Ex-
protein, glycogen etc.
• Important plasma colloids : plasma
protein
• Common dietary colloids :
• Protein
• Starch
• Cellulose
 Types of Colloids
• Hydrophilic colloid : Practically all colloids
of living systems are hydrophilic.

• These are solvent loving & have affinity to

water.
• They are easily solvated or hydrated where
a shell of water molecule is formed around
them. Ex- protein, polysaccharides, bile salts
etc.
 Continue…….
• Hydrophobic colloids

• These are solvent hating & have no

affinity to water
• They are kept in solution by
hydrophilic colloid adsorbed around
them. Ex- colloidal gold, unconjugated
bilirubin etc.
 Properties of colloids
• Brownian movement
• Tyndal phenomenon
• Electrical phenomenon
• Surface phenomenon
 Importance of colloid & COP
• Colloids determine the colloidal osmotic
pressure (COP) of plasma which is needed
to hold water within vascular
compartment.

• If plasma colloid & COP decreases, water

comes out of blood vessels to make edema.

• If plasma colloid COP increase water enters

the blood vessels from extra vascular
space to expand blood volume.
 Difference between Crystalloids &
Colloids
Crystalloids ( amicrons) Colloids (submicrons)

Size < 1nm & not seen by Size 1-100 nm & seen by
ultramicroscope. ultramicroscope.

Can pass through semipermeable Can’t pass through semipermeable

membrane. membrane.

Crystalline & dialyzable. Amorphous & non dialyzable.

Form homogenous solution (true Form heterogenous colloidal solution

solution) with water. called colloidal system with water.

Osmotically very active & exert high Osmotically less active & exert less
crystalloid osmotic pressure in water. colloidal osmotic pressure in water.

Determine water movement across the Determine water movement across the
cell membrane. capillary membrane.
• Suspension : It is a heterogenous system of
solute with water where solute size is
more than 100nm. Ex- antacid suspension,
RBC in plasma etc.

• Emulsion : It is liquid-liquid colloidal

system produced by dispersion of a liquid
droplet in another liquid in which it is
insoluble. Ex- milk (emulsion of fat in
water).
TRUE SOLUTION COLLOIDAL SOLUTION SUSPENSION

Solute size < 1nm (called 1 to 100 nm (called > 100nm (called microns)
amicron or crystalloid) submicrons or colloids)

Homogenous heterogenous heterogenous

Solute exists as molecule or Solute exists as aggregates of Solute exists as aggregates of

ion 100 to 1000 molecules millions of molecules

Solute never sediments out Solute never sediments out Solute sediments out on
on standing on standing standing

Exert high osmotic pressure Exert very low osmotic Exert no osmotic pressure
pressure

Ex- normal saline Ex- albumin solution Ex- antacid syrup

• It is one of the methods used to
separate colloids & crystalloids
from their mixture.
PRINCIPLE

• Crystalloid substances in
solution can pass through
semipermeable membrane
while colloid particles can’t.
Dialyzer
• Semipermeable membrane used in
dialysis are known as dialyzer or
dialyzing membrane.
• It is used in the form of a bag.
• Commonly used dialyzer:
• Parchment membrane
• Cellophane membrane
• Cellulose nitrate
• Cellulose acetate
Process

• Dialyser acts as a sieve retaining the

larger particles. Mixture of colloid &
crystalloid is placed inside the dialyser
bag & then suspended in a vessel
containing dialysis fluid.Dialysis fluid is
prepared without the crystalloid
substances which are to be separated.
The crystalloid particles from the
mixture of crystalloid & colloid within
Continue…..
• the dialyzer bag will diffuse out to the
dialysis fluid through the dialyser
down their conc. gradient, but colloids
will retain within the dialyser bag.
Dialysis fluid is changed either
periodically or continuously as the
crystalloid particles diffuse out from
the interior of the dialyser bag into the
surrounding dialysis fluid.
Importance
• It is used as artificial kidney for
treatment of renal failure. In renal
failure the crystalloid uremic toxins (e.
g.-urea, creatinine) accumulate in
blood since kidney fails to excrete
them. So by the process of dialysis it is
possible to remove these uremic
toxins from blood, which allows the
patients of renal failure to survive.
Continue…

• It is used for treatment of

hyperkalemia.
Isotopes
• Isotopes are defined as the elements
with same atomic number but different
atomic weights.
• The contain the same number of
protons but differ in neutrons in their
nuclei.
• Isotopes ( Greek : Iso-equal. Tope-
place) occupy the same place in the
periodic table but have different
physical properties.
Types
• There are two types of isotopes :
• 1. Stable isotopes
• 2. Unstable isotopes

Stable isotopes
• They are naturally occurring & do not
emit radiations ( non-radioactive).
• Stability of an isotopes depends on the
definite neutron to proton ratio which
is specific for a specific atom.
Continue…..
• In atoms of low atomic weight stability
is usually achieved with neutron to
proton ratio around one.
• In atoms of high atomic weight stability
is usually achieved with more neutron
than proton .
• Ex- 1 2 12 13 14
H H C C N
1 1 6 6 7
 Unstable isotopes
• These are isotopes having neutron to
proton ratio far away from its stability ratio.
• Naturally occurring isotopes of heavy
elements are usually unstable. Ex- radium,
uranium.
• Rarely some naturally occurring isotopes of
lighter elements can also be unstable . Ex-
- 14 131 60
C I Co
16 53 27
• Unstable isotopes tend to become stable by
radio active decay.
RADIO ACTIVE DECAY :
• It is the spontaneous decomposition of an
unstable isotope of a definite element in an
attempt to become a stable isotope with
simultaneous emissions of radiations ( α-ray,
β-ray, γ-ray ) & formation of new element.

• Mechanism of Radioactive decay :

• 1. Alpha (α ) decay : It occurs in heavy atoms
( atomic number > 70 ) & here alpha
particles are emitted from the radio active
nucleus.
Continue…….
• 2. Beta (β ) decay : It occurs in atoms of
atomic number < 60 & here beta
particles are emitted from the radio
active nucleus.

• 3. Positive beta decay : It occurs in

artifiscial isotopes & here positive beta
particles are emitted from the radio
active nucleus.
RADIOACTIVITY :

• It is the spontaneous emission of

accelerated particles as radiation (
α-ray, β-ray, γ-ray ) from an
unstable isotope by radio active
decay.
Properties of alpha ray

• It is a stream of alpha particles.

• Positively charged & readily

absorbed by matters ,so can’t
penetrate the matter.
Properties of beta rays

• It is a stream of beta particles.

• Negatively charged & less absorbed

by matters, so have high
penetrability .
Properties of gamma ray

• Ithas high frequency with short

wave length.

• Carry no charge & less absorbed by

matters , so have high penetrability.
 Clinical importance

• a) Diagnostic use
• b) Therapeutic use
• c) Use in tracer technique
• d)Measurement of volume & spaces
• e) Measurement of regional blood flow
• f) Sterilization of medical instruments
 Radio sensitive tissues

• Bone marrow
• Gonads
• Lymph nodes
• Skin
• intestine
Radiation hazards/
Disadvantages
• Immediate hazards
• Delayed hazards
• Genetic effects
THANK YOU