Chapter - III

Conductors, Dielectrics and

Capacitance
Presented By :
Mr. V. M. Harne
Assistant Professor
Electrical Engineering Department
Govt. College of Engineering, Amravati 1
Prof. VMH
 :: Contents of Chapter ::
1. Current and current density
2. Ohms Law in Point form
3. Continuity of current
4. Boundary conditions of perfect dielectric materials
5. Permittivity of dielectric materials
6. Capacitance
7. Capacitance of a two wire line
8. Poisson’s equation
9. Laplace’s equation
10. Solution of Laplace and Poisson’s equation
11. Application of Laplace’s and Poisson’s equations

Prof. VMH 2
 Current & Current Density

• The electric current across a surface is defined as the rate

at which charge is transferred through this surface

dQ
I 
dt
• The SI unit of current is A(ampere)

• 1 amp is the flow of 1 C of charge per second

Current & Current Density
 Current & Current Density
Conventional current:
• Scientist first thought that positive charges flow from the positive
terminal of a cell to the negative terminal. This is called the
conventional current direction.
• However, it was found that a current in a metal wire is in fact a
flow of negatively-charged electrons in the opposite direction.
Nevertheless, the conventional current is still used.

+ – electron flow
convention
current
 Current & Current Density
The magnitude of current density, J, is equal to the current per unit
area through any element of cross section. It has the same direction as
the current.
I  J d A
If the current is uniform across the surface and parallel to dA, then J is
also uniform and parallel to dA, and then

Here, A is the total area of the surface.

The SI unit for current density is the ampere per square meter (A/m2).
 Current & Current Density
Current Density as a Vector Field

In reality, the direction of current flow may not be normal to the surface in question, so we treat
current density as a vector, and write the incremental surface through the small surface in the usual way:

where S = n da

Then, the current through a large surface

is found through the integral:
 Current & Current Density
Flow of current inconductor:

A
J

A
I  J  dA  JA  EA   V
surface l

1 l l
R  
 A A
 Current & Current Density
• Conductors
– Conductors : materials having a lot of free electrons, resulting in high conductivities
 Most metals :  ~ 106 to 107 S/m (c.f. good insulators :  ~ 10-10 to 10-17 S/m)
 Perfect conductor :  =  (c.f. perfect dielectric :  = 0)
 Superconductor : having a practically infinite conductivity and Meissner effect at very
low temperature (Meissner effect: the effect of expelling magnetic field )
– Ohm's law for conductors
The drift velocity ue of electrons in a conducting material is given by
u e  e E (m/s) (e : electron mobility)
The current density in a conducting medium containing a volume charge density e
(electrons) moving with a velocity u is J   u . Therefore,
e

J  e e E   E (A/m 2 ) : point form of Ohm's law (for conductors)

 In a perfect dielectric ( = 0) : J = 0 regardless of E
(However, there is no perfect dielectrics.)
 In a perfect conductor ( =  ) : E = J/  = 0 regardless of J
(However, there is no perfect conductor, but superconductor.)
Example-1: Resistance and speed of electrons in conductor.
Find the resistance of a 1 mile (1.609 km) length of #16 copper wire, which has of 1.291 mm.
Solution-
 (copper)=5.8 107 (S / m) e (copper)=0.0032 m2 / Vs
L 1609
R   21.2
 S 5.8 10 (S / m)   (1.291103 / 2) 2
7

This #16 wire can safely carry about 10 Adc. Speed of electron?
10
J  7.65 106 (A/m2 )
 (1.29110 / 2)
3 2

V  IR  212 (V)

E  V / l  212 /1609  0.312 (V/m)

J  e e E   E (A/m 2 )   e e ue  e E

ue  0.0032(m2 /Vs)  0.312(V/m)  0.0009(m / s)  0.9(mm / s) Very slow!!!

 (copper)=-5.8 107 / 0.0032  1.8 1010 C/m3
1.8 1010 (C/m3 ) /1.6 1019 (C)  1029 (개/m3 )  1011 (개/m3 )
 Current & Current Density

Relation of Current to Charge Velocity

Consider a charge Q, occupying volume v, moving in the positive x direction at velocity
vInx terms of the volume charge density, we may write:

Suppose that in time t, the charge moves through a distance x = L = vx

t

The motion of the charge represents a current given by:

 Current & Current Density

Relation of Current Density to Charge Velocity

The current density is then:

So in general form
 The point form of Ohm’s law
Electric current in a conductor-
• In a conductor, current density is proportional to the
electric field vector

J  E (Ohm's law)

• The constant of proportionality  is called the conductivity

of the conductor.

• Under a steady flow of charged particles along a

conductor, the current across any cross section of the
conductor has the same value.
 The point form of Ohm’s law
Conduction current
Conduction band

Conduction band
Conduction band
Energy Energy Energy
Valence band Valence band Valence band

Conductor Insulator Semiconductor

Conduction current arises from free electrons in a conductor.

Electrons in valence band have high enough energy to get into the
conduction band.

14
 The point form of Ohm’s law
Drift velocity
vd  e E
where e is the mobility of the electron in the given material (m2/V-s)
aluminum = 0.0012 m2/V-s
copper = 0.0032 m2/V-s
silver = 0.0056 m2/V-s

Then J  ee E
where e is the free-electron charge density, a negative
value.

15
 The point form of Ohm’s law
The Equation -

J  E

where   e.e

 The conductivity  is measured in siemens per meter (S/m).

aluminum = 3.82x107 S/m
copper = 5.8x107 S/m
silver = 6.17x107 S/m

 The conductivity depends on the temperature.

16
 The application of Ohm’s law
Assume J and E are uniform,
_
I   J .d S  JS a n
s
b b
Vab    E.dl   E. dl   E.Lba
a a

L
we can write Ohm’s law as V I.
S
L
where R  is the resistance with the measured unit of
Ohm (). S a
  E.dl
Vab
R  b
General form: I 17  E.d S
s
Ex-2 Determine the magnitude of E in silver
when

a) nd = 1 mm/s

b) J = 107 A/m2

18
 Continuity of Current

Conservation of Charge:-
“The Principle of conservation of charge states
that Charge can be neither created nor destroyed,
Although equal amounts of positive and negative
charge may be simultaneously created, obtained by
seperation, destroyed or lost by recombination”.
 Continuity of Current

Equation of Continuity:-
“The total current flowing out of some volume
is equal to the rate of decrease of charge within that
volume”.

Let us consider a volume V bounded by a surface S.

A net charge Q exists within this region. If a net
current I flows across the surface out of this region,
from the principle of conservation of charge this
current can be equated to the time rate of decrease of
charge within this volume.
 Continuity of Current

Similarly, if a net current flows into the region, the

charge in the volume must increase at a rate equal to
the current. Thus we can write the current through
closed surface is
 Continuity of Current

 This outward flow of positive charge must be

balanced by a decrease of positive charge( or perhaps
an increase of negative charge) within the closed
surface.
 If the charge inside the closed surface is denoted by
Qi, then the rate of decrease is –dQi/dt and principle
of conservation of charge requires.
 Continuity of Current

The above equation is the integral form of the

continuity equation, and the differential, or point,
form is obtained by using the Divergence Theorem to
change the surface integral into volume integral:
 Continuity of Current

We next represent the enclosed charge Qi by the

volume integral of the charge density,

If we agree to keep the surface constant, the

derivative becomes a partial derivative and may
appear within the integral,
 Continuity of Current

Since the expression is true for any volume,

however small, it is true for incremental volume,

From which we have our point form of the

continuity equation,
 Continuity of Current

 This equation indicates that the current, or charge

per second, diverging from a small volume or per
unit volume is equal to the rate of decrease of
charge per unit volume at every point.
 Boundary Conditions for Perfect Dielectric Materials
 Consider the interface between two dielectrics having permittivities ε1 and ε2, as
shown below.

 We first examine the tangential components around the small closed path on the
left, with Δw<< :

 E  dL  0
Etan1w  Etan 2 w  0
Etan1  Etan 2
 Boundary Conditions for Perfect Dielectric Materials
 The tangential electric flux density is discontinuous,
Dtan1 Dtan 2
 Etan1  Etan 2 
1 2
Dtan1 1

Dtan 2  2
 The boundary conditions on the normal components are found by applying Gauss’s
law to the small cylinder shown at the right of the previous figure (net tangential flux
is zero).
DN1S  DN 2S  Q  S S
• ρS cannot be a bound surface charge
DN1  DN 2  S density because the polarization already
counted in by using dielectric constant
different from unity
• ρS cannot be a free surface charge
density, for no free charge available in
the perfect dielectrics we are considering
• ρS exists only in special cases where it is
deliberately placed there
 Boundary Conditions for Perfect Dielectric Materials
 Except for this special case, we may assume ρS is zero on the interface:

DN1  DN 2

 The normal component of electric flux density is continuous.

 It follows that:
1EN1   2 EN 2
Boundary Conditions for Perfect Dielectric Materials
 Combining the normal and the tangential components
of D,
DN1  D1 cos1  D2 cos2  DN 2
Dtan1 D1 sin 1 1
 
Dtan 2 D2 sin 2  2
 2 D1 sin 1  1D2 sin 2

 After one division,

tan 1 1 1   2  1  2

tan 2  2
 Boundary Conditions for Perfect Dielectric Materials
 The direction of E on each side of the boundary
is identical with the direction of D, because D =
εE. E1
1EN1   2 EN 2
Etan1  Etan 2

1   2  1  2
E2
 Boundary Conditions for Perfect Dielectric Materials
 The relationship between D1 and D2 may be found from:

2
 
2
D2  D1 cos 1 
2
sin 2 1
1

 The relationship between E1 and E2 may be found from:

1
 
2
E2  E1 sin 1 
2
cos 2 1
2
 Permittivity of dielectric materials
What is permittivity?
It is a measure of resistance that is encountered when forming an electric field in a
medium.
“ In simple words permittivity is a measure of how an electric field effects and is
effected by a dielectric medium”.

a) ε (permittivity of medium):- How much electric field generated per unit charge in that
medium.

b)ε0 (permittivity of space) :- The electric field generated in vacuum. It is constant

value ε0=8.85 x 10-12 F/m.

Imp points:-
1)More electric flux exist in a medium with a high permittivity(because of
polarization).

2)Permittivity is directly related to “ Susceptibility” which is a measure

of how easily a dielectric polarize in a response of an electric field. “ permittivity
relates to a materials ability to transmit an electric field”
Permittivity of dielectric materials

ε = εr . ε0 =(1+χ ) ε0

εr Relative permittivity

χ Susceptibility (Chi name of symbol)

Dielectric permittivity is a diagnostic physical property which

characterizes the degree of electrical polarization a material
experiences under the influence of an external electric field.
Permittivity of dielectric materials
(Polarization) —(Dielectrics)
Electric fields in matter: conductors and insulators (dielectrics)
In conductors charges will be pushed to the boundary by external field.

In dielectrics charges are attached to atoms or molecules.

The electric field can distort the charge distribution of a dielectric atom or molecule by
two principal mechanisms: stretching and rotating.
 Permittivity of dielectric materials
(Polarization) —(Dielectrics)
Many non-conducting solids have permanent dipole moments,
or become polarized when immersed in an external electric field.
Materials such as these are known as dielectrics.

Normally, the dipole moment is zero on large scales since atomic dipoles
are oriented in random directions.

Immersion of a dielectric in an electric field polarizes atoms and tends to

align the atomic dipoles.

The induced dipole moment or the total polarization of an atom is

approximately proportional to the field:
 Permittivity of dielectric materials
Electric Polarization :- The process of producing electric dipoles by an
electric field is called polarization in dielectrics.
“ In simple words polarization P is defined as the dipole moment per unit
volume averaged over the volume of a cell”

P = Q*d / volume
Polarizability :- When a dielectric material is placed in an electric field, the
displacement of electric charge gives rise to the creation of dipole in the
material . The polarization P of an elementary particle is directly proportional
to the electric field strength E.

PE
P  E
  polarizability constant
 Permittivity of dielectric materials
Electric
• susceptibility:-
The polarization vector P is proportional to the total electric flux density and
direction of electric field.

Therefore the polarization vector can be written

P   0 e E
P
e 
0E
 0 ( r 1)E

0E
e  r 1
Capacitance and capacitors
– Capacitance of an isolated conductor
Assume that a single conductor has charge Q and its potential is V.
If we increase the charge to kQ, the potential is also increased to kV (Why?).
 The charge of a conductor and its potential is proportional to each other.

Q  CV : Capacitance C is the constant of proportionality.

– Capacitor : two conductors separated by free space or a dielectric medium

Q
C (C/V  F)
V12

– The capacitance of a capacitor depends on :

– (1) Geometry of the capacitor (size, shape, relative
– positions of two conductors)
– (2) Permittivity of the medium between conductors
 Capacitance
• Capacitance is defined as:

C
Q
C/V or F
V

where: V = potential difference (V)

Q = charge (C)
C = capacitance (F)
Calculating the Capacitance:
To relate the electric field E between the plates of a
capacitor to the charge q on either plate, we use Gauss’ law:

Here q is the charge enclosed by a Gaussian surface and

is the net electric flux through that surface. In
our special case in the figure,

in which A is the area of that part of the Gaussian surface

through which there is a flux.

the potential difference between the plates of a capacitor is

related to the field E by

If V is the difference Vf -Vi ,

Here,
Calculating the Capacitance, A Cylindrical Capacitor :

As a Gaussian surface, we choose a cylinder of length L

and radius r, closed by end caps and placed as is shown. It
is coaxial with the cylinders and encloses the central
cylinder and thus also the charge q on that cylinder.
Calculating the Capacitance, A Spherical Capacitor:
Capacitors in Parallel:
When a potential difference V is applied across
several capacitors connected in parallel, that potential
difference V is applied across each capacitor. The total
charge q stored on the capacitors is the sum of the
charges stored on all the capacitors.

Capacitors connected in parallel can be replaced

with an equivalent capacitor that has the same total
charge q and the same potential difference V as the
actual
capacitors.
Capacitors in Series:
When a potential difference V is applied across
several capacitors connected in series, the capacitors
have identical charge q. The sum of the potential
differences across all the capacitors is equal to the
applied potential difference V.

Capacitors that are connected in series can be

replaced with an equivalent capacitor that has the
same charge q and the same total potential difference
V as the actual series capacitors.
Energy Stored in an Electric Field (Capacitor):

Suppose that, at a given instant, a charge q’ has been transferred from one plate of a
capacitor to the other. The potential difference V’ between the plates at that instant will
be q’/C. If an extra increment of charge dq’ is then transferred, the increment of work
required will be,

The work required to bring the total capacitor charge up to a final value q is

This work is stored as potential energy U in the capacitor, so that,

This can also be expressed as:

 Capacitance of two-wire line
The potential difference due to the charge
on conductor a can be found as

qa D
Vab ,a  ln
2 r
Similarly, the potential difference due to the charge on conductor b is
qb D
Vba ,b  ln
2 r
or

qb D
Vab,b  ln
2 r
 Capacitance of two-wire line
The total voltage between the lines is
qa D qb D
Vab  Vab,a  Vab ,b  ln  ln
2 r 2 r
Since q1 = q2 = q, the equation reduces to
q
D
Vab  ln
 r
The capacitance per unit length between the two conductors of the line is

q q
cab  
V q D
ln
 r
 Capacitance of two-wire line
Thus: 
cab 
D
ln
r
Which is the capacitance per unit length of a single-phase two-wire transmission line.
The potential difference between each conductor and the ground (or neutral) is one half
of the potential difference between the two conductors. Therefore, the capacitance to
ground of this single-phase transmission line will be

2
cn  can  cbn 
D
ln
r
Poisson’s equation
Poisson’s & Laplace’s equation
cont..
Cont…
Cont..
Problem Practice