DETAILS OF CONSTRUCTION ESTIMATING

COURSE NO: CE-200

INTROD UCTION

Definition : An estimate for any construction work may be defined as the process of calculating
the quantities and costs of the various ucms roquircd in connection with the work. It is prepared
by calculating titc quantities from the dimensions of the d:awing:;. the various items re.quired to
complete the project and multiplied with the unit cost of item couc..··ncd .

Purpose of Eslitna tine :

l> To ascertain the necessary ar.1ount received by the owner to complete the pr~poscd work
and arranging fund for the same. For public work .:onstruction estimates a1c required to
obtain administrative approval, allotment of fund and technical sanction.
l> To ascertuin the quan1ity of materials required for pr<•gramming timely pro .urement.
l> To know the number of different categories of worl:s that is 10 be employ~d to complete
the work within the schedu le time of completion.
)> Helps 10 assci;s the requirements of Tools, r 1a111s a·1d cquip111cn1s required to complete
the work according 10 the programme.
)> To fix up the completion period from the volume of work involved in the estimate.
)> To justify the investment from benefit cost ratio.
)> Estimate is required to invite tender and preparation of bills for payment.
l> Es1ima1c for cx;sting properly is required for valuation

n :rrerent tv pcs of esti n1a1cs:

There are dilTcrent types of estimates and they arc as follo\\s:

I. A detai led Estimate

2. A preliminary or rough Estimate
3. A quantity Cstimate
4. Revised Estimate
5. Supplementnry Estimalc
6. A complete Estimate

A detailed Estimate: This includes the detailed paniculars for the quantities, rates and costs .1f all
the items involved for satisfactory completion of a project.

A prclim inar:y Estimate: This is :in npproxirnnlc estimate made 10 find out an nppro~imatc cost in
a short time thus enable the rcsponsib;< authority concerned to consider the financial aspect of
the S<.heme for according sanction to the 63ITIC.

A guontity Estimnl!(; This is a complete cs1imn1c or list of qunnl itics for nll i1cms of work
required to complete the concerned project.
Rcvig;d Estimate: Revised Estimate is a detailed cs1inrn1c for Inc revised quantities an I rates for
ilcms of works originally provided in the estimate wi1hou1 1 iaterial deviations of a s1ruc1ural
nnture from the design origina lly approved for a projecl.

fu!pplcmcntary Estimpte; While a work is in progress. some changes or additional w"rks due 10
material deviation of a struc1ural nature from the design oliginally approved may be thought
necessary for developmcrl of a project, an estimate is lhcn I repared to include all such works.
This is known as supplcmertary estimate.

A complete Estimale: This is an estimated cost of all items which are related to the work in
.addition to the "detailed estimate".

Cos1 ()( n1ain c ont1 01Ct

COM l'LETE ES'l'lMA TE

,-
l!11~1occ1u1t: ~1liscC'llall!'tHL'\ ~I/ ,0
or n10.IC'rttal. Jahot1r Ires lrJnsport.ll ltJll al6C 0
and SUJ)C"'is1 lft. ov.·ncr w11h has pm>

Cost o( legal CApcnscs Con1ingcncy S'I. P..:.r mft fee frn Water
rt(luired bctwrcn lhe o( lhc work ror Hid Electricity duri ng
O"'"•nCr and the t~ntr.1ctor CXLrO Wl'lrkS. cnnstruclion.

I
Cost for preparauon / Cosi fOf
o( plan. design, estimate Supervision cf
and <anetion fee. wons.
I --,
Cml of Dclau1tink 1.axe.'I ()( land, street
Surveying. i nl J)m\' C'UlCfH if any.

Fir~t t·ost or Cost o( ex:1m in:ilHJn c>f

at:tual cost of deeds, title of land and
land. ClCCUli(>O O( t.k:cds•

How to prepare a llrtailed Estimalr:

TI1e procc-Oure of preparation of a detailed estimate is divided i 110 two parlS.

a} De1ails of measurement nnd calcula1ion of quantities

b) Abstract of E~timatcd cosl

pc1ails of measurement a11d calculation pf quantities: Include respective measurements for

dimensions for all individual ilcrns involved in the whole work are taken ofT from 1he drawing of
the wurk and entered in the mipcctive columns of a standard measurement form as shown below.
Multiplying item wise res;iecti~'C dimensions quantities of ~II items are worked out in the
measurement form.
 Measurement form:
"
Height or
Item No. Description No Length Orca<lth Quantity
Depth

Abstract of Ji.~timnted cott; is the second pan in the preparati~11 of a detailed estim"te. The cost
of each and every individual item of work is caJ.-ulated by mul tiplying the quantity computed in
the measurement form with the specified rate in a tabular fonn l.nown as "Abstract fonn' and are
added all together lo get the actual estimated cost of work. This estimated cost of work is
increased by 3-5% for any unforeseen expenditure and is call~d "Contingencies". To maintain
additional supervising sta ff at work site called "Work charged" establishment, a funher amo11n1
of 2.5o/o is directly charged to the estimate prepared from item of work. Thus hy summation of
cost nbtained by add ing all items, contingencies and work charged establishment a detailed
estimate is prepared.

Item No Description Quantity Unit Rate Amount

I'actors to be co nsidered durini: preparation of a detailed Es ti111atc :

> Quantity of materials

> Availability of mate• ials
> Transpona1ion of materials
> Location of sites
> Local Labour charges

Lump-sum item : Sometimes a lump-sum rate is provided for cenain small it~ms for which
detailed quantities cannot be taken out easily or it takes sufficient time to find the detail. as front
'
architccrural or decoration work of building, site cleaning etc.

Main items of work for Buildinc estin1ates:

~nhwork in cxcava!iQn for foundation tr~nches: Eanh is excavated for for foundation trenches
10 the exact width and depth of foundniion with vcnical sides and the bonom leveled both
longitudinally a11d transversely. Tiic qumnity of eanhwork is calculated b:v taking the dimensions
of each trench length x breadth x depth.

F,anhwork in Iii ling,; This consists of two pans: (a) foundation trenches and (b) plinth filling.
Normally excavated earth from foundation trenches is used for filling.

(a) : For foundation filling: Quantity ' of canhwork • Volume of work in excavation -
Volume of work in foundation.
(b) Plinth filling: Eanhwork in plinth filling is calculated by taking the internal diweosions in
between plintli waii a11d hcii;l" •• •J~.:il after deducting the thickness of concret~ in Ooor.
S,:oncrete in fcunda\jQ!k The concrete in founda:io~ is rnkcn oi:t in cu-fl by length x Lrcadth x
1hickncss. The length nncl breadth of concrele nrc usually S• me as for excavn1ion, only the
1hickncss differs.

Soling: When 1hc soil is sofl or bad, one layer of dry brick or stone soling is applied below the
foundation concrete. The snling layer is compulcd in sq.fl ("englh x hreadth) specifying lhe
thickness.

Oprnp Proof Course: This is usually a layer of ccmem concrete mixture in 1hc rroportion of I :2:4
mixed with wnter proofing compound laid in between the p".nth and superstructure walls to
prevenl the rise nf waler by capi llary nclion from lhc gmund. The quantily is estimnlcd in sq-ll
mulliplying the lenglh and breadth. The thickn~ss is described i•1 the descrip1ion column.

Mas2nry: Masonry is computed in cu-fl(length x breadth x heigh!). Foundation and plinth

masonry is taken under one item and masonry in supersiruc.urc is taken in another ilcm. In
s1oried building the masonry in each slory is compu1cd scpnr.tely. In laking oul qunn1i1ies the
wall< are measured as solid and then deductions are made for o.-.:nings as doors. w;,•.i""S etc.

~ .C.C work: Reinforced concre1e may be for columns. beams, lintels. roof slabs c1c. The
qunntity is worked out in ~u-rl indm!i;;& "''"forccmcnt. The volume (J(;Cupicd by rcin1orccment
is not deducted from the volume of concrete. The quantily of rconforcement is found separately.

Cc11tering and shuuering (form work): The cost of formwork i; about JO% of ccmc111 concrete.
l lnlcss otherwise specified formwork is measured separn1cly.

tl()Orjng: Ground floor means floor on plinth. The floor consi<ts of t"o pans, ( I) bollom floor
wilh cement concre1c (I :3:6) o•-cr a Ila! soling (Soling i< don< to prevent lhe contamiration of
concrete with earth below ii), (2) tl1e top part which may bt· different lypes. The quantity is
mcnsured in sq-ft.

J?Jastering: Plastering usually V," !hick is calculated in sq-fl.For walls the 111ens11rt·mcnts are
1nken for the whole face r>f the wall for both sides as solid anJ !hen deduction for Oflenings are
rnade.
 ANALYSIS OF RAT ES

Definition : The detcm1ina1ion of ralc per uni1 of a raniculnr ilem of work, from 1he cosi of
quan1i1ies of malerials. lhe cost of laborers and olhcr miscellaneous peuy expenses require for ils
cornplelion is known as lhe analysis of rale. A reasonable prolit, usually 10% lor 1he contraclor
is also included in the analysis of ra1e.

Purposes of rate analysis:

l> To delermine the currenl ralc per unit of an i1em at the locali1:1.
l> To examine the viability of rates offered by contraclors
l> To calculalc lhe quanlily of rnalcrials and labour Slrength required for project p'anning
l> To fix up labour conlract ra1cs.

H ow to fix up rat e per unil of a n it em: The following sub heads are cs1i1na1ed and a
summaiion oflhese is lhc rale per unil of an item.

a) Quanlily of malcrials and cosl

b) Labour costs
c) Costs of equipmcnls or tools and plant.
d) Overhead
e) Profil

Quant ity of Course aggregate, s and and cen1enl fo r diffe rent 11roportio nr In
lhc analysis of rate per cu-m or en, al first a volume of I cu-m has been considerrd in
calcula1ion. Out ii is difficuh 10 assess cxac1ly 1hc amounl of each malerinl required to prodnce I
cu m of wet concre1e when dcposilcd in place. To find 0111 the volume of cemen1. sand and
course aggregate assume I cu-m of wet concrete needs 1.54-1.57 cu-m of dry mi~. ln case of
brick chips the value is taken as 1.57-1.6.

Analysis o f Rate:
Example· I; Ccmenl concrete I :2:4 with graded stone chips for R.C.C works.
Solution: Consider volume of course aggregate = I cu-m
Total proportion = 1+2+4 ~ 7
Cement = 1.54• 1/7 = 0.22 cu-111
Sand= I .54 • 'U7 = 0.44 cu-m or 0.22 •2 .. 0.44 cu-m
Stone chips ~ 0.22• 4 • Amount
Quanlity (cu-m) Rate
0.88 Particulars
Cement 0.22 - ........•-
Materials Sand 0.44 - ...... .f.
Slone chios 0.88 - .•.... J-
Labour Labour - - ..... . J-
Con1in11.encics
\Valer char11.es
5%
1%
... ..../-
..... . .!· --
Profit ...... J-
Rate Per cu-m = ......J-
 SPF:ClFICATI01' S

Specification: A specific.1tion is n six<:ific description of a particular subject. Specification

specifics or de.'!Cfibcs the nature and the class of the "°"'·materials lo be used in the work.
workmanship etc and is very important for the execution of the work. TI1c cost of a work
depends much on the specifications.

Necessit y or specifications:

) The cost of an unit quantity of work is govern l·y its specifications.

» Re<1uircd to describe the quality and quantity of difTcrcnt materials required for a
construction work and is one nf1hc essential contract document.
) A work is c.1rrie:I out according to its spcciticatir:1 and the contractor is paid for the
same.

Specilicution incl ucl~

a) Description of materials
h) \Ynrkman~hip
c) Tools and plants
d) Protection of new work

General specificati ons or a first class builclini:.:

I. Foundation and plinth: IJritk\\ork in foundation and plinth shall be of the first coass brick
in ccn1en1 mortar over cc111en1 c.oncre1e.
2. Filling: Foundation trenches and plinth shall be fi lled up with cour~ sand.
3. IJ.l'.C: IJ.l' .C sl•all bc 2.5 cm th ick cement concrete .Mix ratio is I : 1.5: 3
4. Superstructure: Superstructure shall be of the first cl: ss hrickwork in cement mortar.
5. Flooring: Mosa ic·flooring shnll he provided in to all noors includ ing staircase.
6. Roofing: The roof shall be 10 cm R.C.C Slab with I(I cm average li me tcrmcing over it.
7. Finishing: Inside and outside shali be 12mm ccrmnt plastered. The inside of d;-awing.
dining and bed rooms sh:ill he distempered and n:!l portions white washed three coats.
The outside shall he cokir washed over three coats or while wash.
8. Doors ~nd windows: Doors and windows frames ~hnll he of sca~nncrl tc~k wood and
shurtcrs or 3cm th ick wood panel ing, Brass lillrng s'inll be provided. Doors and windows
shall be varnished with french polish. '
9. Miscellaneous: Rain water pipes shall be of Asl>cs,ns cement or cast iron. finished with
paint. All sanitat) , water supply and electrical fitting. shall be of first class materials.

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•

FOUNDATION
Every building consists of two basic components: '
> Superstructure
;... Subs1ructure
Superstructure is usually that part of the building which is above ground and which serves the
purpose of its intended use. ,,1
Substructure is the lo\ver portion of the building. usually located· belo\v ground level, \vhich
transmits the loads of the super~tructure to the sub soil.

Foundation:"> :
A foundation is that part of the stn1cture which is in direct contact with the ground to which
the loads arc transmitted. ,
The soil which is located immediately bc!o\v the base of the foundation is called lhe sub soil
• soi·1.
or foundation I I
.

Footing: .'
The lowern1ost ponion of the foundation which is in direct contact with the sub soil is called
footing.

Functions of foundations:

• Reduction of load intensity: Foundation distributes the loads of the superstructure to a

large area. So the intensity of load at its ' base does not exceed the sate bearing
capacity of sub soil.
• Even distribution of load: Foundations distribute the non unifonn load of the
superstructure evenly on the sub soil such as con1bined footing.
• Provision of level surface: Foundation provide leveled and hard surface over which
the superstructure can built.
• Lateral stability: II anchors the superstructure to the ground imparting the stability of
the building against sliding & overturning du~ to horizontal forces.
• Safety against undcnnining: It provides structural safety against undermining or
scouring due to flood \vater, borrowing etc.
• Protection against soil movement: Special foundation prevents the distress in tht>
superstn1cture due to expansion or contraction of the subsoil because of moisture
rnovcme11t of soil.
'
Essential rcg ulre1nents of a good found ation:

• The foundation shall be constructed to sustain the dead and in1posed load and to
transmit this to the sub soil in such a way that the pressure on soil do not cause
excessi.,e settlen1en1
1
• Foundation base should be rigid so that d.ilTercntial settlen1ents are minimized.
• Foundations should be taken sufficiently deep to guard the building against damage
caused l y S\velling or shrinkage of sub soil.
• Foundation should he so located that its performance niay not be affected due. to
unexpected future inAuence. i' ' '
J'
 'fypes of foundation: ••

:,... Sh<1 ll2w founda tion I'.

;... Deep l(>undatjon '.

Shallow foundation:
When the foundation is placed i1n mediately beneath the lowest pan of the superstructure, it is
tenned as shallow foundation. A foundatiolj is sh.all?w if its depth is equal to or less than its
width. There are vanous types of shallow foundations:
·I. Spread footing .~
2. Grillage toundation
'
3. Eccentrically loaded footing .,
4. Combined footing I
S. Mat or rafl looti ng jI

6. Strap footing •
,I

Spread footing: ,.
Spread footings are those which spread th~ super imposed load of wall or column over the
widen area. Spread tooting 1nay be of1he tiipowing typcs-
(a) Wi!!ll(>olirl!l; These types qf li)otil1g consist c f several courses vi' bricks. It 111i1:1 : .~ :,...,
two types simple fodting · and stepped wall footing.
In case of stepped footing, the lci~est course is usually twice the breadth of wall
above. The increa.se base vvidth of (he wall is achieved by providing 4_;5in offset on
either side of the wall. Depth of each course is usually Sinch. Generally a COf!crete
base is provided at the lowest level. ''· .,
(b) Column footing; Column footing •is one which is provided under a column for
' distributing the concentrated loads ;ln the form of uniformly distributed load on soil
below. Generally column footing ·~1.eans reinforced cement toncrete column footi,ng,
" It also · . ..may different types:
Single footing: Here the colun1n:j1oad is distributed through the single spread..
Stepped footing: This footing is &~nerally ·used for heavily loaded column which
requires . . " greater spread.
Sloped footing : In' this footing the concrete base does not have uniform thickness but
it is made sloped with greater thiokness at its junction with the column anu smaller
1thickness at thee.rids. ;.. •:i .
. .
(c) Reinfr>J!.<C<! concrete· foo.!i.Dg~ In ' pl1aces where the -walls a.re subjected to relatively
. . . . heavy loadi,ng and the bearing Cllpaeity of the soil on whi'ch the wall footing is to rest
is very·low, the wal~:footing reslilti',a massive structllfe.. Jn such ".c;ase it is desirable to
provide'reirifo~c~ eoncrete'f6otiri'&'. below tlic wall~ . .
(d) Inverted arch footing: In older periods, this type of fou'hdatio'n·used for multistoried
buildings. These type's of foundat i~n greatly reduced the depth of foundation in soft
soils. However with the advancement in engineering technique, inve11ed arch
construct ion is rarely done these days .
•
Grillage foundation: . -
When heavy structural loads from superst~1cture. are required to be transferred to a soil of
ls
low bearing capacity, grillage foundation often found to be lighter and more economical.
This avoids de~p excavation and provide~· necessary area at the base to reduce 1ntens11y of
pressure. Depending uppn material used fe r construction grillage foundation can be divided
in two categories:
 •
a) Steel grill age: Steel grillage foundation con~ists of steel beams also known as grill age
beam. In this case excavations are carried .to the desired depth and the bed is well
leveled. This foundation bed is covered wiih a layer of rich mixture of concrete. This
is well compacted so as t6 make the lay~· of concrete an in1pe1vious bed. Grillage
beams of designed dimensions ar.e. then· plflced. oli this bed of concrete at specified
distance apart usi1ig separators. Tlie upper surface of grillage heam flanges is brought
in a horizontal plane and rich ce1nenl grout Is ihen poured all around the lower flanges
of the beam. The concrete is then placed betV,cen a-rid around the beam
b) Tin1ber grillage: Where the soil encounter::e~ is soft.and is permanently water logged
building wall can be economically supported l:/y suitable designed grillage foundation
of timber. .. ~
1, ,,
; ·.
.. '
Eccentrically loaded footing: j' · · 1 •
As far as possible, the foundation should be so shaped and proportional that the center of
gravity of the imposed load is coinciding with the centre ofiravity of the area of base.
However whe11 the wall or columns are to be placed closely to 'property lines. the required
supporting areas of the base cannot be placed conc¢ntrically with the imposed load without
overlapping the property line. • · 'Ji . :· ' . .. .· ;
Jn such case, the fooling 1s so shaped as to have a considerable wider base. \V1th regul·ar
offsets on the inside wh ile the outside wall face is keill flush \vith the boundary line.
•
•
.
Co1nbined footing: "
A spread footing which supports iwo or more columhs is termed as combined too1i1\g. It m<.y
be following types: 1
(a) Rectan&>iiar "'I
(b) Trapezoidal I '
(c) Combined between wall footing
The r.(lml.'ined footing for column will be reciangular,.in shape if they carry equal loads. If the
colun1ns carry unequal loads, the footing is of trapezoidal shape. The design of cornbined
footing should be done in such a way that C.G of colflmn load coincides wi th C.G of footing
area. Sometin1e it may require providing cornbined fdoting for column and a wall.
' '
.
Mat or Raft foundation: .I

A raft or mat is a co1nbined footil'lg that covers t11e entire area beneath a structure and
I
supports all the walls and columns. When the allowable soil pressure is low or the building
loads are heavy, the use of spread footings would cover rnore than one half the areas and it
may prove more economical to provide mat or raft foundation Also if the structure is liable
to subsidence on account of uncertain behavior of its sub soil water condition. rail loui1dation
should be preferred.
•
1;

Strap footing: ~ .~ ·.. , ·.

If the independent footing of i~o columns is conne~ted by a beam. ~t is t·h~n called strap
footing. Strap footing may be used· where distance. between ihe coluilins is· so great that a
combined trapezoidal footing becomes quite narrow, V:'ith high bending momen'ts~ ln that case
each column is provided with its independent footing !and a bea1n is used to connect the t\vo
footings. The strap beam docs not remain in contact ,with soil and thus does not transfer any
pressure to soil. ·
Oeep foundation :
Deep foundation is those in which the depth of foundation is very large in coniparison to its
width.

Situation for providing deep foundation :

./ The load of the super structure is heavy and its distribution is uneven .
./ The top soil has poor bearing capacity.
./ The subsoil wa ter level is high so that pumping of water from the open trenches for
the shallow foundations is dilli cult at1d uneconomical.
./ There is large lluctuation in sub soil water level.
./ If deep strip foundation is attempted, timbering of sides is difficult to maintain or
retain the soil of the sides of trench.
./ The structure is situated on the sea shore or river bed, where there is damage of
scouring action of water .
./ Canal or deep drainage lines exist near the foundations ..
./ The top soil is expansive in nature.

Types of deep foundati on:

I. Pile foundation
2. Pier foundation I coOerdams
3. Caissons or \vell foundation

Pile foundation :
Pile foundation is generally used when simple spread foundation at a suitab le depth is not
possible either because the stratums of required bearing capacity or steep slopes are
encountered. Depending upon their fii nction or use piles may be classilied in following types:
End b :aring pile: End bearing piles are those which are driven into the ground"iintil a hard
stratut'I is reached. Such piles act as pillars', supporting the super structure and transmitting
the lord down to the level at which it can safdy borne by the groi.:nd.
Friction piles: When piles are required to be 4riven at a site where the soil is weak or soft to a
considerable depth, the load carried by a pile is borne by the friction developed between the
side ofrhe pile and the surrounding ground. ·
Sheet.pile. Sheet piles differ from above pilqs is that they are rarely used to furnish vertical
suppo11 but are used 10 fi1nc1ion as retaining wall. Generally used as impervious cut on· to
reduce seepage.
Anchor piles: When piles arc· used to provide anchorage against horizontal pull fron1 sheet
pilling wall or other pulling forces. They are tenned as anchor piles.
Bauer J2i~ When piles arc driven at an irjclination to resist large horizontal or inclined
forces, !tie piles are termed as batter piles.
Fender piles:_When the piles are used to proi,cct concrete deck or othc:r \Vatcr front s1ructure
from the abrasion or in1 pact that may caused from ships are called fender piles.
Compaction piles; When piles are driven in granular soil with the aim of increasing the
bearing capacity of the soil, the pile:; are terrned as 'conipaction piles.
Tension piles: The piles that are used to anchor down the structures subjected 10 \Jplift due to
hydrostatic pressure or due to overturning nioment.
Pier foundation:
When a heavy loaded building is to be situated 1n sandy soil or soft soil. overlaying hard bed
at responsi ble depth, pi'"r foundation is used to transfer the load to the hard bed below. These
methods consist of sinking vertical shafts up to hard bed and fill ing them with concrete.

Cofferda ms :
A cofferdam may be defined '!IS a temporary structure constn1cted in a river or lnkc or' any
other \vatcr bearing surface for excluding water frbm given site in order to perlbrm various
operation on C))t surface.

Types:

Earthen cofferdam.; It essentially consists of an earthen embankment built around the area to
be enclosed. 1 •
Rock fill cofTerda1n: If the depth of water to be retained by .the eri1!1ank111ent of cofferdam is
of order of 1.8 to 3m, stone or rubble is used for the emba1ikrneni, This is kno,vn as rock fill
cofferdam. ·
Single wall~d cofferd.am; This type of cofferdam is used in places where the area to be
enclosed is very small and the depth of water is 111orc aboL1t 4 '510 61n. ·
Doubled walled coflcrdam: For cofferdam required to enclose large area. in deep \vater single
wall type becomes uneconomical .as larger sections \vould be necessary to resist water
pressure. Double wal led cofferdam is provided in such situations. .
Crib cofferdam: In deep water where it is difficult to penetrate the guide piles or sheet piles
into the hard bed bello,v, crib co1Tcrdan1 is used. In 1his type, the sheet piles are supported by
a series of wooden cribs. A crib is a rrame work of horizontal limbers installed in alternate
courses 10 fonn pockets which can be filled with ear1h or stones.
Cellular cofferdam: This type of cofferdam is mostly used for de watering large areas in
places \Yhere the depth of \Yater may be of the orqer of 18 to 21 ni. These are rnostly used
during the construction of marine structures like dams. Cellular cofferdam is m-ade by driving
straight web steel, sheet plates arranged to form a seHes of inter con nected cells. The cells are
construc1ed in various shapes. Finall y the cells are filled with clay sand or gravel to make
them suitable against various forces to which they are likely to be subjected to l\vo·common
shapes of the cellular cofferdam are : Circular type and diaphragm type.

C aissons:
A caisson may be define<! as a watertight siructure n1ade up of' woud, sled tH reinforced
concrete for foundations of bridge, piers., abutment's in rivers and lakes dock struc111re for
shore protection. The 'Caisson remains in its position and ultin1a1ely becomes an integral part
of the permanent structure.
•

Types of caiss'0ns: .
I. Open caisson
2. Box caisson
3. Pneu111atic caisson

Open caisson:
Depending upon their shapes. open caissons can be further classilied as:
Single wall o 1£.ll caisson: This is a box ! type structure having no top or bottom (during
construction and mainly consists of vcrtic;tl walls)
~ndrica! Qp!:n caisson (\vc!!)' This 1nay be defined as a cylindrical shell made up of timber,
masonry, steel or reinforced concrete wi1h a culling edge which is sunk by c~cfr.Vating the soil
witl· in thee ~hell To facilitate si nking of the caisson, water jets arc so1netimcs used around
the ;ides which decrease 1he skin frict ion. This caisson is also k-no\vn as well caisson.
QpgILQaisSQJl)l'ilh dredging ~vells : This type of caisson has the distinct ion of being employed
for rite deepest fi1undatio11 for bridge piers, 'abutments and other similar structure. The caisson
in this case is rec tangular or square in plan and is further subdivided into smaller section from
inside forming open walls. The outside walls as well as the inside divider 'valls are normally
made up of reinforced concrete •

Box caisson:
This type of caisson is similar to open caisson except that it is closed at the bottom. This
caisson is cast and cured on the land and wlten required it is launched in water. The caisson is
sunk by filling sand. gravel or concrete inlthe c1npty space inside. The function of the sand
layer is to uniformly distribu te the superi1pposed loads over the soil below the caisson and
thus avoid tilting of caisson. '

Pneumatic c11isson:
This type of caisson is closed at top and open (during construction) at the bottom. The water
is excluded from the caisson c hamber by means of compressed air.

Machine found ation :

Another type of foundation is used for n1achine. Design of this foundation involves careful
study of the vibration characteristics of the foundation systen1. All parts of machin e
foundation should be designed for 1naxin]um stresses due to worst combination of vertical
loads, torque, longitudina l and transverse forces, stresses due to te1nperaturc variation and
foundation dead load. The foundation block ' should have the designed thickness and should
be reinforced both at top and bottom even if reinforcements are not required from design
consideration.

C auses of failure of fo'un<lation :

..
The causes of failure of founilat ions may be summarized under the following heads:
I. Unequal sell lement/of the subsoil.
2. Unequa l sc1tlcn1enl o f masonry.
3. Horizontal n1ovement of the soil adjoining the ~tructure.
4 . Shrinkage due to \vithdrawal of moisture from the soil below the foundation.
5. Lateral pressure tending to overturn,the structure.
6. Action of aunosphere. I .
7. Lateral escape of the soil below 1he foundation.
 DIFFt:ltENT ~I ETll O DS FOR EST IMAT ING lllJ IL DING \YO RKS:
•

'Jl1l" <1u:u11111'""" c>f v:trtclllS 1lc1tt\ \1teh :1' l'ar1l1 \\Orl. 111 l"'l";1, al 1t\11. I~ l1111c.la11c.\11 ,., 111i.: ri:tc. h ncL \\Url
m fo undotwn and plinth. bnck"orl m superstructure etc can be estimated by any of1ht
fv ..v ,\ 111.g thr¢c n1cthods·

I) Long :u1d ' h<>r1 w:ill method

2) Centre hne method
J) Cros~ini: method
~)
Lo.ni; and 1>hon wall nw1hod~

In 1h1s med1od the longer walls ma building are considered as long wal ls and measured from out
-to-out and the shoncr walls. in a perpend 1cular dimc11on of the long walls arc considered as
short walls and measured from 111-to·111 for a particular layer of work . To calculate the length of
lcn11· :ln<l ,J1011 \Valls <ie11:r11ti11c fir,1 1 hl'll~ c·.,·u rrc tc, rl·nlrt• rl'll!•lh.., i11cfi,•itlu:1llv f1i,n11l1l" ,,1:111
I hen 1he lc11i;d1 orlong wall. out-to-out may be calculated after adding half breadth of wall at
eoch end with us centre to centre lcni;th Thus the leni;th of shon wall mea~ured in-to-in may be
found out after subtracuon half breadth at each end from us centre to centre leni;th

In tl11s method cnlcul ai~ the total centre line length of walls 111 n building and multiply the same
by the breadth und depth of the respective Item 10 gel the totnl quan tity at a time For ddlerent
"cc11on~ ()f \v:tlltr; 1n a ll111l<li11c. 1l1c cce111c l1r1e lcr1.g1h li>r c.1c:l1 l)IJC M1all l>e \\'t•r~ctt t•ut
\ t11nratcly In C:t\e of l';1n1t1on wall or vcr:uidah walb 101111111: "'di main wnll the centre lme
length shall be reduced by half of the breadth of the layer of main wall that 101ns \\1th the
panition or verandah wall a1 the same le,el Number of such joints are studied first to calculate
the centre line length.
fly this method estimates may be prc1rnred more quickly and this methods us accurate as the
othN methods

Crossing method

In this method calculate the overall pen meter of the bu1ldoni; ond subtract from this four times
thickness of wall to obcam the centre lmc length
ln1crnal \vr1l ls arc grot1pcd separately 10 thcrr <::cc11ons ancl rt1c11surcll in bet\vcc11 tl1e in1emal faces
<>fthc 111:1111 \V:1l l nt 1l1a1lcv1'l '
l'rtnc1pally th IS method is ~ame US ih C CCII trc Ime rnethO{I OUt d I ffcrs the p rOCCSS 0 f calculations
to find the centre lone lengths.
 DETAILED ESTIMATE OF A TWO STORI ED RESIDENTIAL BUILD ING:

General Specification:

1. Foundation a~1 plinth: Brickwork in foundation and plinth shall be .of first class brick in
cem<nt mortar (1:4) over cement concrete (1:3:6)
2. Fillinn.: roundation trenches sha ll be filled up w ith excavated eart!-1 and the plinth shall
be filled u p with local sand.
3. Qfil11p-Proof-Course: DPC shall be o f cement concrete (1:2:4) with water proofing
compound.
4. Superstructu re: Shall be of first class brickwo rk in cement mortar (1:6).Vlla ll thickness
are lOinch.
5. Roofini:: The roof shall be of Sinch R.C.C slab w ith 35 in lime terracing over it. Co ncrete
mix ration is 1:3:6
6. Flooring: The und er bed of ground floor shall be of 3inch thick CC la id over a layer of
brick flat soling.
7. Plastering: Inside and outside walls shall l / 2inch thick cement mortar(l:6). Ceilinc and
sunshade shall be of l/4inch cement plastered (1 :4).
8. Doo<S_and windows:
9. Pa inting:

Given:

#. PIJn of a two sto ried building with detailed dimension

'
#. Detailed sectio n of the building
#. Floor to floor height= !Oft
#. Door, Dl = 35' x 7, D2 = 3' x 7', 03 = 2.S' x 7'
#.'Nindow, Wl = 4' x 4', W2 = 3' x 4', W3 = 2' x 4'

Calculation of long and short wall:

Outer long wall (2 No)= 45 ft

Ou ter short wall (2 No)= 26ft - lOin • 2
Wall - 1 = 26ft - 10in •2
Wa ll - 2 = 14ft
Wa ll -3( 2 No)=l0ft +6in+1ft
Wa ll - 4 (1 No) = 16ft + lOin + 7f t 2in + 6in + 4 ft
Wall - 5 (1 No)= 8 ft

-
 .. W3 W2 \\' :!
'
. DRAWING DI I a ·ROOM
ll'X IO' JO' WIDE BED ROOM
z
u.l
I
14'X II'
:c 0
u-
~x
- -
~-

~ '° D2
Dl
DI
'
- .
LJ I
. .- ·- . . -· -. - ,. .
~~ 02
. -·
;::; x
~ .., D3
.....

!•'
v:
.. I DJ ___, 0 3

<
u BEDROOM
B <><:0
"' &> . STOREROOM 14'X 12.S' __p
~
II'. - 7'2" x 8' ~
1- TOILET
4' x 8'

•
W3 W2 W3 \.\'I

GROUND FLOOR PLAN

 ..... . . . . .. .. . , . . . ..
'
r==f ~
j

I
I I
I
I
I
I-
. . , --· ... ....
- -: . .. ...... ~ . . ... ....
I

J.
I .\ " CC

1=:::5/==::s::::e::;=:=<==!=s=:5::=a;'-·T - P. L

-- --
SECTION B-B
 - "•
•
I

..'
1
..
•
I
• ' •- I ' ...,, 'ff•I•
/
• ... . .. .-. . . ,, .. . -. . .·
------i
. ·.

' . .. - •

i ... .' • •--:-;""':- . -

•

-·-----<

. . - -- j
."
II
I •

• •

~ o·
~ . ( (.
I" DP('

I'. I.
I ~-· · l'. L

c.; L _.,.___ I ~r-1 (i I

I • '
I .•w I I • .I
~ -'4'--1.. I •
JI
l• . ? •..~·.. •...
.
I I •
·--.~~.~.-
. ·. .. : :- . .
lo I . • • , .. .
.... ~--;~· :- .. ..
. .... .. .. .:. ..

--·
•' I • '
• • • ' '

SECTldN A-A
-
Meaw.rrne.nt"
I •. , () \Cr1pt.on of :ei '<u l (ft) 8 (ft) H ft) Qwrttrry Unrt
SUB HEAD-I: µRTMWOR~
Earchwork in e.aav• tt0n
Outer long wall 2 r- 45 5 5 2250.00 cit 1
-1
Ou1er shon wat 2 24.34 s s 1217.00 cf~ BreMtth S' c: 4' •

l
Wdll 1 1 24.34 5 s J-fi08.50 ch_J 1' (sr•ce)

-~lI
Wall - 2 1 14 s -~0.00 ---~ Hei1ht S'n1eans
Wall 3 2 11.5 5 575.00 cft from
VJ0>ll - 4 l 28.5 5 712.50 cit I foul>datlon level
\•Jan - s 1 8 5 200 00 cf~ to Ground level

ro:ol Eortlt\vork-= '591l.OO dt (G.l )

~net filling for pl,nth
Ard rUC)m 1 14 11 l .5 385.00 cit
lnuseofl, B
Brdroom l 14 12.S 2.S 437.50 cit
•.Inner
Orav. ng room
Oin1ngroom
1 11 10
lS.5 2.S
2.5 r 275.00
387.50
ell
cfl
dimensJo;'l are
t1ken

~;:
2 tCitchen with passage 6 15.5 2.5 132.50 2.5' • 3'(bet"
Toilet \v11h passJfle 1 11.s 3-+-- 5 2.5 222.88 G.l & P.L) •
Stair ca~e
Sle..rc 1ou1n
L
1
16
~. 17
8
6
2.S ~20.oo
2.5 ] 4 ).4 0 ch
I 3"(for CC)·
l "(Brlck ,.ollnc)
To1l<'t 1 4 8 2.5 80.00 d t-1 17.8 3'"'

~. j
roral sand /i1J1ng for pl1nrh • 1 2483.78 dt 11'•10",G'
~

Eairthwot1c in fillin1
Total Earthwork. in exc.a,..... 5913.00 cit
DoOuct : 2.67'.
l Concrete loul\ddt100 236.52~4 l 25 1182.60 dt _j' ((22<42V2l/12
/ 8J1ckwork in found.;ti00 lup to G l)
Btlck ._oliog
236.52 2.&7 1 3.33 2102.92 I _ di_ i 3.33' .
10"• 10"•10"• l
23&.52 4 0.42 397.35 cit
O"
Total £orthwo1S.111 /lflrrir1 - L - ' 2230.12

-r
-
cit

jsun HEAD·Z: CONCRETE WORK -=r~ l i

Cotl<rete In fO\lnd atlon
Outer fong wall 2 45 I 4 1.25 450.00 dt-1
Outer short Wi 2 24.34 4 125 243 40 cf!
WoO·l 1 24.34 4 l.25 121.70 ct
~

4 WoA • 2 1 14 4 1.25 70.00 di

Wall · 3
~~:~ 1 •
2 4 1.25 115.00 di
Wall - 4 l 4 l.25 142 so I dt
crt
Wall S
Total conc1ete 1n /oundol,01J •
f1" t hick O.P.C
1

1·- -1--
1.25 40.00
__!_182.GO -· cft

~?uter Jong Wt.111 ~I o.aJ

- ' 1 -1,4 .70_ _sft ~ OPC Is usually 1
Outer short wall 2 24.34jo.8J 40.40 sft J laye-r of rc:ment
Wall-! 1 24.34 0.8.l 20.20 sh
concrete
Wo"· 2 1 14 0 83 11.62 sh
WalJ 3 2 11.S
----+--
0 83 19.09
~-
sft
mb'ture tn the
PtOPoftlon
Wa1' 4 1 28.S 0 8l 1366 >fl 1:2:4 mhtcd

~
Wa0-5 1 8 0.83 6.64 fl witfi w•t! r
S P.W o.s _ _ _ 4.00
sh f p<OOfi"I
IP.W 0.5 _.__.0 1 1.00 sit compoul'Kf laid
- ~
Total• 211.3 1 sft In between the

.•.'
•
~-.,--,''-----------,---,~--"--~---------..,,,""'~~--

~
Oe<luction : p •nln n
Coor, 0 1 3 3.5 r -o~83 j 8 .72 ctt supe rstructu re
·. 02 ·---1-2~+-~~--0.83 L- 4.98 cft \'Jails to prevent
the rise of
103 2 25 083 , d.15 c't
~-------- -- _ _:. . _ . _...:_ · - ' - - 1 waterb'/
+--'!' -I - 4__._0-c'"-
83~--
Co:la?sible gate
!Nft]!!tE_
I_=__ •
3.32
190.15 i-:·-! ;;:~·u:~:ac f ion
cft

6 _, c.o~i_crete i.'!_sla~. _
1 Cttn~rete in lintel
1
__ _ _ <16 1 27 ·1 0.42 Sl:i..64 c:ft ground.

I
-~ -•-- ,
Outer long wall --·---·-!-~ 4S _ _0.83 l - 0.S_ l-- 37.35 I cft
1 0 uter shor wall ~-~4.34
1
0.83 o.s I 20.:0 I c:f~i l intef )(-section
. ,W•ll_:!_ 1_ 24.34_ _!!:83 O.S JQ. _C <:i! ' : 10" )C 6"
~
7 cft 0.5' = 6"
Wall - 3 _ _ I 1 1 11.5 , O.&l O.S 4.77
- --- '- - -- r ch
,.Wall · 4 -- - . _ _ 1 29.S 0.83_ _1 0.5 12.24
P_W 1 16 I 0.5 0.5 4.00 cft
' Total concr~te it1 lintef =
-- 88.67 cft

l.l b c.il_ -1 9.43 :"sqrt (82+

33.6 7 • (. f\ I
• S' )whe,e .
26.8R ch
5' = 1/2 o f
16.80 d1

=t ·
hei.;ht of one
Total co,.,crete in stair= . I 80.10 dt 0 001
--- -i-1·
,Concrete in Sunshade
Winc!?w,~1 -:-- ~- 4 !.5 j 10.0B , Cf I
+- - ·
9 1
\ 4J_
i :ld0:'.'}!.' 2 ~ 4 I - 3 l.S i .Sil dt
, -- : - 1· • I
~"Jind ov.•, w_3 ._ .. l 1.5 5.04 ('f l
~

T'Jtol cont;!_ete lor S()n~~hode = J 2 7.r.a. c.ft

I
COl"l~ete_in_f_
>9• d room
lo_or_
ing_j _ _ __ +' - - 1
I 1ii
11 I 0.25
1
38.50 ch
14 I 12.5 l 0.25
Bed room - - --
Ora\ving room_ ___
lDining r~~m---'~ -_
I

- - -- 4--1
lH-w
11-1- i C : -:-G.2:i- ·
15.S 0.25 :: 1
43.75
27 ~~
38.75
<ft
..: ~ t
Cf I _JI o.2s· • 3· (CC)
10 Kitchen 1_ j 6 • 10 o.25T J ·1s.0-0 <fl I
Inner dimensio n

Store re~--- _ ----1 I 7. 17 8 0 .25_1_ 1• .3• ch

are ta ken

Toilet
TOill't
- --
_ _ __ :le__ _;,
l
•_
4 ' 8
S 0.25
0.25
5.0-0
a.oo ,,
c:f t

Pt1!>'.)age1!.:~'!!~.!n toi!ct an_d~d_

in_+-_1_ 13.33 ~-; o ~ 16.66 <fl
1-- -Total concrete~ floor_:: 207.50 dt

. - . is2.'l.~M.?_
-3 '·BRISKWO!IK_ l __ ;-~''-----_-_-_
! _

·-~ick flat~ling_ ,___ I

Ma_
i n_w
_a1_1_ _ _ _ __ _ __ 1
__23_6_._52 ,- 4= - 946.08 sh
11 -~
.roewa!i 1 1 4 2.S 10.00 sh
_ ~Totolb!Jc'Ul~t soling= _- · -~-- ~---~= 9';6.08 <;ft
tBrick flat soling in f!oor ___ , I ~
!Bed room 14 t 11
l , j 154.00 sit
,,,
~B~d roo".' _ l -1 • 1_4 ·- _12.S 175.00
Df;i,ving roo::n ___ r_ _ __ j_l_ 1 l l ~ 10 110.00 sit
l 10 ' 15.5 155.00 ..1~

-=L:-:~1:111:s
12 Kitchen 60.0-0 t,f l
Store room 57.36 sit
·- -- -
Toilet
·---
' Toilet --- ,
1
1- f
4
-4 I s --1.-
Z0.00
32 00
<;ft

'"
 Pa~<>age bctwffn to•l' "'! ....,, · l1fl 1 13 .33 s -'
I 66.GS
Toto/ buck fla t'°""" = .+ ~
r s30.01
Briel work in foundat!on
ttp to G.l
1~~ footing I 1 236.52 3.S 0 .83 I 687 .09 cit

13
2nd f~ti ng
3rd footing
I
1
1236.52 ·-2.83
~

236.52 1 2.33
o.s3 1ss5.5& ;
--·-
0.83 457.41 l
. ch
cft
l.!.' ~ 42"
4•t1 ' •t'l11f1« 1 236.52 I.SJ 0 .81 3S<J.25 • e ll 2.83'. 34"
JrtJfnGt io Pl I 2J6.S2 l .2S 3 886.95 cit 2.13· • 2•·
I
1_29~6.26
cft
1otof br1ckwCJrk "' /oundotl(J11 ..,
-+:- -= 1.83' . 22·
Brickwork in superstructure
Out~r· long w<1ll 2 r :·~ . o.83 I- 10 147.00 cit
I
Outt',. shon w~ll 2 ~ 0#-)_10--!-:• 04.0'o-l cft
Wall l l 24.34 0.83 •0 :02.0 2 t ft:.__;
Wall 1 1 t4 0.83 to ' . :16.20 cft PW = 6• (T01ltt
IJ/a!! J 2T n.s o 83- -10 ~90.90 cit wall • &• wallJ
P\V 22' •
Wall · ~ 1 ~~ ~ 083 ~-•-236.SS c ft
ll'(Orawln1)•
Wall · 5 l L... 8_~_08~-~66.40_ cft
l 8 . 0.5 10 40.00 1 6'(kltchon)•
P.W cft
P.W 1 -2 2j-o.s 1"1'0- - : 10.00 cft_j 5'(tollet).... (•II
are 6 .. walll
14 Tota1 - 2111.12 cJt .J
Oeductro-. I 1-
roroco... 01 1 _..._3:::·.;S:__:::
0;=.8::.
3 - - - '7- ! 61.01 cit
02 2 3 0.83 7 34.86 cft
03 1 ' 2.51 0.83 7 14.53 cf!
For \"Jirldwo, V.Jl 4 4 I 0 83 4 53.12 cf t
,vz 4 3 - 0.83_1 • 39.84 cft
W3 4 ;- 2 0.83 4 26.56 citj
• j
f or lintel s: 88 67 cit
!__ --1-..:;318.58
To~ai dedut t1on •
Nee roro~ 8 Win lUperstrucrvr~: ·r _L - r 1794.5•
cft
cft
__J
SUB HEAD·4 ; P!.ASTF,RING

.
lS 1/2" thick Ctment pla$te.-:.o wall
-
lnside plaster~g : J
H
Bedroom S~ , 10 • - 500.00 >h
-
Sed room
o,.....,ing roon1 1
53
42
10
10
.
530.00
'20.CO
sf!
sh
-
I Kitch(•n I 3J - 10--1 320.00 ·"-1 SO' • 2•(14~ ll)
Store room I • 30.34 I l q_j_ JOJ.40 .11_ 53' =
To• et
To'1et
Stair case
I
I
I
_
18
24
48
±' 10
_I~
10
180.00
240 .00 l
480.00
sh
-;lt_j
sit
2"\] 4•12.5)
50' Int.Jude 111
I inside will of
IS\>) To tal= '
1-- I
~ I
2973 40 r_:_l
"f:

_J-7-=~
Deduction : the bed room
1-'or Door. 01
02
3
2
r 3.5
3 7 I
71.so_.=_.ft I
· 42.00 sft
03 1 2.S
' 7 17.SO sft--
foe Vl"'dwo. Y/l
W2
lw3
: -:::: I ::: -
4 - ~2.00 •h=.J
Tota! dcdur:•O'• 277.00 _>::,:f;_t- - - -----1
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~....,....~~-.--~-~-~'·------------~
; _ _~1-
Net totol inside_plastering _=_ _____._ _ _ 269o.40 , _ ~i:_
!Outside plastering I_ 1--'j 142 I , 10 I 1420.00 ' sft_
1

15 jJ Oed.uction = - - - ---'+-- -+-·- ·!--·-+-,,_ 1 277.00 ' sit

(I ),Net total outside plastering=
Toto/ Of.!!£'!t_of plastering=
1/4" plastering in ceiling
- - . • -
_
1 -
~- _J _ - [3839.110 ~- sft
n 143 .00 l- sft
l
1

'
·::~ :~~: - -- - -- +- ~ --1- ~: I- 1~~s · ~~:,:: ~::
' ~~ng room --=- ·1-1 - - 11- L 10 J I 110.00 : - \ It

-= I ~ 1 -7-~~=J _
Dining room 1- 10- l 1s.s 155.00 sft

· IKit~er:o~ _ 180 I -_' _ :~~~ ~-:::

16 !Toilet _ I i_~_J 5 1 20 00 _ _ sft
Toilet 1 ~1-8 I -· __ , _ 32.00 __ sft
, Passage between toili:_t and_~~J_l __ 5 · 13.33 66 65 __ sft 13.33' = 11' +
Stair ca~e : J I L _ 10" + 6' - !>' (for
. l und~~waist slab - 1_j 4 8 -l 32.00 I sft toilet)
ffii landing_ · - T 2 !~- ! _ 8 _, 64.00 sft
--;

,~_derside o~ 1st floo!_lan~..:_1-1- 4_ _ 8 _, 32.00

·-
sft
.Toto/ plastering = ! I 958 0 1 sft
h - 1/4" plasteri;;-g in Sunshade l 1__ [_ -:-
1.5
' i'or Wind wo, Wl 4 , 4
- -
24.0C
--sit -
17 ~W2 _ _ ~-t 3 !_ 1.5_/ _J 18.CO
01 sit'-
·
3
to/ plastering =
- I 2_ _ 1.5
, 1
I
,
I 12.00
54 .00 sf t •

••
'•
••
 .
r..io Description of item Qty Unit Rate(/=) Unit !I.mount(/=
' - -·1- - i
SUB H[AD - 1: EARTHWORK j · --
1 ' Earthwork in excavation - 59-1?- .- cft-J cft
2 ,Eart hw ork in fil_lin-"g"------ --1--2_23_0_.Jj_cft_j ...... cft .
• -
3 .'San d filling fo r plinth
SUB HEAD - 2 : CONCRETE WORK
2483.8 cft
I cft I '
......
.

4 '. c oncrete in foundation (1:3:1 1 182~6 cft - cft- 1

5 _j concrete in_slab (l :3:§_)_·_ _= ~~~~-64_cft I__:..... +-_
cf!__: _ __
6 Concrete in lintel (1:3 :6) · 88.67 ~ cft I cft '
7
8
-I Concrete i n. stair (1:3:6) -~ 80~::.--~!!_I_ ......
concre' e in sunshade (1:3:6) j 22.68 1- cft__ ......
cft I
, cft ·j
1
9
1
Concret e in flooring _(1:3:6) _ L 207.5 cft . ......__/_ cf!__
10 11" thik D~C (CC 1:2:4) 190.15 sft ...... sft
__j SUB HEAD - -~: BRICK~ORK l_ - I
Brick fla t soling in foundatio. 956.08 sft
Brick soling in floor
-
830.01 sft
- - - L- - - - -

larick work in fo undatkYn 2946.3 ,__ cf.-t- -1- - <----i- - - -

- - l .- - _ _ __,_~--+----~-- - l
,Brickwork in superstructure 1794.5 cft 1
• - - - - - fo-.-- - ---+---"---f-
To ta/ Brickwork 4740.8 cft
·--
To ta I Brickwork 178 5.1 sft
. -· ~·- --~

Brick (9.5"x4.5"x2. 75") 69683 no ·

:arick (9 5 "x4 5"x2~5") '6o1s.i " no -- -!- -
11 iTotol No of brick ---------1 75699 - No
l _ .- • - er j I
-iood
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isus HEAD - 4 : PLASTERING - -- ·1 ___!_____ +

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12 ,1/2" Plaster (1 :6)_ _ _ ,__38_40_~!._L sft l 1-----

13 ~ 1/4" Plaster (l :~)- _ J 1_ 012__1 sft I .... _
.. sft _,__'__ .
14
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'SUBHEAD - 5 : W OOD WORK
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15 SUBHEAD - 6 : STEEL & IRON WORK

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16 SUBHEAD - 7: FLOORING _ , _,_ __
- -+--- --11-.,· - - --
_,_ _ __ . --
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17 !'

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BR!CK MASONR\' Lap:

Lap is the horizontal distan~e between the vertical joints of successive brick courses . Lap
1
should not be less than I/4 h of the length of the brick .
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Definition:
The construction carried out 11sinQ bricks and monar is knov.'Tl as brick masonr\' Perpend:
~ ,
.A. perpend is an imaginary vertical lir1e which includes the vertical joint separating two
adjoining bricks.
Types of brick:
I . Traditional bricks
2. Modular bricks
Quoin:
lt is a comer or external angle on the face side of a "''all .
Stre11gtl1 of brick rnaso11ry depends on:
> Quality of bricks
Racking back:
It is the termination of a v.•all in a stepped fashion
> Quality of mortar
'r Metlicd ofbondinu used
1·ootl1i11g:
~

i__-= ,-~l: C' l !tlded \vall even

0
(-C~n~ 11-t 1 rt~rl \},:1~ ~1 ~c:-1n d q 1 ia_ fit~ 1 h1-ick~ 811d !Yl,-) rfBr h:-i~ l~ ttle stre11~th ?!.1°1 (~ -~~--~

stabilit)r. It is the tern1ination oftl1e \val! i11 such a fashion tl1at each alternate CCJl1rse at the end projects

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.Cat1ses of preferring brick masonry over other types of maso11ry: .
in order to prO\'ide adequate bond if the wall is continued horizontally at a latter stage.

l) The bricks are ofu11iform size and s!1ape So the)' can be laid in an)' define pattern Bed:
2) The a.it.of brick layi11g ca;1 be ui;der stood very· easily and even u11skilled r11asc111s ca11 Bed is 1he lo\\ er >urface cif.the brick \\'l1en !aici tlar . (0:; x ,~ ")
do the brick rnas@ry. Stone masonry construction requires highly skilled mt1sons:i,,.
3) Bricks do not need any· dressing like stone. Closer:
4) Bricks are very light in weight and convenient in size. They can be easily handled. It is a po11ion of brick with the cut made lo11gitudinally a11d is tised to close up bo11d at the
S) As the bricks are light in weight, they do not require any lifting apparatus. end of the course. A c1'' ser helps in pre\'enting the joints <)f s11c,cessive courses to co1ne in a
6) The::{ can be manufactu'"ed at all sites and there is 110 problem of its availabilit\·. 1\ iso \'Crtical line Closer may be of vario1Js t;'Pes :
they do not require ,ya11sportation from long distance . aJ Quee.11 closer: !1 is a jJOrtio11 of a l1rick obtai11ed D)' Ctitti r1g a brick le11gtl1\vise i11to 1,vo
7) Light partition wall and ornamental works c.an be easily constructed b;' brick portions ·r11us a quee11 closer is a bric~· \v hich is l1alf as \.l'ide as tl1e full l1rick. Th.i s is
mas(Jnf\'. knov;n as queen closer. \\1hcn the queen closer is brok.en into t\VO pieces, it is knov.1n
'
• as queen closer q11arter .
'l.ra1Jitio11al bricks: b) Kinu \:J.P~~r It is obtainec b~· cutting a comer of the brick j('i11ing n1id(i}e poi11ts ot-
fhe bricks that are ge11erall:-. used in 1.:onstruction are k110\•;n as traditio11al bricks. Gc11erai , •. id1l1 and l..:11gtl1 llI.tl1e brick It is tised 11c<1r doc1r a:1d 1\in(:l)\\ l)pc11ings to get good
size of the brick is 9.5'' x 4.5'. x 2.75''_ arra11gemcnt of the 111ortar joints.
''c) B.~~, J~d_ clo ~er~ It is obtair1cd P\' c1Jtting a tria11gular JllJrtion of t1·1e brick. half \\'idth
\1odt?lar bricks:
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and full lenll.th
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d) \1itresl_cit1'.it.::L. ',Jitred closer is obtai11cd b~ ct1\tii1g a tria;1:·c1l<1r ~1a11 Clf.the brick fro111
1\n)' bricks \vhich are of san· e uniiorn1 size of P\VD standard are kno\Yl1 a<- r:iodular bricks
one of it s l1cader face . Cu~ti11g face is in.;:lined at 45 to 6(1 degree witl1 lt)ng•cr stretcher
face of the \)rick .
Moulded b1·icks~
e) Bat It is a 11iecc of brick. lf bat is half brick in length., it is kn0\\11 as half l)at _ it it is
~1oulded bricks are those which arc n1anufactured in special shapes and siL.cs to be used fl1r
314"' of the brick it is k110\'vn as three quaner bat Bat 111a)' be beveled also \\ hieh is
giving arehitecl1tural shapes. Such bricks are used for cornices, slopping walls etc.
the11 called be,·eled liat.
"- f) Bullnose: Tl;l brick n1oulded ;;ith rr'.lnd ;>_ngle is kno\vn as b1illnose.
Stretcher:
:\stretcher is the longer face of the brick A course of brick in which all,M1c brick·· ~_;2 !z.10 is
Bonds in - · -\York:
- brick - -
k11own as stretcher course if all the stretchers are on facing (9.5 x 2 . ·, _,
Bo11d is an arranQe1nent of bricks in a course h,· \\·hici1 formatitln t1t' co11tinuo11s \ ·ertical joints
- · ' J

both in the fa~~ and body of the \\all can be pre\'ented and tl1e i11dividual u11its are tied
l-I
- P,adcr:
- together.
1\ header is the shorter tace of the brick. A course ot'brick in which all the cricks are laid 3s
' -
hca<lers on the facing is known a.S header cour~ or he~ding courses (4 .5 x 2 75)

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·1~ypes of bond:
1. Stretcher bond •
•
2. Header bond \.

3. English bond __,Every stretcher course started with a three quarter bat. :_l

4. Flemish bond -+In every stretcher courses, a header is placed next to the bat.
5. Facing bond
6. English cross bond Raking bond: It~ the bond in which filling of thick walls is done by laying bricks in inclined
7. Brick on edge bond direction with tl1e facing of walls. It is of two types:
8. Dutch bond a) Diagonal bond: In this type of bond filling bricks are inclined in one direction ~nly.
9 . Raking bond Here the bricks are arranged at 45degree in such a way that extreme corners of the
10 Zigz.ag bond • series remain in contact with the extreme line of stretcl1ers .
11 . Garden wall bond b) Herring bone bond: This bond is very useful for walls havi~g thickness m_o re than
4bricks. Bricks are laid at an angle 45 degree from the centre line of the wall in plan.
Stretcher bond : Stretcher bond or stretching bond is one in which all the bricks are laid as
stretchers on the faces of walls. This pattern is used only for those walls which have thickness Zig zaQ. bi.·nd : This bond is similar to licrring bone bo11d except that the bricks are laid in zig
halfhric.k i e. ·~ 5 inch zag fashion . It is most comn1only used for 1naki11g ornamental panels in brick floo ri11g

Header bond: Header bond or l1eading bond is the one in \vhich all the bricks are laid as Garden wall bond: This type of bond is used for garden wall, boundary walls wl1ere thickness
head ers on th.c faces ofw;ills This pattern is used only i.vhe11 t11e thickness of the ""all is equal (Jt' \Vall is one brick thick and it does 1101 exce<;J two meters. It has three types:
to one brick i.e. 9. 5 inch. This is acl1ieved by using three qua11er l1rick bats. a) Garden wall English bond : 111 this bond, 11eader course is provided only after three ~o
· fi\•e stretchers courses. In each 11eader course a queen closer is placed next to qt101n
J;ngli ~!L_l;>o1)d: 'fhis is most commonly used bond for a!l \Vall thickness This bond is header. In stretcher cot1rses, quoin headers are placed in alterr1ate courses.,..
considered'"'to be the strongest. The bond consists of alternate cour5's of headers and
~ b) Garden \Vall Flemish bond_;_ Jn this bo11d each courses contain one header after three to
stretchers . 111 order to break vertical joi nts ir1 successi,,e joints it is essential to place queen five stretcher continuQusly placed. Each alternate layer contain 3 /4tn brick bats placeLi
closer after frrst header in each heading course. next: 1 quoin header. Then another he;ider is placed.
c) Garden wall monk bond: This is special type of garden wall Flemish bond in \\'hich
Flemi sh bond In this type of bor1d, each course is comprised of alternate headers a:1d each course contain one he.ader after t\\'O successive s1retchers. Eve0: alt er1°•te cr;urse
stretchers. E~ry aitemat-e course starts \Vith a header at a_)mer then queen closer are placed . co11tain a quoin header folio'. ved by 3/4t.h brick bat.
It has two types
•
a) Double Flen1isJ1 __bond Jn il1e do11ble Fle111ish bo11d, each c(1t1rse prese11ts tl1e sa1ne
appearance botl1 i11 the frorit fa ce as well as in the back face. Alternate headers and
stretchers are laid in each co11rse. ·
•
b) Si o_:;le Flemish bond : Si11gle Flemish bond is con1prised of double Fle1nish bond
faci11g a11d Englisl1 bond liack ing and heaiiing in each course.

;•: <l ir1 tlils b0.id ' a head er course is laid after se'<cral ~tr~tcher c.our:=cc:.. ·rhe i;ond
Fa<: ir112 ()(. ---·--
~ - --

rTl il ) be i~ scd 1,) la)' cost!:; facing br icl<.s on exposed face a11d lo\v quality brick.s i11 the backi11g
of the '';a ll s.

-English
- -cross
..... -·· bond -- 1 his is modification of English bond used to in-·prove the appe2ranc.e of
the '''all . Si1ccial fcaiures are: •
- -> .A.lt er;1ate course ofhea,Jer an<i stretcher -
__, _,;. header is introdticed next to tl1e quoin stretcher in e,·e~· ~, lte r r:a'C" stretcher course.

Brick on ~dge bond : In this t;ve br>11d stretcher bric~: co1Jrs~~ <ire ust'<l or. edges i1;stead of
bed. 1·11is bond is \vc.1.k in stren2tl1 but is ecDnc111iccl
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Dtrlch_b_Qnd : T11is is ant)ther rno dit~ -:- :ti o 11 form of Fi1;< l isl1.J~· O!l1 . ln'this l)On<l the C<' t ir~es are
strengthen .
·-• ,\Jterriale la\ er o! i1eaders and <;;:·..:tciiers art0 prO\' JdL·c •
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 PLASTERING Miscellaneous tools: These include plumb bob, sprit level, set square, straight edges, brushes etc.

Method of plastering:
Plastering is the process of covering rough surfaces of walls, columns, ceilings and other building
components with thin coat of plastic mortars to form a smooth durable surface.
The coating of plastic material is tei111ed as plaster. Plastering on external exposed surface is known Preparation of surface for plastering:
as rendering. .
The surface of the background should be prepared as follows -
./ All the projections extending more than 13mm from the general face of the masonry should
Objects of plasteri~g:
be knocked off so as to maintain thinner plaster layer .
./ All the joints in the masonry should be raked for a depth of about 20mm.Raked joints should
To protect t:he external surfaces against penetra!!on of rain, water and other atmospheric
•
be properly cleaned from all loose dust and mortar. · ' •'!J
ageDC1es. ./ Oily, greasy and effiorescence spots should be removed either by brushing, scrapping or both.
> To give smo-0th surface in which dust dirt can't lodge.
./ If the wall to be plastered is very old, the surface of wall should be made rough by scrapping
·> To give decorative effect. it with some tool.
> To protect surface against vermin.
./ After carrying out all the abo\1e 1nentioned processes, the prepared surface should be
> To conceal interior materials or defective workmanship.
thoroughly washed with water and wet before p!astering is started .
./ In order to maintain uniform thickness of plaster, the screeds are formed on the prepared wall
Requirements of eood plaster: before plastering. Patches of plaster l SOmmx l SOmm are first of all applied at an interval of
- about 2m both horizontally and vertically. The two dots lying in a vertical plan are plumbed
.!.. It should adl!.ere to the background and should remain adhered during all variations in seasons by means of plumb bob. After fixing dots, vertical strips of mortar are formed between dots.
and other at~cispheric conditions. _ These strips are known as screeds. These are used for maintaining even thickness of plaster .
.i.. It should be hard and durable. •
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.i.. It should possess g~d workability. Lime plaster:
.i.. It should be possible to apply it during all weather conditions .
.i.. It should be cheap. Lime plaster is applied either in three coats or in two coats. Before applying plaster, the background
.!.. It should effectively check penetration of moisture.
is prepared as desired above:
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Types of mortars for pl~tering: Three coat plaster:
•
In a three coat plaster, the first coat is know11 as rendering coat, second coat is known as
Selection of type of' mortar for plastering depends upon the following factors floating coat and third coat is known as setting coat or finishing coat .
•
1. Availability of binding materials. Application of rendering coat: The mortar is forcibly applied with masons trowel and pressed well
2. Durability requirements. into joints and over the surfacP The thickness should be such as to cover all inequalities of the
3. Finishing requirements. surface. This is allowed to slightly harden and then scratched criss cross with the trowel. The surfl\Ce .
4. Atmospheric conditions and variations in weather. is left to~ at least for 7 days. . · ··
S. Location of surface. App"ication of floating coat: The rendering C'.)at is cleaned off from all d1~. dust and,~ loose
mor ar droppings. It is lightly wetted. Patches 15cmxl5cm are applied at suitable spac~,t~ act ~s
•Following t)'Pes or mortars art' commonly used for plastering: gauges. The mortar is then thrown with masons trowel spread and rut-bed to the requJI:~ plain
i. Lime mortar surface with wooden float. , , , ..
ii. Cement m<>rtar Application of finishing: In case of lime sand mortar the finishing coat is applied i1t,~pet1iitety after
the floating coat. Finishing coat consists of cream of lime ( 4: l ), applied with st~! tr()~ and ~bb~
•••
Ill. Lime cement mortar
anil finished smooth. The rubbing is continued till it is quite dry. It is left for lday and then cunng is
Tools for plastering: done for at least 7days. _ . . ;,' .
In-time surki mortar finisliing coat is applied 7da)·3 aftt'r the floating coat is applied, after clearung
Gauging trowel: Gauging trowel is used for taking mortar from the mortar pan t»shing ;, ag:!in~~ tlie the surface The finishing coat is rubbed hard and finished smooth. · '·
wall and then spreading and pressing it. The end of this trowel b:ade r: · · either pointed or bull
nosed.
Float: Float is used for applying and spreading mortar on the surface. It is made of either metai or Two coat plaster: . .
wood. Metal float made of thin te111pered steel is known ac; la:;mg trowel. 1 ne laying trowel is u~ed · · In this· case the rendering coat is a wmbination of the rendering. fl::-~ting coats of thr~ ~at
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for laying the pl!! ster material and [or trowel ling ~:> as to get desired finish. 1'he wooden floa: plaster and is done under one continuous operation The finishing is then applied in ~ manner similar
commonly known as skimming float is used for the f 1ishing coat of plaster to th.three coa• ?laster ·
•
Floating !Ule: lt is used for checking the level of plastered surtace between sucet:ssive screeds.
- --- _. __ .... '. -. _,.,........,.__ ----- .....,.,.-
Cement plaster and cement lime plaster: 6) Scrapped finish: In this the final coat is applied to about 6to 12mm and after few hours, when
• it has stiffened, the surface is scrapped in patterns for a depth of 3mtn.for scrapping steel
Cement plaster is applied either in two coats or in three coats, the former being more common. For straight edges are used. Such surface is less liable to cracka.
interior work, single coat plaster is sometime provided. 7) Textured finish: This is used with stucco plastering. Ornamental patte111s or textured surfaces
are made on the final coat of stucco plastering. -
Two coat plaster: '.
Jo;- The background is prepared by racking the joint to a depth of 20mm, cleaning the surface and Special material used for plastering:
well watering it.
:.... If the surface to be plastered is very uneven, a preliminary coat is applied to fill up the Acoustic plaster: This contains gypsum mixtures applied as final coat in finishing the plastered
hollows. before the first coat. surface. Such a ~t undergoes chemical reaction resulting in prodcction of gas bubbles and
,_ The first coat or rendering coat of plaster is then applied. The cement mortar is applied on the consequent formation of tiny openings in the coat . These honey combed minute openings absorb
surface between the successive screeds to maintain exact thickness and the surface is properly sound. This is used for the interiors wall of halls, auditorium etc.
finished . Asbestos marble plaster: This is made of cement, asbestos and finely crushed marble imparting
);.. Before the rendering coat is hardened, it is suitably worked to provide mechanical key for the Mable like finisl1.
final or finishing coat. Tl1e rendering coat is kept wet at least 2 days and then allowed to di)· Bariun1 plaster: lt is made from cement, sand and barium sulphate. It is provided in X-ray rooms to
completely. · protect the person working in it .
,_ Before applying final or finishing coat, the rendering coat is damped evenly. The final coat is Granite silicon plaster: This is used for superior type of construction because it has quick setting and
applied with \vooden floats to a true even surface and finished with steel trowels. This coat highly elastic properties.
should be started from top towards bottom and completed in one operation to eliminate joints. Gypsum plaster (plaster of Paris): It is obtained from heating finely ground gypsum heated at 160 to
170° C It hardens \vithin 3to 4 mi11utes of adding water. To extend the setting time, suitable retarders
1 hree coat plaster: are used . It is generally used in combination with lime for ornamental \'.'ork and for repairing holes
The process for applying t1'lce coat plaster is similar to the two coat plaster except that an and cracks. ir

intermediate coat known as floating coat is applied . Kenee' s cement plaser: Keenes cement is obtained by calcinating plaster of paris with alum. This is
The purpose of this coat is to bring the plaster to an even surface. The rendering coat is rough. very hard and sets in few days taking white, glass like polish. ~t is used for ornamental and
Floating coat is applied 4to ?days after first coat. finishing coat is applied about c' ours after the decorative plastering. .
application of floating coat. Martin's cement plaster: Martin's cement is obtained when pearl ash is calcined with plaster of paris.
It has quick setting properties anti forms a wJtite hard surface on drying.
Single coat plaster: Parian cement plaster: It is obtained when barax is calcined '"''it h plaster of paris It is used for
This is used only in inferior quality work. It is applied similar to two coa1 plasters except the interior v.·ork.
rendering coat. It is finished of immediately after it is sufficiently hardened. Scagliola plaster It is obtained by dissolving keenes cement and colouring pigments in glue. lt
appears like marble. •
Types of plaster finishes: S1rapite plaster: It is obtai11ed when plaster of paris is slaked in petroleum It has quick setting and
• fire resisting properties It produces white hard surface on drying .
• r Snowcrete and colourcrete cements : These are trade names given to white and coloured cement
1) Smooth cast finish : In this finish work, smooth, levc led surface i~ obtained. The mortar for
the finish may be made of cement and fine sand in th· ratic, of 1 3. l\1onar is applied v.ith the respectively These are·used on ex"temal wall to create good appearance . ...
help of wooden float . Thistle h~rd''0lL It is a prodti ct ot'high grade gypst1n1 !1 sets rapid\~· and produce~ cxcelient finish 11
2) Sand faced finish : This is obtained b:y plastering in two co..is . First coat is applied iri I 4 is used for interior work .
c.ement sand mortar for l2mm thickness. lt is provided with zig zag lines. :\fter curing for
7days, the sec.nnd coat is applied in the tl1ickness of 8mm. mortar for secund coat is prepared Defects in plastering:
from cement sand ratio 1: 1. The surface of final coat is finished by rubbing clean and fine
sand b1· means of wooden float . • Blistering of plastered surface This is the formation of small patl.li.::~ of plaster swelling out
3) Rough cast finish : ln this. the mortar for final cG<.: contains fine sand ~· wel I as coarse beyond tl1e plastered surface.
aggregate in r·,tio 1·1 ~ :3 The mortar is dashed against prepared plastered surtac.e b~· means
::}f lar - · · ~·..;:cl The surface 1s then roughl] finished by wooden float . Such finish is v•ater
• Cracking : Cracking consists of formation of cracks in plaster work resulting due to :
___.imperfect preparation of background .
proof durable and resistant to cracking. __, discontinuitv• of surface .
4) Dn· dash ln this , the final coat ha\•ing cement sand mi~~ proportion 0 r 1:3. Clean pebbles are --> movement of plaster surface d1ie to expansion or shrinkage ..
the Jashet.1 against the surface_ so that the:• are held in positiron The pebbles may be light I~ - , excessi\·e shrinkage due to application of thick coat .
pressed
•
into the mortar with wooden float . -->fault)' \\'Ork1nanship .
5) Depeter fini~!. : This is similar to r.ebble aas" finish inw·hich plC<"PS of gr!'' ·el are pre~o:ed \Vit h
• Falling of plaster Following ma~· be the reason of this detect
11at1L o;i tnl· ~urt ace. Gra\· ei~ o:· 111111 ot~ d~11. ercn: i.: .... :: iu!tJ n 1~, - l)~· 1..! •• cd l\.) '"1~,:~ : · ·. :"'\c:1 :~1i1--...: ~
4

- - bond (l;- plaster \\·itr1 back!:": uu11~ ma :- not perfec·

pa.t1ci i!!:
-4 too much thermal changes. ....· _-,
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" . ;"-.
· - .~

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-·...--- -· -
-. -~ ··
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--
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-- .... ..
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· -· - .- - - _,__.
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• POINTING
-'+imperfect bo11d between successive coats of plaster.
• Crazing: It is the formaiion of a series of hair cracks on plastered surface due to the same The term pointing is applied to the finishing of mortar joints in masonry. In exposed masonry, joints
reasons that cause cracking. are considered to be weakest and most vulnerable spots from which rain water or dampness can
• Effiorescene: It is the whitish crystalline substance which appears on the surface due to enter. Pointing consists of raking the joints to a depth of 10 to 20 mm and filling it with better quality
presence of salts in plaster making materials as well as building materials like bricks, sand of mortar in desired shape.
and cement etc. It effects the adhesion of paint to the wall surface.
• Flaking: It is the formation of very loose mass of plaste1 .;d surface due to poor bond between Pointing is completed with the following mortar mixes:
I successive coats. a. Lime mortar: 1:2 mix
• Peeling: It is the complete dislocation of some portion of plastered surface resulting in the b. Cement mortar: l :3 mix
formation of a patch. •

• ·Popping: It is the formation of co11ical hole in the plastered surface due to presence of some Preparation of surface:
particles that expand during setting. .. . New work: All the joints are raked down to a depth of 20mm while the mortar in the joint is still
• Rust stains: These are sometimes forme.d when plaster is applied on metals. soft. The surface of the joints are then cleaned and thoroughly wetted.
• Uneven surface: 1'js is obtained pure!:· due to poor workmanship . Old work .A.JI loose pointing and s11perfl11ou5 mortar on the surface and in the joints are remo\'ed.
The .joints and surface are cleaned and then tl1oroughlv
.._ ·' wetted.
Remedies of plaster defects:
•
• Metl1od of pointing:
After preparing the surface. mortar is carefully placed in desired shape in these joints. A small trowel
Following measures if employed will result in minimization of defect:
1. The surface to be plastered should be properly prepared. is used for placing the mortar in the joint, the mortar is pressed to bring perfect contact between tl1e
2. The finished surface of the plaster should not be trowel led excessively. old interior mortar of the joint and new mortar. The pointed surface is kept wet for at least a week or
3. Superior quality of bricks sl1ould be u3ed for brick works. till it sets after application
4. Wat.er used in construction should be free from soluble salts. • .-..
5. Efflorescence if any should be removed by rubbing the surface with brushes. Alternatively a Types of pointing:
solution of one part of HCL or H 2 S04 with 4 or 5 parts of clean water may be applied on the 1. Flush pointing
affected surface with brushes. 2. Reces. ed pointing
6. Water should not be used for washing the surface to remove efflorescence. 3. Rubbed, keyed or grooved pointing"
7. Surfaaes should be painted only when efflorescence has fully ceased. 4. Beaded pointing
8. Proper damp proof course should be laid correct!)'. • 5. Struck pointing
6. Tuck pointing
7. V poi11ting
8. Weathered pointi;;g
9.
Flush pointing: This type of pointing is formed by pressing mortar in the raked joint and by finishing
off flush with the edges of masonry units. The edges are neatly trimmed with trowel and straight
edge.
Recessed pointi.11.&. 'fhe pointing is done b)' pressing tlitt n1orrar back from the edges 1-iy Smm of
more. ·r·11e face of the pointing is kept ve11ical by a st1itable tool.
Rubbed, keyed or grooved pointing: This is a modification of flush pointing by forming a groove at
its mid reight. b)' a pointing tool.
Beaded pointin_g_:_ This is special type of pointing formed by steel or ironed with a concave edge. It
gives good appearance. but is liable to damage easily.
- St-:ick po;P;ting This is a modification of flush pointing in which the face of the pointing is kept
inclined. v.·ith its u1111er edge pressed inside the face by l Om1n. This pointing drains water easily-.
Tuck pqir'.in.& It i;; formed by first pressing the mortar in the raked joint and finishing flush with the
•
face \vhile the pressed mortar is green. Grou ~having 5n1m \vidth and 3mm depth is cut in the centre
of the grOO\'e This groo;·e is then filled in or tucked in '''ith \vhite cement pt1tt;·, kept projecting
beyond tl1e face of the joint b:v 31nm.
' •
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 PAINl'ING, DISTEMPERING AND WHITE WASHING e) Bronze paints
f) Casein paints
:>aints are liquid compositions of pigments and binders wl}ich when applied to the surface in thin g) Cellulose paints
::oats dry to form a solid film to impart the surface a decorative finish and giving protection from h) Colloidal paints
Neathering, corrosion and other chemical and biological attacks. i) Cement based paints '·
j) Emulsion paints
Characteristics of an ideal paint: k) Enamel paints •
1. It should fonn hard and durable surface. 1) Graphite paints
2 . It should give attractive appearance. m) Oil paints
3. It should be cheap and readily available. · n) Plastic paints
4. It should be such that it can be applied easily to the surfaces. o) Silicate paints •

5. · It should have good spreading property. p) Synthetic rubber paint

6. It should dry in reasonable period.
7. It should not show hair cracks on drying. Painting on different surfaces: .
• •
8. lt should fonn film of uniform color on drying.
9. It should be stable for longer period. Painting on ne\>.' wood work:
10. It should not be affected by atmospheric agencies. The painti11g on new wood work is done in the following steps:
Preparation of surface: For good results wood woiX should be w ell seasoned and should not contrun
Constituents of paint: more than 15% moisture. Du st is totally removed from the surfac-e.
Paint generally made up of following constituents: Knotting: Knotting is the process of covering or killing all knots; in the wood work with a substance
I . Base: A base is a solid substance in a form of fine pa\vder, fom1ing the bulk of paint . A base through wl1ich the resin cannot come out.
~

in paint provides of opaque coating to hide the surfac ·~ to be painted . Priming: A.fter knotting, the surface is lightly rubbed smooth with a abrasive paper. Priming consists
2. Vehicle: These are liquid substa11ces which hold the different i'lfgredients of paint in liquid of.applying first coat of~nt to fill all the pores.
suspension. The vehicle makes it possible to spread the paint evenly on the surface. Stoppinl].: It is the process of rubbing down the wood surface by means of glass paper after prin1e
3. Drier: Driers are used to accelerate the process ot' drying and hardening by extracting oxygen CQfit is applied and then filling up all cracks, all nail holes, ope111 joints with putty. After putty dries
•
1io111 tl1e atmospheric and transferring it to the vehicle. up, the surface is rubbed again with glass !Japer.
4. Colouring pigments: Colouri11g pig1nents are added to the base to have different desired Under coating: After stopping second and successive coatings -are applied . This is known as under
colours. • coating. This coat serves as foundation to the finish coat.
5. Solvent or thickr:ess : Solve11ts are added to the paint to make it thin so that it can be easily Finishing coat: Finishing coat is ttpplied after the under coat i s perfectly dry . This c.oat is applied
applied on surfaces. It aiso lielps ll1e paint in penetrating through the porous surface of the very carefully so that finished surface is smooth, uniform and free from patches.
background.
Repainti11g old wood \vork: .
Classification and types of paint: Before repairing old wood work, thf old paint having cracks an.d blisters ohould be reino\1ed by
• applying lkg of caustic soda in 5litres of water. Then the old pa•nts get dissolved
Classific:;a~ion ba "ed on binders : After removing the •old j>aint, the surface is prope;C;"'y cleaned and rubbed with glass paper. Tlie
a) Oil paints cleaned surface is then given two or three coats o; paint.
P::1r1ts based on non oil re s111s
b)
Ctilulose pl1ir1ts
c) Pai11ti11g ne'"'' iron and steel work: "
d) \\'ater based paints Iron and steel surtace are painted so that rusting is prevented. l'Jie process is:
· e) 11iscellaneous paints ,/ The surface is cleaned of scale and rust by scrapping or bru•hing V>.ith wire steel brush. Oil
Classificat\on bast;"d on ultimate use: grease etc are removed by wasi'.tlng the surface with pet1 oL benzene or iime water.
a) General purpoSt: paint~ including prime coat and finishing coat paints. ../ The_ cleaned surface is treated with a fi1in of phosph0tric acid. It protects the surtace fro1n '
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c) Fire resi~tant paints. ../ The pri111e or first coat is then applied.
d) Fungicidal paints. v' After the ;:. i.ne .::oat has dried, two or more under coats are apr'ied with a brush or s1,ray· gu11.
e) 'fl.liscel:ar1eous paints su1..i1 as firr: resista11t paint, anti condensation paint etc. r:.ach successive coat must be applied after previous co.-t is dried completeiy.
Mixed classification: v' Aller that the final coat of the desired type of paint is applied -; ~"'.· 7·
a) Alumin1•-n paints • ~ -,

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c ! \si:>c5tos "aint~ ' Repaintlilg old iron and steel work: . I
13cfore re;1ainting. the old surface i~ thorough!)· ~eaned by soap ..,..ater. The !!-rease may be clc1n<~d j
d) Bin1minou:; paint
by wasi1;ng the Slrrface with lime and water. Eowever if t!.lile old paint hi!.S crac-Jc~\\it;.lias <o be , ·:,
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ed by flame cleani11g l'l1e surface is then scrapped with wire brush and washed with solution
caustic soda and fresh slaked lime. After the surface is prepared, painting is carried out as for new •

surface.

Painting plastered surface: . PreQaration of white wash : white wash is prepared from fat lime. The lime is slaked at the site and
Newly plastered surface may contain considerable ~oi~re. Hence painting should be resto_re to
1nixed and stirred with about five litres of water for one kg of unslaked lime to make a thin cream.
after 3to 6 months of plastering. Calcareous surface like lime or cement plastered surfaces are highly•
This should be allowed to stand for a period of:~ hours and then should be screened through a clean
alkaline because lime is liberated during hydration of cement. Due to this, oil based paints and
coarse cloth. Then one kg of gum is dissolved in each cum of lin1e cream. About l .3kg of sodium
distempers are liable to alkali resistant primer. Absorption of liquid from p~int i~ known as suction. chloride dissolved in water also added for every lOkg of lime. Small quantity of ultra marine blue
High suction may make the paint difficult to apply and !eave the coating 1n an under bound may be aclded to the last two coats of white wasi1 solution. .
condition. If the surfaces show high suction, it should be treated with suitable primer.
Preparation of surface: The ne\V surface should be thoroughly cleaned off all dirt, dust and mortar
Defects in painting: drop before \vhite wash is to ~e applied . Old surfaces already \Vhite washed should be broomed to
I. Blistering ~ it is the defect caused d11e to the formation of bubb!es 11nder the fi!m of paint. This re1nove all dirt and dust . All loose scales of lime wash and other foreign matter shot1ld t.: remove<i
defect occ11rs by water v«por trapped behind painted s11rface Where heaVJ• seal ling has taken piace. the entire surface sl1ould be scrapped clean.
2. Bloom in thi!> defect, dul] pa t ches are for1ncd on finisl1ed surface. lt occurs due to bad
ve11tilation. Application of wl1ite wash \\'.hite \vash is applied with brush to the specified number of coats
3. Saggi11g: this defect occurs due to application of too thick paint. (generall;' three). The operation in each coat s!iouid consist of a stroke of the brush from the top
4. Fadi11g tl1is is the grad11al l<Jss of color ofpai11t dt1e to tl1e effect of SL1nlight on lligment do,,·n \Vards. another from bottom up\vards over first stroke . Another coat horizontally from the rig11t
5. Flaking it is the dislocation ofso1ne portion of painted surf~ce, resL~ing from p?or adhesion. to left a11d from left to right before it dries. Each coat should allowed to dry before the next coat is
6. Flasl1ing: it is the formati<:>n of glossy patches on the painted surface resulting from !-ad applied. The vihite ,,·asl1ing on ceili11g should be do11e prior to tl1at on wall.
work111a1isl1ip, cl1eap pa;r1t cc>r \~catl1er actiort.
7. Gri11ninQ : this defect is caused \vhe11 the fi11al coat does 11~t have s1Jfficicnt 0~1acity 51) tliat
--- -- ~ Color \v::isl1in g: ·~
background is clearly seen.
Color "''ashing is prepared by adding coloring pigment to white wash. Generally used pigme11ts are
8. Running: this defect occu1s when the surface to be pai11ted is too sn1ooth. Due to this. the
yellow earth, red ocher and blue vitriol . These are crushed to fX"wder before mixing. The color \\'as h
paint runs back and leaves :smai; area ur1covered.
is applied in the sa1ne fashion as white wash. For color washi11g 011 new surface, the first pri1nary·
9. fu1onification : this is the· f<irn1ation of soap patches on the pai11ted surface due to chemical coat should be of white wa.sh and the subsequent coats should be of color wash.
action of alkalis. '1i;
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Distempering:
Disten1pers are considered as \Va1.er paints. Diste1nper is co1nposcd of a base such as \\ihitinQ or
chalk, a carrier as water, a binder as gl11e C111d coloring agent i.e. coloring pig1nents.
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Process of distempering:

. Preparation of _J_urface: Ti1e surtac<:: to be distempered sl1ould lie tt1(Jroug.l1l:-· r,;L,bed a11d clca~1ed . The
efilorescence patcl1cs sh()Uld be ..: ' rel.ully \\•ipe<l out by clean rloth . TJ1~ irrc:gu'..irities in surface
should be filled with putty'.
If distempering is to be done on ne·,\· st1rfnce it should be kept exposed for 3to 6111ont!1s so that all tl1e
moisture evaporates. If it is to be dor1e on old surface, old loose distemper should be removed by
scrapping. Ne'v cement plaster s11rlace should be washee with solutio11 of zinc s11lphate in water a11d
allowed to dry.
Prime coat : A;'ter cleaning the p•e?.'.rcd surface, priming ~oat "l1ould be applied For read~·made •

distempers, prime co2! as suggcste<J b:> the manufacturer.

Coats of distcn.mers: Distempers a.xe applied in 2to3 coats. Ho\VC\'cr 'lcxt coat should be applied 0nl)'
wtien the pre,,ious coat has dried up a11d hecome hard . [Jistcmpering sliou!d te do ne in dr.· v.·eather
to achicv·c best results.
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