M.E.

S INDIAN SCHOOL, DOHA -QATAR

Notes 2020 - 2021

Section: Boys / Girls Date: 15.10.2020

Class &Div.: XII (All divisions) Subject: Physics
Lesson / Topic: ATOMS
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CHAPTER 12
ATOMS
Rutherford’s α - particle scattering experiment (Geiger – Marsden Experiment)
Rutherford and his associates studied the scattering of the α - particles by a thin gold foil in order to
investigate the structure of the atom. An α-particle is a positively charged particle having a mass equal
to that of helium atom and positive charge in magnitude equal to twice the charge of an electron. They
are emitted by many radioactive elements. The scattering of α-particles provides useful information
about the structure of the atom.
Experimental arrangement

The α-particle from 83Bi214 (radioactive source) contained in a lead cavity are collimated into a narrow
beam with the help of a lead plate with a narrow slit. The collimated beam falls on a thin gold foil, of
thickness of the order of 2.1 x 10 -7 m. The scattered alpha particles were detected with the help of an
α-particle detector, ZnS screen produces flash on the screen.
Observations
(i) Most of the α-particles pass straight through the gold foil or suffer very small angle
scattering.
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 (ii) Very few α-particles scatter through large angles (more
than 900 )
(iii) Rarely, α-particle rebounces (scattering through 1800)

Explanations
(i) As most of the α-particles passed undeviated. The atom has a lot of empty space.
(ii) Since the fast and the heavy α-particles could be deflected even through 1800 , the whole
mass of positive charge , the entire mass is confined to an extremely small central core,
nucleus.

Distance of closest approach

An α particle directed towards the centre of the nucleus will move close up to a distance ro
as shown in Fig, where its kinetic energy will appear as electrostatic potential energy. After this, the α
particle begins to retrace its path. This distance ro is known as the distance of the closest approach.

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Impact Parameter: Impact parameter (b) is the perpendicular
distance between the initial velocity vector of α particle and the
centre of the nucleus. The trajectory of the α particle is
determined by impact parameter. If the impact parameter is less,
angle of scattering will be more- more deviation for the α
particle.

Drawbacks of Rutherford’s Atom Model

Since electron travels in a circular orbit, it is constantly accelerated. Accelerated charges radiate
electromagnetic wave which carries away energy. Thus, the potential energy of the electron is reduced
and it moves closer to the nucleus and finally falls into the nucleus. So, atom is unstable as per
Rutherford’s model.

According to Rutherford’s model, electron can exist anywhere outside the nucleus.
So, the spectrum of the emitted EM radiation would be continuous. But sharp
spectral lines are observed, not a continuum.

BOHR ATOM MODEL

Bohr’s atom model retains all the features of Rutherford’s atom model but added some additional
postulates in order to overcome the limitations of Rutherford’s model

Postulates:

(i) Electron moves in circular orbits around the nucleus under the influence of the
attractive electric field.

(ii) Not all orbits are allowed. The electron can only have an orbit for which the angular
ℎ
momentum of the electron, L, is an integer multiple of 2𝜋 (h = 6.63 x10-34 J s is the

Planck's constant).
L = m v r = n ℎ/2𝜋 Bohr ’s quantizatio n condition.
where n = 1,2, 3.. is the principal quantum
number

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 An electron does not emit EM radiation when it is in one of these states.(orbits).
Hence these orbits are called stationary states (orbits) or non-radiating orbits.

(iii) When electron jumps from higher energy state to lower energy state, it emits energy.
When electron goes to higher energy state from lower energy state it absorbs energy.
The energy of emitted EM radiation
hv = Ei - Ef Bohr's frequency condition.

where v= frequency of the radiation

Ei and Ef = energy associated with initial and final states respectively.

BOHR'S THEORY APPLIED TO HYDROGEN ATOM

In a hydrogen atom an electron of charge -e revolves around the nucleus

having a charge + e in a circular orbit. The electrostatic force of attraction
between them provides the necessary centripetal force.

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Bohr radius is the radius of the first orbit of hydrogen atom. The
above equation shows that radius of orbits is quantized i.e. can take
only certain specific values.

𝑚𝑒4
Where 𝐸𝑜 = = 13.6 𝑒𝑉 is the energy of the electron in the orbit n=1
8𝜀𝑜2ℎ2

This is the lowest possible energyof the electron. This energy level is known as
ground state. The energy levels with n=2,3,….are known as excited states(higher
energy states)

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Energy increases with increase in ‘n’ and the energy
levels become crowded and almost becomes a
continuum at large values of ‘n’

The significance of negative sign in the expression for

energy is that the force between electron and nucleus
is attractive in nature i.e. electron is bound to the
nucleus. Energy must be supplied to free an electron.

SPECTRUM OF HYDROGEN ATOM

At room temperature, hydrogen gas does not emit light. When heated to high temperatures, hydrogen
emits radiation. Distinct spectral lines can be observed. From Bohr’s frequency condition, when an
electron makes transition from a higher energy level Ei to a lower energy level Ef, energy is emitted in
the form of radiation. I.e.

hν= Ei - Ef

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SPECTRAL SERIES OF HYDROGEN ATOM

The spectra of hydrogen atom include the following spectral series. Each series is due to the transition
of electron to a particular energy state from higher states. The wavelength of the spectral lines can be
calculated using the formula

1 1 1
= 𝑅𝐻 ( 2 − 2 )
λ 𝑛𝑓 𝑛𝑖

(i) Lyman Series: it is the ultraviolet region and is due to the transition to the first orbit. Therefore,
nf=1 and ni =2,3,4……
(ii) Balmer Series: it is the visible region and is due to the transition to the second orbit. Therefore,
nf=2 and ni =3,4,5……
(iii) Paschen Series: it is the infrared region and is due to the transition to the third orbit. Therefore,
nf=3 and ni =4,5,6……
(iv) Bracket Series: it is the visible region and is due to the transition to the second orbit. Therefore,
nf=4 and ni =5,6,7……
(v) Pfund Series: it is the visible region and is due to the transition to the second orbit. Therefore,
nf=5 and ni =6,7,8……

de BROGLIE EXPLANATION OF BOHR’S QUANTISATION RULE

de Broglie considered electron as a stationary matter wave of wavelength

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 ℎ
𝜆 = 𝑚𝑣

Where m- mass of electron v- velocity of electron in the orbit

The stationary states of the electrons in the atom should be such that there is an integral number of a
wavelength around the circumference of the orbit. I.e.

2πr =nλ (n= 1,2,3..)

His reasoning was that, unless there are a finite number of complete wavelengths round the orbit, the waves
would interfere destructively, and atom becomes unstable.

2πr =nλ =nh/mv (using de Broglie’s equation for wavelength)

Rearranging, mvr = nh/2π which is Bohr’s quantization condition.

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