1 Chapter 1 Introduction

1.1 What is a signal?

A signal is any real-valued function that changes in time and/or space, just like the
voltages or currents encountered in circuits.

We could classify the signal according to many things. For example, signal that vary
in time , signal that vary in space, or signal that vary in both.

1.1.1 Signals that vary in time:

• neural spike train recordings

• speech or audio waveforms (and their sampled versions)

• EEG or ECG readings

 • stock prices
• social trend data (e.g., http://trends.google.com)

1.1.2 Signals that vary in space:

• digital images
• CT or MRI scans

1.1.3 Signals that vary both in time and in space:

• Video

A video is a sequence of still images displayed at a certain rate (frequency)

ranging from 25 frames per second to much higher (for specialty video).
To the human visual system, a sequence of still images displayed at a high
enough rate looks like continuous motion.

We will mostly be concerned with time-varying signals

1.2 CONTINUOUS-TIME SIGNALS
That signals are functions of time-carrying information is easily illustrated with a
recorded voice signal. Such a signal can be thought of as a continuously varying
voltage, generated by a microphone, that can be transformed into an audible acoustic
signal—providing the voice information—by means of an amplifier and speakers.
Thus, the speech signal is represented by a function of time

𝑣(𝑡), 𝑡𝑏 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑡𝑓 (1.1)

where 𝑡𝑏 is the time at which this signal starts, and 𝑡𝑓 the time at which it ends. The
function 𝑣(𝑡)) varies continuously with time, and its amplitude can take any possible
value (as long as the speakers are not too loud!). This signal obviously carries the
information provided by the voice message.

Figure 1.1 Example of a speech signal.

In general, a segment of speech may be represented to a high degree of accuracy as a

sum of several sinusoids of different amplitudes and frequencies, that is, as

∑ 𝐴𝑖 (𝑡) 𝑠𝑖𝑛[2𝜋𝑓𝑖 𝑡 + 𝜃𝑖 (𝑡)]

𝑖=1

where 𝐴𝑖 (𝑡), 𝑓𝑖, and 𝜃𝑖 (𝑡) are the sets of (possibly time-varying) amplitudes,
frequencies, and phases, respectively, of the sinusoids. In fact, one way to interpret
the information content or message conveyed by any short time segment of the speech
signal is to measure the amplitudes, frequencies, and phases contained in the short
time segment of the signal.

In general continuous-time (analog) signals: functions 𝑣(𝑡), where −∞ < t < ∞ could
be

• dc signal: 𝑣(𝑡)= A for all t (the most boring signal)

• sinusoids: 𝑣(𝑡)= Asin(ωt + θ)
• other complicated functions: 𝑣(𝑡) = Ae−Kt sin(ωt + θ)−cosh(Lx)
• ...

1.3 Discrete-time signals:

sequences x[n], where n is an integer

• constant signal: x[n] = A for all n (also very boring)

• binary signals: x[n] ∈{0,1} for all n
• other complicated signals: e.g., sampled analog signals x[n] = f(nT), where f(t)
is some continuous-time signal, and T is the sampling period
A signal x(t) is said to be periodic if for some positive constant To

𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝑥 (𝑡 + 𝑇0 ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡

The smallest value of 𝑇0 that satisfies the periodicity condition of this equation is the
fundamental period of x(t).

1.4 SIGNAL CHARACTERISTICS

In this section, certain characteristics of continuous-time signals are defined.

Even and Odd Signals

We first define the signal characteristics of even symmetry and odd symmetry. By
definition, the signal is even if

𝑥𝑒 (𝑡) = 𝑥 𝑒 (−𝑡).

An even signal has symmetry with respect to the vertical axis; the signal for t<0 is the
mirror image of the signal for t>0. The function 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 is even because 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 =
𝑐𝑜𝑠 − 𝜔𝑡 .Another example of an even function is given in Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2.: even signal

By definition, a function is odd if

𝑥 𝑜 (𝑡) = −𝑥 𝑜 (−𝑡).

An odd function has symmetry with respect to the origin. The function 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 is odd
because 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 = −𝑠𝑖𝑛 − 𝜔𝑡 Another example of an odd function is given in Figure
1.3.

Figure 1.3: odd signal

Any signal can be expressed as the sum of an even part and an odd part; that is,

𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝑥 𝑒 (𝑡) + 𝑥 𝑜 (𝑡)

where is even and is odd. Replacing t with -t in this equation yields

𝑥 (−𝑡) = 𝑥 𝑒 (−𝑡) + 𝑥 𝑜 (−𝑡) = 𝑥 𝑒 (𝑡) − 𝑥 𝑜 (𝑡)

By Adding the above two equations we get

 1
𝑥 𝑒 (𝑡) = [𝑥 (𝑡) + 𝑥 (−𝑡)]
2
This equation is used to solve for the even part of a function .

And by Subtracting we get

1
𝑥 𝑜 (𝑡) = [𝑥 (𝑡) − 𝑥 (−𝑡)]
2
which is used to find the odd part of a function. The average value of a signal x(t) is
defined as

1 𝑇
𝐴𝑥 = lim ∫ 𝑥 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 −𝑇

The average value of a signal is contained in its even function, since the average value
of a bounded odd function is zero.

We could note that

Even and odd functions have the following properties:

1. The sum of two even functions is even.

2. The sum of two odd functions is odd.
3. The sum of an even function and an odd function is neither even nor odd.
4. The product of two even functions is even.
5. The product of two odd functions is even.
6. The product of an even function and an odd function is odd.

Periodic Signals

Next we consider the important topic of periodic functions. By definition, a

continuous-time signal is periodic if

𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝑥 (𝑡 + 𝑇 ), 𝑇 > 0

for all t, where the constant T is the period. A signal that is not periodic is said to be
aperiodic. In (2.15), we replace t with resulting in

This equation is also equal to x(t) from (2.15). By repeating this substitution, we see
that a periodic function satisfies the equation

𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝑥 (𝑡 + 𝑛𝑇 ), 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = 1,2,3, . .,

The minimum value of the period 𝑇 > 0 that satisfies the definition 𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡 + 𝑇)
is called the fundamental period of the signal and is denoted as 𝑇0.

With 𝑇0 in seconds, the fundamental frequency in hertz (the number of periods per
second) and the fundamental frequency in rad/s are given by

1 2𝜋
𝑓0 = 𝐻𝑧, 𝜔0 = 2𝜋𝑓0 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
𝑇0 𝑇0

respectively. Examples of periodic signals are the sinusoids. The movement of a clock
pendulum is periodic, as is the voltage used for ac electric power distribution. Both
signals are usually modeled as sinusoids, even though neither is exactly sinusoidal.
The movement of the earth is periodic, with periods of one day and of one year
(approximately). Most physical signals that are dependent on the earth’s movement,
such as the time of sunrise and average temperatures, are usually modeled as
sinusoids. A third example of a periodic signal is given in Figure 1.5. This signal,
called a sawtooth wave,is useful in sweeping a beam of electrons across the face of a
cathode ray tube (CRT). If a CRT uses an electric field to sweep the beam of
electrons, the signal of Figure 1.5 is a voltage; if a magnetic field is used, the signal is
a current.

Figure 1.5: sawtooth wave

Some another example for periodic function 𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡is periodic because

𝑥 (𝑡 + 𝑇 ) = 𝑒 sin ( 𝑡+𝑇 ) = 𝑒 sin ( 𝑡) = 𝑥 (𝑡), 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑇 = 2𝜋

But The function 𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 is not periodic, since

𝑥 (𝑡 + 𝑇 ) = (𝑡 + 𝑇)𝑒 sin ( 𝑡+𝑇 ) = (𝑡 + 𝑇)𝑒 sin( 𝑡) ≠ 𝑥(𝑡)

The sum of continuous-time periodic signals is periodic if and only if the ratios of the
periods of the individual signals are ratios of integers. If a sum of N periodic signals is
periodic, the fundamental period can be found as follows:
𝑇01
1. Convert each period ratio, 𝑇0𝑖 , 2 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑁, to a ratio of integers, where 𝑇01 is
the period of the first signal considered and 𝑇0𝑖is the period of one of the
 other N-1 signals. If one or more of these ratios is not rational, then the sum of
signals is not periodic.
2. Eliminate common factors from the numerator and denominator of each ratio
of integers.
3. The fundamental period of the sum of signals is 𝑇0 = 𝑘0 𝑇0𝑖 where is the least
common multiple of the denominators of the individual ratios of integers.

Example
7𝑡
Three periodic signals [𝑥1 (𝑡) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3.5𝑡, 𝑥 2 (𝑡) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑡, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥3 (𝑡) = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 6 )] are
summed to form 𝑣(𝑡). The signal 𝑣(𝑡) is shown in Figure1.6(a). To determine
whether is periodic, we must see if the ratios of the periods of and are ratios of
integers:

2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋 12𝜋
𝑇01 = = , 𝑇02 = = , 𝑇03 = =
𝜔1 3.5 𝜔2 2 𝜔3 7
The ratios of periods are

𝑇01 4 𝑇01 7
= , =
𝑇02 7 𝑇03 21

Both are ratios of integers; therefore, 𝑣(𝑡) is periodic.

The period of 𝑣(𝑡)is determined by first eliminating any common factors from the
numerator and denominator of each ratio of periods.

The next step is to find the least common multiple of the denominators of the ratios.
In this case, the least common multiple is 𝑛1 = 3 × 7 = 21.
2𝜋
The fundamental period of 𝑣(𝑡) is 𝑇0 = 𝑛1 × 𝑇01 = 21 × = 12𝜋 𝑠
3.5

7𝑡
Figure 1.6: 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3.5𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑡 + 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 6 )
1.5 The Unit Step Function U(t)
A well- known discontinuous function is the unit step function U(t) which is defined
as

0 𝑡<0
𝑈(𝑡) = {
1 𝑡≥0

the unit step function 𝑈(𝑡) changes abruptly from 0 to1 at t=0 . But if it changes at
t=t 0 instead, it is denoted as 𝑈(𝑡 − 𝑡0 ). In this case, its waveform and definition are as
shown in Figure 1.5 and relation (1.6) respectively.

Figure 1.5. Waveform for 𝑈(𝑡 − 𝑡0 ).

0 𝑡 < 𝑡0
𝑈(𝑡 − 𝑡0 ) = {
1 𝑡 ≥ 𝑡0

Other forms of the unit step function are shown in Figure 1.6.

Figure 1.6. Other forms of the unit step function

the unit step is often used to switch functions. An example is given by

𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 , 𝑡 ≥ 0
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) = {
0, 𝑡< 0

The unit step function offers a convenient method of describing the sudden
application of a voltage or current source.For example, a constant voltage source of
24V applied at t=0, can be denoted as 24u(t).. Also, if the excitation in a circuit is a
rectangular, or triangular, or sawtooth, or any other recurring pulse, it can be
represented as a sum (difference) of unit step functions.

Example:

Write the equation for a half wave rectified signal shown in the following figure

Sol: the signal for 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇0/2 can be written as

𝑇0
𝑣1(𝑡) = (𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔0 𝑡 ) [𝑢 (𝑡) − 𝑢 (𝑡 − )]
2

the half-wave rectified signal can be expressed as a sum of shifted signals,

𝑣(𝑡) = ∑ 𝑣1 (𝑡 − 𝑘𝑇0 )
𝑘=0

Since 𝑣1(𝑡 − 𝑇0 ) is 𝑣1(𝑡)delayed by one period, 𝑣1(𝑡 − 2𝑇0 ) is 𝑣1(𝑡) delayed by

two periods, and so on.

1.6 Pulse signal

A pulse or rectangle signal which is defines as:

𝑇 𝑇
𝑡
𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 ( ) = { 1, − 2 < 𝑡 < 2
𝑇 0, 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
This function is plotted in the following figure

It can be presented by two step functions:

𝑡 𝑇 𝑇
𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 ( ) = 𝑢 (𝑡 + ) − 𝑢(𝑡 − )
𝑇 2 2

Time-shifted rectangular function.

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡[(𝑡 − 𝜋)/2𝜋].

Example: write the function of the following figure

Sol:

𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝑢(𝑡 − 2) − 𝑢 (𝑡 − 4)

Or

𝑡 −3
𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡[ ]
2

May use functions other than a rectangular pulse. Here are three example functions:
Note that the area under the pulse function must be unity

1.7 The Delta Function 𝛿(𝑡)

The unit impulse or delta function, denoted as 𝛿(𝑡) , is the derivative of the unit step .
It is also defined as

1 𝑡=0
𝛿(𝑡) = {
0 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒

1.8 The sinc function

It is defined as

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑡
𝑆 (𝑡) = −∞ < 𝑡 < ∞
𝜋𝑡
This signal has the following characteristics:

• The time support of this signal is infinite.

• It is an even function of t, as
 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (−𝜋𝑡) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜋𝑡)
𝑆 (−𝑡) = = − = 𝑆 (𝑡)
−𝜋𝑡 −𝜋𝑡

• At t =0 the numerator and the denominator of the sinc are zero; thus the limit
as t →0 is found using L’Hˆopital’s rule—that is,

𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜋𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝜋 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜋𝑡
lim 𝑆(𝑡) = lim = lim =1
𝑡 →0 𝑡→0 𝑑𝜋𝑡 𝑡 →0 𝜋
𝑑𝑡

• S(t) is bounded—that is, since−1≤sin(πt) ≤1, then for t ≥0,

1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜋𝑡) 1
− ≤ = 𝑆 (𝑡) ≤
𝜋𝑡 𝜋𝑡 𝜋𝑡
and given that S(t) is even, it is equally bounded for t < 0. As 𝑡 → ±∞, 𝑆(𝑡) → 0.

• The zero-crossing time of S(t) are found by letting the numerator equal
zero—that is, when sin(πt) =0, the zero-crossing times are such that πt =kπ, or
t =k for a nonzero integer k or 𝑘 = ±1, ±2, . . ..

Equations for straight-line-segments signal

A technique for writing the equations for functions composed of straight-line
segments. An example is given in Figure 1. .

The slopes of the segments are denoted as 𝑚 𝑖The signal is zero for t<t0. For t<t1 the
equation of the signal, denoted as x0(t) is given by

𝑋0(𝑡) = 𝑚0[𝑡 − 𝑡0]𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑡0); 𝑡 < 𝑡𝑡1

The equation for the signal in the following Figure will be written.
 The slope of the signal changes from 0 to 3 for a change in slope of 3, beginning at
The slope changes from 3 to at t=-1 for a change in slope of At the slope becomes 0
for a change in slope of 3. The function steps from -3 to 0 at t=3, for a change in
amplitude of 3. Hence, the equation for x(t) is given by

𝑥(𝑡) = 3[𝑡 + 2]𝑢(𝑡 + 2) − 6[𝑡 + 1]𝑢(𝑡 + 1) + 3[𝑡 − 1]𝑢(𝑡 − 1) + 3𝑢(𝑡 − 3).

To verify this result, we write the equation for each segment of the signal, using the
procedure illustrated in

𝑡 < −2, 𝑓(𝑡) = 0 − 0 + 0 + 0 = 0;

−2 < 𝑡 < −1, 𝑓(𝑡) = 3[𝑡 + 2] − 0 + 0 + 0 = 3[𝑡 + 2];

−1 < 𝑡 < 1, 𝑓(𝑡) = 3[𝑡 + 2] − 6[𝑡 + 1] + 0 + 0 = 3𝑡;

1 < 𝑡 < 3, 𝑓(𝑡) = [−3𝑡] + 3[𝑡 − 1] + 0 = 3;

3 < 𝑡, 𝑓 (𝑡) = [−3] + 3 = 0.

So, the equation is correct.

Equation title Equation
Even part of a signal 𝑥𝑒(𝑡) = 1/2 [𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑥(−𝑡)]
Odd part of a signal 𝑥𝑜(𝑡) = 1/2 [𝑥 (𝑡) − 𝑥(−𝑡)]
Definition of periodicity 𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝑥 (𝑡 + 𝑇 ), 𝑇 > 0
Fundamental frequency in hertz 𝑓0 = 1/𝑇0 𝐻𝑧, 𝜔0 = 2𝜋𝑓0 = 2𝜋/ 𝑇0 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
and radians/second
Euler’s relation 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑗 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Cosine equation 1
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 2 (𝑒 𝑗𝜃 +𝑒 −𝑗𝜃 )
sine equation 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃= (𝑒 𝑗𝜃 − 𝑒 −𝑗𝜃 )
2𝑗
 1. Given

𝑥 (𝑡) = 4(𝑡 + 2)𝑢(𝑡 + 2) − 4𝑡𝑢 (𝑡) − 4𝑢(𝑡 − 2) − 4(𝑡 − 4)𝑢(𝑡 − 4) + 4(𝑡 − 5)𝑢(𝑡
− 5),

find and sketch . 𝑥(2𝑡 − 4)

2. For each of the signals given, determine mathematically whether the signal is
even, odd, or neither.
a. 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑢(𝑡)
b. 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(3𝑡 – 𝜋/2)
c. 𝑥(𝑡) = 5𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑡
d. 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑒 −|𝑡|
3. Consider the triangular pulse of Figure

a. Write a mathematical function for this waveform.

b. Write a mathematical function for the triangular wave of Figure (b),

using the results of Part (a).