channel -way voice route, with each

a circuits on an FDMIM/FM transponder

station employs 30-m-diameter.
carrier. The earth

Channel Bandwidth

Figure 4.29 HeavyRoute Message

4.8 FDMA

4.8.1 Preassigned FDMA

Circuits that are allocated to certain users on a
fixed or partially fixed basis,
are refered as
preassigned circuits. The circuit implementation is simple
and it is
eficient only for continuous heavy traffic routes.

In preassigned frequency divisionmultiple access (FDMA), allusers share the

satellite at same time, but each user transmits at a
unique allocated frequency. FDMA
can be used
with analog or digital signals.
Figure4.30 shows three earth stations, placed in Ottawa, NewYork and London
respectively.

Here, all three channels access one satellite transponder at same time and each
can communicate
with both of the others, Therefore, the antenna beams are said to
be global. Also, each earth station transmits one uplink carier and receives two

downlink carriers.
 Satellite Conmunicatiea
4.32

Ottawa New York London

Ottawa
k-London

Transmit Receive
chain chains
Channel selection and
baseband reformatting for
New York

New York to London and Ottawa London and Ottawa to New York

Figure 4.30 Fixed Assignment FDMA

The Earth Station at New York carries traffic to both Ottawa and Lond0,
with one transmit chains. While twOreceive chains are used. one
for the Ottaa
originated carrier and the other for the London originated carrier. The demultiplexing
unit allowsonly the signals which are intended for NewYork.
The selected signs
are demultiplexed into an FMD/FM
format and then transmitted the New York
to
switching office through the terrestrial line.
Satellite Access and Coding NMethods 4.33

The frequency assignment for the network is illustrated in Figure 4.31.

Ottawa New York London Up-link

From: carrier

6253 6273 6278 MHZ

Ottawa New York London Down-link

From: carrier

4028 4048 4.53 MHZ

-Transponder bandwidth

Figure 4.31 Frequency Assignments

The uplink carrier frequencies are 6253, 6273 and 6278 MHz. When they are
down converted, the downlink frequencies are 4028, 4048 and 4053 MHz. The total
frequency bandwidth required for the 3 stations is 15 MHz, and unused bandwidth
may be occupied by other carriers.
are fully loaded, additional
If allthe preassigned circuits to a particular route
calls will be blocked to the route.

Figure 4.32 shows medium route traffic with 168 voice channels supported by
5 carriers. Telesat Canada operates medium-route message facilities and utilizes
FDM/FM/FDMA.

[GIT] = 37.5 dB/K (Fully Loaded ES)

[G/T] = 28 dB/K (Partially Loaded ES)
can be carried
channel per carrier (SCPC), hundreds of voice channels
In signal
by a single voice or date channel. Also, an earth station may transmit more than one
SCPC signal simultaneously. Preassigned FDMA based on SCPC also possible.
 4.34 Satellite Communication

84Voice circuits

36 Voice circuits

168 Voice circuits 24 Voice circuits

24 Voice circuits
Figure4.32 Medium Route Traffic
The INTELSAT SCPC channeling scheme for a 36 MHz transponder is shown
in Figure 4.33. It undergoes Quadrature Phase-Shift Keying
(QPSK)modulation.
The transponder bandwidth is divided into 800 channels, each
of 45 KHz wide
including guard band. The information may be digital data or PCM voice signals.
The scheme totally provides 798 one-way channels, with the help
of
Pilot frequency.
Pilot

1
2 3 399 (400)(401) 402 403 799 8000

> Center
45MHZ
frequency
18.045 MHZ

36 MHZ

Figure 4.33 Channeling assignment for Intelsat

SCPC
 Satellite Access and Coding Methods 4.35

Thepilot frequency is transmitted for the purpose of frequency control, to

vacant
avoid| interference. The adjacent channels on both sides of the pilot are left

(400, 401).
It is transmitted by the primary carth station. If theprimary station fails, it will

he transmitted from a redundant earth station, It also provídes a reference for

automatic frequency control (AFC).

The voice-activated channels are operative one way at a time on a two way
telephone conversation. So two channels needed for a call communication. The
carriers are switched off in long pauses between speech.
SCPC systems are used for lightly loaded routes, known as thin route service.
It is used to connect remote earth stations with the national telephone network.

Telesat Canada also provides Thin Route message Facilities.

An examnple circuit is shown in Figure 4.34 in which a main earth station is

used to connect the telephone network.

Telephone
network
Small terminals
Main terminal
in remote
communities

Figure 4.34 ThinRoute Traffic

 436 Satellite Communication

4.3.2 Demand Assigned FDMA

the users and are aSsigned base
If all the circuits are available to all
demand, then it is known as demamdassigrd access. It is more ciñcient, brut

complicated and expensive to implement.

Here,the transponder frequency bandwidth is subdividod into a number
of
channels. Each channels is assigned to cach carrier in use and thus leads to SCPC
mode of operation. The carriers are of two types.
1. FM/SCPC (Frequcncy modulated with analog information signals)

2. PSK/SCPC (Phase modulated with digital information signals)

Three important Demand Assigned FDMA mthods are
1. Polling method
2. Centrally controlled random access
3. Distributed control random access
1. Polling method
In this method, all the earth stations in sequence are polled by a master earth
station continuously. At this time, if a 'call request'is encountered, requency slos
willbe assigned for the request from the available frequencies.
Disadvatage
Polling delay is more, if number of Earth stations increase.
2. Centrally controlled random access
In this method, whenever needed, the carth stations request calls through the
master earth station. These requests go ina circuit or narrowband digital radio link
which is known as adigital orderwire.
Then, the master station assigns frequencies according to the requests. If the
call is completed, the frequencies are returned to the pool ie. group of availabie
frequencies. Ifthereis no frequencies for allocation, the blocked calls may be plad
inqueue or a second call attempt may be made.
 Satellite Access and Coding Methods
4,37

3. Distributed control random access

Thismethod is similar to thc centrally controlled random access
method. The
difflerencc isthat instead of the control by master carth
station, the control done at
is
cach carth station.
A
spade system operated by INTELSAT is an example.

4,8.3 Spade System

Spade is SCPCPulse code modulated multiple Access Demand assigned
Equipment. Spade was developcd by Comsat for the use on the INTELSAT satellite,
and it is compatible with the INTELSAT SCPC prcassigned system.
Common Signaling Channel (CSC) is adopted for the distributed demand
assignment facility as shown in Figure 4.35.

The features of the CSC are

Bandwidth: 160 kHz
Center frequency : 18.045 MHz below the pilot frequency.

1' 2' 3'

! 2 3 399 (401)(402) (403) 799 (800)

CSC
Center frequency
160 KH2 18.045 MHZ

18.045 MHZ

36 MHZ transponder bandwidth

Figure 4.35 Spade System Channeling scheme

 4.38
Satellite Communicatien

From Figure 4.35

Voice and 2 are left vacant to avoid
channels 1 interference which needs
maintain duplex matching.
channels 1' and 2" (401 and 1402) to left vacant to

Channel 400 is also left vacant for duplex matching, which

needs channels

800 be left vacant.

Pair of frequencies are separated by 18.045 MHZ.

one wavn
lotally 6 channels are removed from S00 channels and thus 794
397 full duplex (794/2 = 397) voice circuits are available.
Operation of CSC
All the earth stations are permanently connected to the CSC as shown in

Figure 4.36.
Pool group of available frequencies
A, B, C, D, E, F= Earth Stations

F Pool

Figure 4.36 Spade Communication Systen

 Satellite Access and Coding Methods
4.39
All earth stations use frequency
synthesizers to generate any one of
. the 73+
rrier frequencies Each a
earth station has list of currently available frequencies
in its
memory. This list is continuously updated by the CSC.
Consider a call is initiated from station B to station E.
First, B will select a
fguency pair from the list and pass this information to E through CSC. Now, E
must acknowledge through CSC.
This acknowledgement indicates that E can
complete the circuit.
Then, the circuit is established and all the other earth stations are
instructed to
remove that frequency
pair from the list through CSC. If the callis completed, the
cicuit will be disconnected and the two frequencies return to the pool.
Again this
information will be transmitted to all the earth stations
through CSC.
The time taken by a station from initiating a call and being
acknowledged by
the called station is known as the Round Trip Tme.
It is about 600 ms.
At thistime, if the frequency pair selected by a station is assigned to another
circuit, the station will be instructed through CSC to immediately select
another
pair at random.
DASS stands for Demand Assignment Signaling and Switching. In the spade
system, each earth station has the DASSunit, which performs
the functions required
by CSC.

4.8.4 Bandwidth Limited and Power Limited TWT Amplifier Operation

Bandwidth Limitation
A transponder have a total bandwidth of B.,,. Let there are K carriers each
with a bandwidth B.Then the number of carriers that can access the transponder in
an FDMA mode
is,

K=
BR ... (4.51)
Hence, bandwidth limits the number of carriers and increasing transponder
EIRP will not improve
this.
similarly, the bit rate in the digital system is limited by the bandwidth. This
kind of circuits are
known as bandwidth limitations circuits.
 Satellite Communication
4.40

Power Limitation
Power limitation is caused insufficient EIRP. The signal bandwidth andthe
by

noise bandwidth will be approximately equal. When the EIRP is below a particular
level, the bandwidth will be correspondingly reduced to maintain the required fC
ratio. These kind of circuits are known as power limitation circuits.

4.8.5 FDMA Downlink Analysis

effects of output backoff results from FDMA operation
The can be found by
considering the overallcarrier tonoise ration given by

(4.52)

Let .. (4.53)

where = Required Noise to Carrier Ratio

Substituting

..
(4.54)

In FDMA, backoff is used to reduce intermodulation noise and the uplink

contribution is negligible, but the downlink contribution dominates. Therefore,

... (4.55).
/Req

If the FDMA has a downlink power [EIRPJ, and occupies a bandwidth B,

then
- [EIRP),
+-[LOSSESJ, -(k]-[B] .. (4.56)
 Satellite Access and
nd Coding Methods 4.41
In terms of requircd carricr to noise ratio,

(EIRPJp
+-[LOSSESJ, -[k]-(B) ..(4.57)
For single carrier access, no backoff needed then

(EIRP,
1-|-LOSSES},
Jp
-(k]-(Bra) ...
(4.58)

where, [EIRP J= Saturated EIRP in dB

[B= Transponder bandwidth in dB

+ [LOSSESJ, ...
+[k]+[BRJS0 (4.59)

If the system is designed for signal carrier operation the equality sign applies
and the reference condition is,

- [EIREJ-|L +[LOSSES], +[k] +[BTRJ= 0

.. (4.60)

Let the FDMAprovides access for K number of carriers which share the output
power equally and each requires a bandwidth B. The output power of each FDMA
carrier is,

[EIRP], = [EIRPJ - [BO], - [K] (4.61)

The full transponder bandwidth B.rp cannot be shared between the carriers
because of power limitation. If a is the fraction of the total bandwidth actually
occupied, then

KB = aBrR
aBTR.
B= KK
In terms
of decilogs,
[B] = [a] + [Br]-[K] ... (4.62)
 4.42 Satellite Communication

Substituting bandwidthin
Rcq

s (EIRP,]-(BO), -(K]+-LOSSESJp -[k]-(a]-[BrRl+K)

Jp

s -[LOSSESlp -[k]-[a]-[BTR]
[EIRP,]-[BO],

S-(EIREH)
JReg
- [LOSSES], +[k]+[BTR]S-[BO], -[a]
. (4.63)
If signal carrier access is used then
0s-[BO]-[a]
...
[a]s-[BO], (4.64)
This implies that the best can be achieved when
[a] = -[BO], ...
(4.65)
Since the backoff is always a positive number, [a]must be negative or a is
fractional. Thus backoff limits the number of carriers accommodated in the FDMA
system.
4.9 TDMA
In TDMA (Time division multiple access) scheme, only a single carrier is
allowed access the transponder at any given time. In order to allow all the users to
access the satellite, the transponder is time shared between users. Each user is
allocated a specific time slot for transmission. Thus, transmissions arrive at the satellite
in a sequence of non overlapping bursts. TDMA is compatible with only digital
signals.
Features
Intermodulation problem caused by non linear amplification of multiple carriers
is avoided, since only one signal is present in the transponder at atime.

The TWT can be operated at maximum power output or saturation level.

Satellite Access and Coding Methods 4.43

/ Easily reconfigurable for changing traffic demands.

Resistant to noise and interference
Can handle mixed voice, video and data traffic.
The basic TDMA concept is shown in Figure 4.37. It is necessary to synchronize
each and every burst. For this, one reference station is assigned for transmitting
reference bursts. Allother bursts from other stations can be synchronized with these
reference bursts.

Frame

A, B, C, C,
R,
R A, B,

Satellite broadcast to
all stations

A, |R,
B,

A, |R

B,
A,R,

Reference station

R Reference burst
A, B, C Bursts from other earth stations

Figure 4.37 TDMA Concept

 Satellite C
Communicatic
4.44
interval from the start of one reference burst tothe next is Known2
Ihe time bursts from all
a contains the reference burstR and the other earth
frame. frame
A

stations as shown in Figure 4.37.

The principle of burst-mode
transmission for a single channelis illustratedi
4.38. Eventhough the transmissionis digital, it seems to be continuous becane
Figure
are continuous and equal.
the input and output bit rates
T,
T, k

R,
R, Rp Buffer store
Buffer store
M bits M bits

Figure 4.38 Single Channel Burst Mode Transmission

Input bits are stored temporarily in buffers within the transmission channel.
The required buffer capacity, M is
M= R,T ...(4.60)

where

R,= Input bit rate

=
T, Frame Time (time between one burst and another)

The temporarily stored M bits are transmitted as a burst continuously in tb:

next frame. The transmission rate RMA is,

M ..(4.67)
RrDMA
Ta

TR

=
where T. Burst time (Transmission
time for M bits)
 Access and Coding Methods 4.45
satellite

rate is equal to the transmission rate. But, the

bit rate or burst
The burst
equal to the input and output rates and is given by
mage bi rate is

rate = M .. (4.68)
Average bit

The basic blocks in a TDMA ground station are shown in Figure 4.39.
Transmit Terrestrial
Interface Modules (TIM'S)

To B

MUX Phase
To C T,
modulator

|Preamble Burst
To X
generator transmission

B, C, X
, Destination stations
(a) Transmission
To transmit and
receive timing
units

From B Preamble
detector

From C Phase
DEMUX R
modulator
Frame
FromX
reception

Receive Terrestrial
Interface Modules (TIM's)
(6) Reception

Figure 4.39 Basic Units in a TDMA system

 Satellite Communmcation

4.46

Transmission
signals are converted into the intermitte
The incoming continuous bit rate
and are time
mode by Terrestrial Interface Modules (TIM) divison
burst rate
multiplexer (MUX). So that each time slotassigret
multiplexed in the time division
for each ststion ina burst.
are allotted to carry timing
the start of each burst
Particular time slots at and
are collectively known as
synchronizing information. These time slots
preamble.

nmodulated by the complete burst holds preambleand

The RF carrier is phase
traffic data is transmitted.

Reception
bursts from al
The received RF signal at an earth station consists of the
4.40.
transmitting stations arranged in the frame format shown in Figure

Frame Frame Frame

From From |From From

R B Y
A

Station A burst

Reference burst Preamble Traffic data

GlCBR BCW| SIClG|CBR BCW|SIClowlTo BTo C To z

where G = Guardtme

CBR = Carrier and Bit

timing Recovery
UW)
BCW =
Burst Code Word (also known as a word or
unique
SIC = Station Identification
Code
Q = Postamble

Figure 4.40 Frame and Burst Formats for a

TDMAsysten
Satellite Access and Coding Methods 4.47
A reference burst at the start of each frame provides timing information ror
acquisition and synchronization of bursts.
The incoming RF carrier is converted to Intermediate Frequency
(IF) and then
itisdemodulated as
in the phase demodulator shown in Figure 4.39. The preamble
detector provides timing information for transmission and
reception.
4.9.1 INTELSAT Network
The INTELSAT international network contains four reference stations, one
,
primary one master primary and two secondary (duplicate) reference station.
System timing is derived from the master primary high stability clock. A clock
on the satellite is locked
tothe master primary and the other earth stations follow
the timing on this clock. Although the satellite clock provides a constant frame
time,there may be corrections done at the earth stations for satellite range variations.

Ineach frame, two reference bursts are transmitted in the INTELSAT system.
First Reference Burst is transmitted by master primary or primary reference
station, it marks the beginning of a frame. It also gives the timing information for
acquisition and synchronization of bursts.

Second Reference Burst is transmitted by secondary reference station, it

provides only synchronization information. It is ignored by the receiving earth
stations.

4.9.2 Reference Burst

The reference burst indicates the start of a frame is divided into time slots or
channels used for various functions. The reference burst with some of the basic
channels is shown in Figure 4.41.

G
G
CBR BCW SIC G
Figure 4.41 Reference Bursts Basic Channels
Guard Time(G) is necessary between bursts to prevent overlapping. It varies
tor different burstsdepending on the accuracy.
 Satellite Communiccation

4.48
bit-timing recovery (CBR) is required to recover the messag:
Carrier and
signal recovery is required for the coherence of various. burstsin
signal. Carrier
recovery required for the operation
of the sample a
frame. Bìt timing is and

function in the demodulator.

parts in its time slot. In the first part an unmodulatedcariser
The CBR has two
wave is provided synchronization. In the second part, the carrier
for is
modulatel

by aphase-change sequence for bit timing recovery.

Burst Code Word (BCW) is

a binary word also known as unique word. Every

a copy of BCW and it is compared with the incoming bitsin abburst

earth station has
to get an accurate time reference for the burst position.

Station ldentification Code (SIC) identifies the transmitting station.

INTELSAT - Reference Burst

The INTELSAT 2 - ms frame, reference burst and preamble are shown ia

Figure 4.42. The additional channels included here are:

Coordination and Delay Channel (CDC) or Control and Delay chanel (CD)
will have the identification number of the earth 'station to be addressed. In addition,
it carries various codes for acquisition and synchronization purposes.
-
Telegraph Order Wire Channel (TTY) used to provide telegrpt
communications between earth stations.
Service Channel (SC) used to carry various network protocol and alarm message
provides
Voice Order Wire Channel (VO) are of two in number which
communicationsbetween earth stations.

2 ms frame period

R P P
P P R

R-reference burst
P- preamble
(a)
Satellite AccesS and Coding Methods

TTY SC
CDC

CBR UW VOW VOW

G
Symbols 176 24 32
ns 2913 397
8 symbols)
132 ns

Reference burst
(b)
TTY SC

CBR UW VOW vow Traffic

G

Preamble

G
= Guard time(64 symbols minimum)
where

CBR
=
Carrier and Bit timing Recoverv
UW = Unique Word

TTY = Teletype
SC = Service Channel

VOW = Voice Order Wire

CDC = Coordination and Delay Channel

Figure 4.42 INTELSAT Reference Bursts

4.9.3 Preamble and Postamble
Preamble is the starting portion of a traffic burst. The information carried by
preamble is similar to the reference burst and both may be identical. It provides a

Carrier and bit timing recovery channel and burst code word for burst timing,

Postamble is the time slot allocated for decoder quenching. It is the process in
whicha
phase detector recovers the time from one burst before receives the next
it

burst. Systems are designed to operate without a postamble.

 Satellite Communication
4.50
4.9.4 Carrlor Rocovory
With TDMA, carrier recovery is necded forthe coherency of various burstsin
aframe. Coherent detection is required for various bursts in a TDMA frame. Many

methods available for coherent carrier recovery.

PLL methodutilizes a phese-locked loop in its cireuit, will recovers the carrier
The disadvatage in this nmethod is the loop moves to an unstableregion of its operating
characteristics, referred as Hang-Up Problem. The loop can return to a stable

operating point, but the time required is too long for burst signals.
Turncd-Circuit Method
A narrowband tuned circuit for carrier recovery. The carricr
ilter is uscd
recovery circuit for quadrature phase shif keying (QPSK) is shown
Figure 4.43.

140 MHz,
BPF, BPF, S60 40
MIlz, Single 40 MIl
x2 x2 turned Limiter
QPSK signal circuit
S60
MHz
AFCcircuit
BPF,

x4 VCo 10MHz

130 MIHz 130 MIlz.

Veo
130 MIIz

BPE,
Recovered carrier
(140 MII )

Figure 4.43 Tuned Circuitfor Carrier Recovery

 Satellite Access and Coding Methods 4.51

The downconverted QPSK signal of 140 MHz is

quadrupled in frequency to
remove modulation

Automatic Frequency Control (AFC) maintains the input frequency

with the
resonant frequency of
the tuned circuit. Also, it downconverts the quadrupler output
from 560 to 40 MHz with the help of Voltage Controlled
Oscillator (VCO).
AFCis a formof PLL in which zero phase difference is maintained between
the input and output of the single-tuned circuit. So that 40 MHz input remains at the
center of the turned circuit. If any deviation is detected, a control voltage will be
generated and applied to the VCO. Therefore, the frequency wilIl be brought to the
required value.

The disadvantage in this method is Interburst interference. It may occur because

of the stored energy in the tuned circuit. To avoid this, careful design of the tuned
circuit and the usage of postamble are necessary.

4.9.5 Network Synchronization

Network synchronization is required, so that every bursts should arrive in
their correct timne slots.

Start of
ReceivingFrame (SORF) is the time marker which is coincided with
the last bit in the Unique Word (UW) or Burst Code Word (BCW).
are tied to the
Reference bursts provide timing markers. The timing markers
clock time at the reference station. These timing markers
are sent to all the traffic

stations through the satelliet link. By detecting the unique word (UW) from this, the
SORF can be identified at the traffic station.
a copy of
Bursttime plan is the one operates a network. Each earth station has
to the SORF
the burst time plan and it shows the location of receive bursts relative
to reach the
marker for that station. Also it indicates the time to transmit the bursts
Satellite in correct time slots, as shown in Figure 4.44.
4.52
Satellite Communication

Satellite clock

SORF

SORF
|B

Figure 4.44 Burst Time Plan

After a propagation delay t,, SORF is received at earth station A and the burst
time plan shows that the burst starts at time T, after the SORF is received. At earth
station B, the propagation delay is t, and the burst starts at T, after the SORF is
received.
,
The advantage over FDMA in TDMA the burst time plan is controlled by
software, so that changes can be done easily. But, FDMA needs hardware
modifications.
Transmitting the timing control has 2 stages first, the need for a station to
enter or reenter after a long delay to acquire its correct slot position. This is known
as burst position acquisition. Second, after acquisition, the correct position must be
maintained by the traffic station. This is known as burst position synchronization.
Methods for Timing Control
The three important methods for timing control are
1. Open - Loop Timing Control
2. Loopback Timing Control
3. Feedback Timing Control
 Satellite Access and |Coding Methods
4.53
1. Open - Loop 7iming
Control is the simplest method
for transmit timing.
After receiving the tming markers, the
station transmits based on the burst
time plan at a fixed interval. Nospecial
acquisition procedure is required.
The disadvantage is large burst position error
and longer guard times which
reduces frame efficiency.

An Adaptive Open - Loop Timning method is the modified

version of open loop
method, here the corrections for variations in the range are
done in the traffic station
itself.

2. Loopback Timing Control or Direct Closed - loop feedback determines the

range from the reception of its own transmission. It is used at
the satellites
which transmit global or regional beam, covering all the earth stations in the
network.
Acquisition is performed to prevent interference with other bursts, power level
is kept 20 to 25 dB below the normal operating level, and it takes upto 3 ms.

is maintained by continuously monitoring the position of

Synchronization
loopback transmission with reference to the SORF marker. The timing positions are
obtained from the last bit of the unique word in the preamble.

3. Feedback Timing Control is used where a traffic station lies outside the
satellite beam. It is perforned when loopback method is not possible. The
or station.
distance station may be either reference station another traffic
a

The position of bursts is fed back to the earth station

from the distance station

uatill the correct time slot is acquired for acquisition.

Following acquisition, the
station continuously.
yhchronization information is transmitted back to the earth

The feedback closed-loop control

method is shown in Figure 4.45.

A,B = Earth Stations

SORF = Start of Receiver Frame

SOTF = Start of Transmit Frame
 Satellite Communicali
4.54
C
Satcllitc clock

AB

SORF
SORF

D,
t
YsORF
SORF, B

D,

Figure 4.45 Feedback Closed-Loop Control in TDMA

Reference point are SORF and SOTF marker and SOTF marker delay areD
for earth station A and D,B for earth station B.
Due to this delay, the SOTF reference points for every earth station coincia
at the satellite transponder. Therefore, the traffic bursts transmitted after the SOt
arrive at correct relative positions at the transponder as shown in Figure 4.45.
The total time delay between any satellite clock pulse and the correspondt

SOTF is given by
C= 21, +D,A for Earth station A

C= 2t, +D, for Earth station B

Hence for station i,
C= 21,+ D,

where
,= Propagation Delay
=
D, SOTF Delay
 Satellite Access and Coding Methods
4.55
Propagation delay, , may occur due to the changes in the satellite
position.
These changes should be taken into account
when calculating the delay D, The
Coordination and Delay Channel (CDC) in the reference
burst transmits this delay
tothe earth stations.

Similar to TDMA, other method which do not use

preambles and
synchronization, is pure Aloha method.
4.9.6 Unique Word Detection
The Unique Word (UW) or Burst Code Word (BCW) is
used to establish burst
timing in TDMA. Hence, the detection
of UW is important. The basic arrangement
for the detection ofUW is shown
in Figure 4.46.
Input
bit-stream Output
bit-stream

Threshold
detector

Stored unique word

Figure 4.46 Unique Word (UW) Detection

The received bit stream is applied as an input to the shift register
which forms
As the bit stream moves through the register, it is compared
Correlator.
with the
SMOred UW,
in another register. When correlation is found the threshold detector
gves high output, also
the last bit ofUW provides reference point for purpose.
timing
re two probabilities of error in detecting the UW. They are

Miss probability

False Detection Probability

Miss Probability the probability of the correlation detector failing to find the
UWe
even
is
though it is present in the bit stream.
 Satellite CCommunic

4.56

Condition errors allowed in the UW

maximum number of oflenghy
Let E denote the reccived UW.
crrors in the Then
denote the actual number of thetw,
bits andI
conditions can be applied are
sequence is the UW
when I s E, the detected word ;
sequence is not the UW ie. unique is mised.
when I>E, the detected

Probability of error
a sequence
N
with I errors in any one particu
The probability of receiving
arrangement is
.(4.70),

where p
=average probability of error in transmission.

The number of combination N thingstaken I,C, is

N! . (4.71)
I!(N-I)!
I error is
Hence, the probability of receiving a sequence ofN bits with
... (4.72)
PNxP,
This is the probability of UW sequence containing Ierrors.

Average Miss Probability

The condition for miss occurrence when I> E. The miss probabilty
given by
N
(4.2)

I=E+1
Substituting

N
P
miss I-E+1

N
N!
P
miss
I-E-1l(N-JyP'l-p)N
 Satellite Access and Coding Methods
4.57
The above equations is the average
probability of missing
it is present in the shift register of the correlator. the UW eventhough
False Detection Probability
is the probability of the correlation
icreads a sequence as UW, eventhough detector that
it is not the UW.
Number of words acceptable as UW

Consider a sequence N which is not

the UW, but misreads as UW. Let E
the number of bit positions denote
in which the sequence differs fromn the
UW referred as
'acceptable bit errors.Let I denote
the number of bitpositions in which
the sequence
actually differs from the UW
referred as actual bit errors.
Hence the number of words acceptable as
the UW is
E
W =
I-0 (4.75)
Substituting
E
N!
W =2
-0 I!(N-I)! (4.76)
Average False Detection Probability
The number of words which can be formed from a sequence
of N bits = 2N
1

The probability of receiving any one word = =2-N

2N
Hence, the probability of false detection probability is
Pp = 2-N, W x .. (4.77)
Substituting
E N!
PE = 2-N .. (4.78)
F0I!(N-I)!
This gives theaverage false detection probability of TDMA.
Traffic Data

Traffic data sub-burst which follows immediately after the preamble ina burst.
The traffic data is divided into time slots and are individually addressed to
different
destination stations. The destination stations select only the data from the
COrresponding time
slots.
4.58 Satellite Communicatiea

4.9.7 Frame Efficiency and Channel Capacity

Frame Efficiency is defined as the fraction of frame time
uscd
transmission of trafic data. When fraction of frame time increases
theeficiena
also increases.
Frame efficiency ne given as

Traffic bits
Total bits
.. (479)
Overhead bits
Total bits .(4.30)
Where, Traffic bits = Total bits -Overhead bits
Overheadbits = Preamble + Postamble + Guard
intervals + Referenra
burstbits/frame
There are two ways to increase the efficiency.
1. Increasing the total number of bits,
using a long frame. But long frame ned
large buffer memories and synchronization difficulties also increase.
2. Lowering the overhead, reduces synchronizing and guard times, but requirs
more complex equipment.
Voice - Channel capacity is the number
of voice channels at the transponde
shared by all the earth stations. The voice channel capacity
of a frame or voiC
channel capacity of the transponder is accessed by the frame.
The total incoming traffic bit rate to a frame = n
xR
where R, = bit rate of voice channel
n = Voice channel capacity
The trafficbit rate of the frame = nFXKDMA
where
RnMA = transmission rate
Hence
n
R, = IpxRTDMA
 Satellite Access and Coding Methods 4,59

MFXRTDMA.
n= (4.81)
Ry
This gives the voice channel capacity.

4.9.8 Preassigned TDMA

The preassigned TDMA network has two examples

CSC for SPADE system
INTELSAT frame
CSC for SPADE System

The franme and burst formats for the CSC SPADE system are shown in
Figure 4.47.
50ms
S
46|47 48 49R 1
2 3 46| R| 12|34|5|6

Reference Burst

G7 CR BR UW Data Burst
49 40 32
G7 GR BR UW SU DP
1 ms
16 19 20 48 18

where 1 ms
G= Guardtime
=
CR Carrier Recovery
=
BR Bit Timing Recovery
=
UM Unique word
SU = Signaling Unit
DP = Data parity
Figure 4.47 CSC frameand Burst Formats for SPADE system
The CSCis able toaccommodate 49 earth stations and one reference station
(K)so a total bursts ina frame as shown in Figure 4.47.
of 50

The CSC has two bursts, namely Reference burst and Data burst
 Satellite Communication

4.60

Featurcs of bursts
=
Both burst size 128 bits
each burst = 1 ms
Time slot occupied by
• Bit rate = 128 kb/s
= 60 KHz
Frequency Bandwidth

Signaling Unit (SU) is a part of the data burst and carries the signaling

other stations for available frequencies,

information. For SCPC calls, SU updates

INTELSAT Frame
2 ms frame

Traffic burst
s Satellite
127| 128
Preamble123|4 6126 channels (SC)

Bit no. 357 3 5|71|3 s71|3 sl7 Terrestrial

246| 8|2|46|8|2 4.|6|8|2| 4|6| 8 channels (TC)
|Sample 2 |
1
| Sample |Sample 16|

125|1s

Sample no: 1 2 3 4 21
567 89 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

2 ms

Figure 4.48 Preassigned TDMAframe format in tle INTELSAI

 Satellite Access and Coding Methods
4.61
INTELSAT frame format can support both preassigned
and demand - assigned
voice. channels together. The preassigned TDMA frame in the INTELSAT system is
shown in Figure 4.48.

The preassigned channels also known as Digital Non

Interpolated (DNI)
ohannels. Here the traffic burst is subdivided into a maximum
of 128 time slots,
known as Satellite Channels (SC).
Each satellite channel is again subdivided into 16 time slots known as Terrestrial
Channels (TC). A PCM (Pulse Code Modulation) sample
of an analog telephone
signal is carried by each of this terrestrial channel.
The number of symbols carried by each channel are
Here QPSK modulation is used, one symbol
=2 bits
For terrestrial channel = 4 symbols (8 bits)
For satellite channel = 4 x
16=64 symbols
For traffic burst = 64 X 128 = 8192 symbols

The PCM sampling rate is 8 KHz and bit rate for PCM is given by
PCM bit rate = 8 KHz × 8 bits per sample = 64 Kbps
Multiple channels are used when high data rate needed for transmission.
Therefore, the maximum input data rate that can handle is
128 (SC) x 64 kb/s = 8192 Kbps
= 8.192 Mbps

An INTELSAT frame,contains 1,20,832 symbols 120832 x 2

= 2,41,664 bits

120,832 =
Number of terrestrial channel (TC) 30,208 symbols
4

30,208 =
Number of satellite channels (SC) 1,888 symbols
16

Now, burst bit rate for INTELSAT = 1,888 (SC) × 64 kb/s

= 120,832 kb/s
= 120,832 Mb/s
4.62 Satellite Communication

4.9.9 Demand - Assigned TDMA

provide traffic flexibility, the channels are assigned on demand,
To
andvhen
performed in TDMA it is referred as Demand Assigned TDMA.
Theadvantage in TDMA is software control, the networks are more flexible
in
reassigning channels and changes can bedone more easily and quickly.
Traffic flexibility in TDMÀ will be achieved using a number of methods.
of them are
1. Variable burst length
2. Constant burst length
In variable burst length, the length of the burst is varied according to k.
traffic demand. The burst length assignment to the stations may be controlled bya
control station. Otherwise, each station may determine and assign its own blns
lengths.
In constant burst length, the length of the burst is kept constant, but the number
of bursts per frame is varied according to the demandby the stations.
4.9.10 Downlink Analysis for Digital Transmission
In TDMA, the transponder can be operated at maximum power output
(saturation) since the TWT does not need backoff. But the disadvantage is tht
large power output is needed even for low traffic capacity stations than in FDMA
The overall carrier to noise ration is equal to the downlink carier to nois
ratio. The digital bit rate can be found from C/N ratio as

(4.82)

determined
where, signal Energy per bit to noiseppower spectral density
NoJ
by required bit error rate (BER) bandwidt
The IF bandwidh also limitsthe bit rate. The ratio of bit rate to IF
B can be given as,