Academic Essays & How to Write in Paragraphs

WHAT IS AN ESSAY?

Essays are academic argumentative texts. As such, they follow strict rules in
terms of structure and language.

Definition: “An essay is a group of paragraphs written about a single topic and a central main idea. It
must have at least three paragraphs, but a five-paragraph essay is a common length for academic
writing” (Zemach & Rumisek, 2005, p.56).

STRUCTURE

“The introduction is the first paragraph of an essay. It explains the topic with general ideas. It also has a
thesis statement. This is a sentence that [states] the [topic and] main idea [of the essay]. It usually comes
at or near the end of the paragraph.
[The body covers] the paragraphs that explain and support the thesis statement and come
between the introduction and the conclusion. There must be one or more paragraphs in the […] body of
an essay.
[The conclusion] is the last paragraph of an essay. It summarises or restates the thesis and the
supporting ideas of the essay” (Zemach & Rumisek, 2005, p.56).

This table lists in greater detail the structural components of an essay and the functions they serve.

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WHAT IS A PARAGRAPH?

“A paragraph is a group of about 6-12 sentences about one topic. Every sentence in a strong paragraph is
about the same topic. All of the sentences explain the writer’s main idea (most important idea) about that
topic. When writers want to write about a new idea, they begin a new paragraph. […] In academic writing,
a paragraph has a topic sentence that directly tells the reader the main idea. The other sentences in the
paragraph, called supporting sentences, give more information about the topic. They add specific details
and explanations” (Zemach & Islam, 2006, p.9).

Read the following paragraph and do the exercises below1. The sentences of the paragraph have been
numbered to help your discussion.

Learning Responsibility
1
My first job was as sales assistant in a small clothes shop. 2It was not a difficult
job, and it was not really an interesting job. 3My best friend had a more exciting job. 4Every
weekend I had to open the shop at 10.00 am. 5I could not be late. 6Now at weekends I like
to sleep late. 7I helped customers find clothes, and I kept the shop clean and tidy. 8My
parents’ house was very clean, too. 9I used the cash register and handled credit cards, so I
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had to be very careful. These things all taught me responsibility. 11Now I work in a
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research laboratory. I don’t work with clothes anymore, but I still use that important
skill I learnt in my first job.

1) What is the topic of the paragraph?

______________________________________________________________________________________

2) Cross out the sentences that are not connected to the topic.

3) Tick (V) the sentences could be connected to the paragraph.

a. I answered the phone and opened the post.
b. On weekdays I did my homework for school.
c. I once worked delivering pizza, too.
d. I learned how to choose and order new clothing.
e. Dressing neatly and professionally was an important part of the job.
f. A lab assistant is a good job for me.
g. In the future, I would like to take some business trips.

STRUCTURE

Paragraphs follow a logical development and include the following structural elements (usually in that
order):

• A topic sentence that states the main idea of the paragraph in an abstract way.
• One or more sentences of clarification – moving down the ladder of
abstraction.
• Evidence and/or examples (possibly quotes from a text) and proper
explanation.
• (A) conclusion sentence(s) that makes the paragraph come full circle.

Going back to the previous paragraph, can you identify any of the structural elements listed above?

1 Exercises adapted from Zemach & Islam, 2006, p. 11.

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Using the following colour code, indicate the structural elements in the paragraph below: red = topic
sentence, blue = clarification sentences, green = examples or supporting evidence and explanation,
orange = conclusion sentence2.

1
Classes in literature are useful no matter what job you intend to have when you finish university.
2
Books are about life. 3People who study literature learn the skill of reading carefully and understanding
characters, situations, and relationships. 4This kind of understanding can be useful to teachers and
businesspeople alike. 5Literature classes also require a lot of writing, so they help students develop the skill
of clear communication. 6Of course, a professional writer needs to have this skill, but it is an equally
important skill for an engineer. 7Finally, reading literature helps develop an understanding of many
different points of view. 8Reading a novel by a Russian author, for example, will help a reader learn more
about Russian culture. 9For anyone whose job may bring them into contact with Russian colleagues, this
insight can help encourage better cross-cultural understanding. 11Studying literature is studying life, so
it is relevant to almost any job you can think of.

FOCUS ON TOPIC SENTENCES

A good topic sentence must focus on one clear topic and include an idea or
opinion about that topic. Since the supporting sentences should develop the
topic, a good topic sentence should be stated in abstract terms and should not
be too broad or too narrow. Stating a fact, for example, cannot work as a good
topic sentence since a fact cannot be developed.

Here are some examples of acceptable topic sentences:

o Libraries are particularly good places to study.
o Football is among the most favourite sports because it is exciting to watch.
o One of the most valuable tools for students is the computer.

In the following pairs of sentences, highlight the opinion and cross out the fact. Could the opinion make
a good topic sentence?

1) Learning English is easier for girls than for boys. / There are more boys than girls in my English
class.
2) Good teachers do not give too much homework. / Our teacher gave us homework last week.
3) Keanu Reeves starred in the Matrix films. / Keanu Reeves is a good actor.
4) Most teenagers carry mobile phones these days. / Mobile phones are very convenient.
5) All students have to wear a uniform at my school. / Our school uniforms are not very comfortable.
6) I do not believe that wearing the latest fashion is important. / My favourite clothes are all black.

For each of the topics below, imagine a convincing topic sentence.

1) University entrance exams

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2) Violent video games
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Exercises adapted from Zemach & Rumisek, 2005, p. 13.

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 3) Money
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4) Sports
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FOCUS ON CLARIFICATION SENTENCES

Clarification sentences, a.k.a. supporting sentences “develop the idea stated

in the topic sentence by adding more information to explain what you
mean” (Zemach & Rumisek, 2005, p.17). There are different ways of
developing an idea: giving details, giving an explanation, or giving an
example. In academic paragraphs, both explanation and examples are
required. This is because essay writers must always strive for a balance
between abstract ideas and concrete facts.
The clarification sentences serve as a transition between the abstract level of the topic sentence,
in which the writer states an idea, and the concrete level of the supporting evidence and/or example.
Because they act as a transition, clarification sentences must be carefully thought out in order to make
the writer’s line of argument as clear as possible.
A line of argument is the expression, organisation and sequence of ideas that a writer constructs.
There are different ways to construct an argument:

- adding details; i.e. adding specific points that tell more about a general statement;
- providing a definition—this is particularly relevant when the initial idea includes an abstract and
rather general concept;
- adding an explanation; i.e. telling the reader what something means or how something works;
- expressing causation; i.e. explaining what the cause or reason for a specific effect or result is;
- providing a description;
- comparing or contrasting;
- etc.

Looking at the list above, which line of argument would you choose for the following topic sentences?
(You may use more than one line of argument)

1) Technology plays a role in making people more isolated.

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______________________________________________________________________________________

2) Recycling should be made compulsory

______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

3) LinkedIn is not useful for finding a job.

______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

4) Falling in love is part of human experience.

______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

5) It should be compulsory for employers to check candidates’ profiles on social media.

______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

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Read the paragraph below and comment on the use of clarification sentences3. Can you recognize any of
the techniques listed above? Can you identify both abstract and concrete elements?

Making Language Classes Interesting

1
Learning a language is difficult, but it does not have to be boring. 2I studied French at school
for seven years, but I cannot speak a word of French now. 3The problem with learning French was my
classes, not the language. 4One problem was that our textbooks were too old and boring. 5The pictures were
black and white, and the famous singers and film stars had already died. 6We also wanted to learn about
popular 7French culture and talk about our lives in French. 8Students do not want to memorise rules and
vocabulary for an hour every day and nothing else. 9The most important point is that the classroom has
to be interesting. 10Students need to play games, listen to music, watch films and talk about them in the
foreign language. 11Teachers need to make language classes useful and interesting if they want students to
learn.

Would you have organized the paragraph differently? Rewrite the paragraph on a separate sheet of paper
changing the order of the sentences.

FOCUS ON SUPPORTING EVIDENCE & EXAMPLES

There are many ways of writing. These range from imaginative and abstract descriptions to concrete and
specific ones. As mentioned above, in academic essays, writers must balance their writing and include
both abstract notions and concrete elements. This is the reason why supporting evidence and concrete
examples are central to a line of argument in every body paragraph. Without evidence or examples, an
academic paragraph is incomplete.
American linguist S.I. Hayakawa, in his book Language in Thought and Action (1991), developed
the concept of the ladder of abstraction to describe how the use of language can evolve from concrete to
abstract. The ladder includes several rungs which show the ascending order of language uses ranging
from concrete at the bottom to abstract at the top.

Abstraction =
ideas and
concepts

Concrete facts =
objects, people,
places, etc.

The rungs that correspond to The rungs that correspond to

higher levels of abstraction are concrete facts, objects, people,
preferred in topic sentences (and places or situations are used when
thesis statements in the providing supporting evidence. When
introduction). mentioning examples, aim for the To
Kill a Mockingbird or Jerry Garcia rung.

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Exercises adapted from Zemach & Islam, 2006, p. 59.

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Using the following colour code, indicate the structural elements in the paragraphs below: red = topic
sentence, blue = clarification sentences, green = examples or supporting evidence, orange = conclusion
sentence4.

Then, with a fellow student, discuss the paragraphs’ line of argument; i.e; the way(s) in which the
ideas are developed and supported by more concrete elements. Try to place all the structural elements
that you identify on the ladder of abstraction (you may create a specific version of the ladder of
abstraction on the basis of the text). What are the ideas and concepts that the student focused on? How
are the ideas linked to more concrete notions?

1
Modern medicine focuses on illness. 2If a patient with a cough visits a modern doctor, then the
doctor will give the patient a medicine to stop the cough. 3If the patient also has a fever, the doctor may
give a different medicine to stop the fever. 4For every person with a cough, the doctor will probably
recommend the same cough medicine. 5The philosophy of modern medicine is to stop problems like coughing
and fever as quickly as possible. 6Western doctors usually see illness as an enemy. 7They use medicines like
weapons to fight diseases.
1
Chinese medicine, in contrast, has a different philosophy. 2Instead of focusing on patients’ health
problems, Chinese medicine tries to make the patient’s whole body well again. 3Specifically, doctors of
Chinese medicine believe that inside people, there are two types of energy. 4The first type of energy, called
‘yin’, is quiet and passive. 5The other type of energy, called ‘yang’, is active. 6When these two energies are
in equal balance, a person is healthy. 7When there is an imbalance—too much yin, for example—a person
becomes unhealthy. 8A doctor of Chinese medicine does not try to stop a person’s cough by giving a cough
medicine. 9Instead, the doctor gives a mixture of herbs that will restore balance in the patient’s body. 10As
a result, when the body is in balance, the cough will stop naturally.

Is there anything you would have done differently? Make all recommendations that you think are
necessary.

FOCUS ON CONCLUSION SENTENCES

The last sentence of a paragraph—a.k.a. the concluding or conclusion sentence—

needs to bring it to a close. Typically, the conclusion sentence sums up the point
or restates the main idea in a different way. That is to say that the conclusion
sentence “should give the same information in a slightly different way, perhaps
by using different words or by using different word order” (Zemach & Rumisek,
2005, p. 19). Although conclusion sentences can never state a completely new
idea, they may establish a connection with the paragraph that follows.

Match the topic sentence on the left with the concluding sentence on the right. What technique(s) did the
student use to restate the main idea?

a. I admire many things about my father. 1. You can easily see that he is friendly, outgoing, and
loves to laugh.

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Exercises adapted from Zemach & Rumisek, 2005, p. 79.

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 b. I think my uncle’s face shows his personality. 2. She works hard at her job, but she always has time
for me.

c. Daniel Radcliffe, who plays Harry Potter, is my 3. His poor health is probably why he died young.
favourite actor.

d. I was always frightened of my history teacher. 4. When I grow up, I hope I will be just like my father.

e. My mother is a very busy person. 5. She was scary, but I learned a lot from her tough
lessons and strict personality.

f. Elvis’s body and health changed as he got older. 6. I think he will keep improving as he gets older and
makes more films.

a. _______ b. _______ c. _______ d. _______ e. _______ f. _______

List the techniques you observed here:

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REFERENCES

Hayakawa, S.I. (1991). Language in Thought and Action. 5th ed. London: Harvest Original, Harcourt.
Zemach, D. E. & Rumisek, L. (2005). Academic Writing: from Paragraph to Essay. Oxford: Macmillan.
Zemach, D.E. & Islam, C. (2006). Writing in Paragraphs. Oxford: Macmillan.