2

Bridging and
Bracing of Steel
Joists and Joist
Girders
SETTING STANDARDS.
TECHNICAL DIGEST TWO ADVANCING DESIGNS.
The information presented in this publication has been developed by the Engineering Practice
and Research Committees of the Steel Joist Institute (SJI) and is produced in accordance
with recognized engineering principles and is for general information only. The SJI and its
committees have made a concerted effort to present accurate, reliable, and useful information
related to the bridging of steel joists. Application of this information should not be used or
relied upon for any specific project without competent professional assessment of its accuracy,
suitability, and applicability by a licensed professional engineer or architect. The publication of
the material contained in this Technical Digest is not intended as a representation or warranty
on the part of the Steel Joist Institute. Any person making use of this information does so at
one’s own risk and assumes all liability arising from such use.

The information contained in the technical digest is intended to assist specifiers, manufacturers
and steel erectors.

Federal Regulations Governing Erection of Joist Products

Steel joists and joist girders must be erected in accordance with the Occupational Safety and
Health Administration (OSHA), U.S. Department of Labor- 29 CFR Part 1926 Safety Standards
for Steel Erection. The erection of open web steel joists is governed by Section 1926.757 of this
Federal Regulation.

Copyright © 2023

by

Steel Joist Institute

All rights reserved. This Technical Digest or any part thereof must not be reproduced
in any form without the written permission of the Steel Joist Institute.

Printed in the United States of America

First Edition
First Printing – December 2023
 TECHNICAL DIGEST 2
BRIDGING AND BRACING
OF STEEL JOISTS AND
JOIST GIRDERS

STEEL JOIST INSTITUTE

140 WEST EVANS STREET, SUITE 203
FLORENCE, SC 29501
WWW.STEELJOIST.ORG
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The development of this and other Steel Joist Institute technical digests is the result of the
combined effort of numerous people and organizations. In addition to the efforts of the SJI
Engineering Practice and Research Committees, the contributions of Dr. Ronald Ziemian,
Professor at Bucknell University, and Dr. James M. Fisher, Consulting Engineer to the SJI,
are gratefully acknowledged.

FOREWORD
This technical digest is another addition to the series of Steel Joist Institute publications
designed to give the reader information regarding the application and usage of steel joists
and joist girders.

Technical Digest 2 concerns itself with bridging requirements for open web steel joists. This
and other SJI technical digests serve to highlight specific areas of design and/or application for
the benefit of architects, building inspectors, building officials, designers, engineers, erectors,
students, and others.

i
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS....................................................................................................................... i

FOREWORD ....................................................................................................................................... i

TABLE OF CONTENTS.......................................................................................................................... ii

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE........................................................................................................... v

GLOSSARY ....................................................................................................................................... vii

CHAPTER 1 PURPOSE OF BRIDGING................................................................................................. 1

THE ROLE OF BRIDGING......................................................................................................... 1
TYPES OF BRIDGING............................................................................................................... 1
PURPOSES OF BRIDGING....................................................................................................... 3
Erection Bridging........................................................................................................... 3
Construction Bridging.................................................................................................... 3
Permanent Bridging....................................................................................................... 5

CHAPTER 2 BRIDGING THEORY......................................................................................................... 7

JOIST CHORD LATERAL RESTRAINT..................................................................................... 7
CONSTRUCTION AND PERMANENT BRIDGING.................................................................... 10
Strength Requirement................................................................................................... 10
Force Accumulation....................................................................................................... 12
BRIDGING CRITERIA................................................................................................................ 14
Bridging Stiffness........................................................................................................... 15
ERECTION BRIDGING.............................................................................................................. 15
JOIST GIRDER LATERAL STABILITY....................................................................................... 16

CHAPTER 3 SJI SPECIFICATION REQUIREMENTS........................................................................... 18

HISTORY AND BASIS OF SJI BRIDGING REQUIREMENTS................................................... 18
SJI 2020 CJ-SERIES ERECTION BRIDGING........................................................................... 20
SJI 2020 BRIDGING REQUIREMENTS..................................................................................... 21
SJI 2020 ERECTION BRIDGING............................................................................................... 21
Minkoff Equation............................................................................................................ 22
SJI 2020 CONSTRUCTION BRIDGING..................................................................................... 24
SJI 2020 PERMANENT BRIDGING........................................................................................... 27
Standing Seam Roofs.................................................................................................... 28
Joist Girders.................................................................................................................. 28
BOTTOM BEARING JOISTS..................................................................................................... 30
BRIDGING ROWS FOR KCS JOISTS....................................................................................... 30

ii
CHAPTER 4 RESPONSIBILITY FOR THE DESIGN AND SPECIFICATION OF BRIDGING.................... 32
RESPONSIBILITY OF THE MANUFACTURER......................................................................... 32
RESPONSIBILITY OF THE SPECIFYING PROFESSIONAL.................................................... 38
Bridging Termination...................................................................................................... 38
Specifying Bridging........................................................................................................ 39
BRIDGING FOR TOP CHORD PITCHED JOISTS.................................................................... 39
Bracing.......................................................................................................................... 39

CHAPTER 5 TYPICAL DETAILS............................................................................................................ 40

TYPICAL BRIDGING DETAILS.................................................................................................. 40
Bridging Termination to a Wall....................................................................................... 40
Bridging Termination to Beams...................................................................................... 42
Termination of Horizontal Bridging to a Joist................................................................. 44
TYPES OF BRIDGING CONNECTIONS................................................................................... 46
Horizontal and Uplift Bridging........................................................................................ 46
Welded Diagonal Bridging............................................................................................. 47
Bolted Diagonal Bridging............................................................................................... 48
JOIST GIRDER BOTTOM CHORD BRACING.......................................................................... 49
DIAGONAL BOLTED BRIDGING COMBINED WITH HORIZONTAL BOLTED BRIDGING....... 50
HORIZONTAL BRIDGING SPLICES.......................................................................................... 51

CHAPTER 6 INSTALLATION TOPICS................................................................................................... 52

INSTALLATION OF JOISTS....................................................................................................... 52
Panelization................................................................................................................... 52
Potential Problems Using Panelization.......................................................................... 54
INSTALLATION CONCERNS..................................................................................................... 54
HANDLING OF BRIDGING........................................................................................................ 55
UPLIFT BRIDGING PLACEMENT OPTIONS............................................................................ 55
BRIDGING TERMINATION AT EXPANSION JOINTS................................................................ 57
ESFR SPRINKLER SYSTEMS.................................................................................................. 57
TILTED JOISTS.......................................................................................................................... 58
STRAIGHTENING OF JOISTS DURING INSTALLATION......................................................... 60
COLUMN JOISTS...................................................................................................................... 60
STANDING SEAM ROOFS........................................................................................................ 62
TWO JOISTS BRACED BY EACH OTHER............................................................................... 62
FIELD MODIFICATIONS............................................................................................................ 63
Removing Bridging........................................................................................................ 63
Removal of Horizontal Bridging..................................................................................... 64
Removal of Diagonal Bridging....................................................................................... 65
Removal of Joist Girder Bottom Chord Braces.............................................................. 66

CHAPTER 7 SPECIAL PROFILE JOISTS............................................................................................. 67

SPECIAL PROFILE JOISTS...................................................................................................... 67
Two-Piece Gable Profiles.............................................................................................. 69
Terminating and Anchoring Special Profile Joist Bridging Forces................................. 69

iii
CHAPTER 8 SUMMARY OF BRIDGING RESEARCH........................................................................... 70
RESEARCH DOCUMENTS AND PAPERS................................................................................ 70

CHAPTER 9 EXAMPLES....................................................................................................................... 73
MINKOFF EQUATION................................................................................................................ 73
K-SERIES JOIST WITH A STANDING SEAM ROOF................................................................ 76
TILTED (CANTED) JOISTS........................................................................................................ 86

CHAPTER 10 REFERENCES................................................................................................................ 87
REFERENCES........................................................................................................................... 87

iv
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE
The first known application of steel joist construction was in the Bank of the State of New York building that was
erected in 1855 at Williams St. and Exchange Place in New York City. The architect, James Renwick, developed
a type of floor joist that was comprised of two 1/16-inch riveted wrought iron web plates with 4 x 1/8-inch top and
bottom plates riveted to the web to form the joist. The building was razed in 1903. During the period of 1885 to
1920, various proprietary and patented joist designs were manufactured including the O’Shea Joist in Chicago,
St. Louis Joist, Berger Joist, Truscon Steel Joist, and the National Strip Steel Joist. All these joists had solid sheet
steel for their webs, and it was not until 1923 that the first “open web” steel joist appeared. The Massillon Bar
Joist consisted of five bars: two top chord bars, two bottom chord bars, and a web bar. The web bar was bent
to proper dimensions, and the assembly was arc welded at panel points into a Warren truss configuration. The
design of each end of the joist gave it flexibility of span.

In June 1928, the Steel Joist Institute was formed by a group of joist manufacturers, Concrete Steel Co. in New
York, NY, Gabriel Steel Co. in Detroit, MI, Kalman Steel Corporation in Bethlehem, PA, The Macomber Steel
Co. in Canton, OH, and Truscon Steel Co. in Youngstown, OH. The original purposes for which the Institute
was founded were to standardize the methods of design and details of construction, to promote proper building
regulations, and to disseminate information relative to the proper use of steel joists. In December of that same
year, the Steel Joist Institute adopted the Standard Specification of Steel Joists, and in August 1929, the first
standard loading table applicable to the design of joists by all member companies was approved. This loading
table was later adopted as Simplified Practice Recommendation R 94-30 of the United States Department of
Commerce. In April 1931, the first Code of Standard Practice was adopted.

The SJI’s first Catalog, Steel Joist Construction - A Handbook for Architects and Engineers on the Uses and
Properties of Steel Joists, was published in January 1932. The catalog contained information on open web steel
joists, Standard Specification and Code of Standard Practice of the Steel Joist Institute, Handling and Erecting
Steel Joists, Standard Steel Joist Loading Tables, and Properties of Steel Joists. That catalog, in addition to
the many other catalogs that have been published subsequently by the SJI, contains information related to the
proper bridging for steel joists.

Since the original publication date, there have been numerous changes and innovations relative to bridging
requirements for steel joists. Among these changes have been the introduction of new or expanded joist
products, innovations in building materials and systems, changes in design philosophy, and the adoption of new
building codes and federal regulations. For these reasons, the Steel Joist Institute determined that an overhaul
and renewal of Technical Digest 2 was required.

Bridging is an integral component of the open web steel joist system. It braces joists against unanticipated lateral
movement during installation and during placement of construction loads and permanently restrains the joist
chords from out-of-plane or lateral movement when other means are not present. The purpose of this digest is to
provide the specifying professional a clear understanding of the Steel Joist Institute’s bridging requirements, both
historically and as they exist today, and to provide an overview of the research topics related to joist bridging.

v
GLOSSARY
ASD (Allowable Strength Design). Method of proportioning structural components such that the
allowable strength equals or exceeds the required strength of the component under the action of
the ASD load combinations.

Bearing. The distance that the bearing shoe or seat of a joist or joist girder extends over its masonry,
concrete, or steel support.

Bridging. A member connected to a joist to brace it from lateral movement. See also Diagonal
Bridging and Horizontal Bridging

Bridging Terminus Point. A wall, beam, set of tandem joists (with all bridging installed and a
horizontal truss in the plane of the top chord), or other element at an end or intermediate point of a
line of bridging that provides an anchor point for the steel joist bridging.

Buckling. Limit state of sudden change in the geometry of a structure or any of its elements under
a critical loading condition.

Chords. The top and bottom members of a joist or joist girder. When a chord is comprised of two
angles, there is usually a gap between the members.

Connection. Combination of structural elements and joints used to transmit forces between two or
more members. See also splice.

Deck. A floor or roof covering made out of gage metal attached by welding or mechanical means to
joists, beams, purlins, or other structural members. Deck can be galvanized, painted, or unpainted.

Design Load. Applied load determined in accordance with either LRFD load combinations or ASD
load combinations, whichever is applicable.

Diagonal Bridging. Two angles or other structural shapes connected from the top chord of one
joist to the bottom chord of the next joist to form an ‘X’ shape. These members are almost always
connected at their point of intersection.

Erection Bridging. The bolted diagonal bridging that is required to be installed prior to releasing the
hoisting cables from the steel joists.

Erector. The entity that is responsible for the safe and proper installation of the materials in
accordance with all applicable codes and regulations.

Joist. A structural load-carrying member with an open web system which supports floors and roofs
utilizing hot-rolled or cold-formed steel and is designed as a simple span member. Currently, the
SJI Standard Specification has the following joist designations: K-Series including KCS, LH-Series,
DLH-Series, and CJ-Series.

vi
Joist Girder. A primary structural load-carrying member with an open web system designed as a
simple span supporting concentrated loads of a floor or roof system acting at the panel points of the
member and utilizing hot-rolled or cold-formed steel.

Load. Force or other action that results from the weight of building materials, occupants and their
possessions, environmental effects, differential movement, or restrained dimensional changes.

LRFD (Load and Resistance Factor Design). Method of proportioning structural components such
that the design strength equals or exceeds the required strength of the component under the action
of the LRFD load combinations.

Horizontal Bridging. A continuous angle or other structural shape connected to the top or bottom
chord of a joist.

Material. Joists, joist girders, and accessories as provided by the seller.

OSHA. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration is the federal government agency whose
purpose is to save lives, prevent injuries, and protect the health of the workers of America.

Slenderness Ratio. The ratio of the effective length of a column to the radius of gyration of the
column about the same axis of bending.

Span. The centerline-to-centerline distance between structural steel supports such as a beam,
column, or joist girder, or the clear span distance plus the standard clear bearing length on each
masonry or concrete wall support.

Specifying Professional. The licensed professional who is responsible for sealing the building
contract documents, which indicates that he or she has performed or supervised the analysis,
design, and document preparation for the structure and has knowledge of the load-carrying
structural system.

Stability. Condition reached in the loading of a structural component, frame, or structure in which a
slight disturbance in the loads or geometry does not produce large displacements.

Standard Specification. Documents developed and maintained by the Steel Joist Institute for the
design and manufacture of open web steel joists and joist girders. The term “SJI Specification”
encompasses by reference the following:
ANSI/SJI 100 - 2020 Standard Specification for K-Series, LH-Series, and DLH-Series Open
Web Steel Joists and for Joist Girders.
ANSI/SJI 200 - 2015 Standard Specification for CJ-Series Composite Steel Joists.

vii
 11
CHAPTER 11
CHAPTER
PURPOSE OFBRIDGING
PURPOSE OF BRIDGING

THE ROLE OF BRIDGING

Open web steel joists possess an excellent strength to weight ratio. They are inherently long
and slender with tremendous load carrying capacity in-plane. To prevent bucking of the joist
out-of-plane or rotation of the joist out of a vertical plane, lateral out-of-plane bracing is
required. The role of bridging is to provide lateral bracing to the joists. The bridging is
continuous and attached to a stiff structural element, or installed in a manner that creates a
load path to resolve the forces.

TYPES OF BRIDGING
Bridging is supplied as horizontal or diagonal (see Figures 1.1 through 1.3). Horizontal bridging
is installed by welding the bridging directly to the top and bottom chords of the joists. Diagonal
bridging can also be installed by welding but is most often installed as bolted since the
ANSI/SJI-100 Standard Specification, hereafter referred to as the SJI Specification (SJI,
2020a) and OSHA (OSHA, 2001) often require bolting as the connection method.

Figure 1.1
Horizontal Bridging Detail

1
 Figure 1.2
Welded Diagonal Bridging Detail

Figure 1.2
Figure 1.2
Welded Diagonal Bridging Detail
Welded Diagonal Bridging Detail

Figure 1.3
FigureBridging
Bolted Diagonal 1.3 Detail
Bolted Diagonal Bridging Detail
Figure 1.3
Bolted Diagonal Bridging Detail
22

2
2
PURPOSES OF BRIDGING
Bridging is relied on to serve three distinct functions, and are referred to as:
1. Erection Bridging
2. Construction Bridging
3. Permanent Bridging

Erection Bridging
One of the most important aspects of safe erection of joists is the installation of proper
erection bridging. A joist may become unstable as soon as the hoisting cable is released,
even without other applied loads. Erection bridging is required if the joist is not stable
under its own self-weight and the weight of one erector (traveling to the joist midpoint to
release the hoisting cable). Erection bridging is defined in the OSHA Safety Standards as
“the bolted diagonal bridging that is required to be installed prior to releasing the hoisting
cables from the steel joists” (see OSHA 1926.751 Definitions). Not all joists require
erection bridging when being set into position on their supports.

Erection bridging requirements are governed by the SJI Specification and OSHA. Shown
in the SJI Specification K-Series and LH- and DLH-Series Load Tables are the total safe
uniformly distributed loads for standard products at various spans. As the span increases
for a particular joist designation, the uniformly distributed load-carrying capacity decreases.
Also indicated in the load tables are when the span becomes too great for a particular joist
designation to be erected without erection bridging.

The required bolted diagonal erection bridging for K-Series joists must be installed as the
row of bridging nearest the mid-span of the joist. For LH- and DLH-Series joists, erection
bridging may consist of one or more rows. For joists with a span greater than 60’-0”, all
rows of bridging are required to be bolted diagonal erection bridging.

The erection bridging must also be anchored to prevent lateral movement of the joist prior
to the hoisting cables being released. This can be accomplished by securing the bridging
to a fixed object such as a wall, steel beam, or other stable portion of the structure. OSHA
refers to this anchorage point as a bridging terminus point.

Construction Bridging
A second function of the joist bridging is to provide lateral support for the joist to support
construction loads present until a permanent means of top chord lateral support (normally
metal decking) is installed. A lateral displacement of the joist during the erection sequence
may indicate that a construction load caused the joist to distort, roll over, or shift from its
intended position resulting in both the ironworkers and/or joists collapsing (see Figures
1.4 and 1.5). The installed construction bridging is there to prevent any such occurrence
as just described. After the required erection bridging is installed and the hoisting cables
have been released, the remaining bridging rows must be installed before the application
of additional construction loads.

3
3
Under no circumstances are construction loads of any description to be placed on
unbridged joists. As previously described, many joists are laterally unstable until the
joists are properly bridged, and the bridging and the joists are properly anchored. The
joists should be completely bridged immediately after final placement and end attachment
is completed in accordance with OSHA and SJI requirements.

Construction loads are defined in the OSHA Safety Standards as “any load other than the
employee(s), the joists and the bridging bundles.” These construction loads include the
weight of metal deck bundles and individual sheets being placed, the weight of multiple
erectors placing the deck, and the equipment loads such as welding machines and leads,
hand tools, bridging bundles for adjacent bays, etc. OSHA strictly prohibits placing
construction loads on unbridged joists and gives the proper procedure for landing bridging
bundles on unbridged joists (see 29CFR1926.757(e)(1), (2), and (3)). It is critical that the
magnitude of construction loads on any one joist be limited and it is advisable that the
loads be placed as close as possible to the ends of the joist. There is an exception for the
placement of a bundle of decking after the installation of at least one bridging row, but not
all bridging rows, if certain stringent conditions are met (see 29CFR1926.757(e)(4)).

Any erector who allows construction loads to be placed on unbridged joists is in direct
violation of the Federal Regulation as well as the SJI Specification Section 6 and may be
held liable for any injuries sustained if an accident should occur.

Figure 1.4
Construction Loads Improperly Set on Unbridged Joists

4
4
 Figure 1.5
Potential Consequence of Setting a Bundle of Deck on Unbridged, Unanchored Joists

Permanent Bridging
The third function of joist bridging is to permanently brace both the joist top and bottom
chords. Since it is an integral part of the design of a steel joist, permanent bridging is
intended to remain as part of the structural system for the life of the structure. Without
proper lateral bracing, the joists cannot carry the design loads. When the metal decking
is installed, thus creating a sufficient diaphragm, the bridging no longer has a permanent
role for the top chord since the steel decking can now fully brace the joist top chord.

One exception is when a standing seam roof (SSR) is attached directly to a joist top chord.
The SJI has determined that this type of roofing system normally does not provide the
required diaphragm strength to laterally support the joist unless testing has shown otherwise.
Thus, permanent bridging is necessary for the joists to function properly (Hodge, 1986).

For the joist bottom chord, the bridging also serves a permanent role, both when the
bottom chord is subject to tension as well as compression forces. Since the bottom chord
serves to laterally brace the joist web members (when modeled as pinned ends), then the
bottom chord itself must be braced laterally, even when it is in tension, to help fulfill this
role. When joists are used for roof construction, they are frequently subject to a net uplift
force which creates compression in the bottom chord, wherein bottom chord permanent
bridging must provide the necessary buckling resistance.

Bridging can consist of bolted diagonal erection bridging (X bridging), horizontal bridging,
or uplift bridging. Illustrated in Figure 1.6 is a typical joist bay with all three types of bridging
that might be required for that bay.

5
5
 Figure 1.6
Bridging in a Typical Joist Bay

66
 2
2
CHAPTER 2
CHAPTER 2
BRIDGING
BRIDGING THEORY
THEORY
________________________________________________________________________________________________________

JOIST CHORD LATERAL RESTRAINT

Open web steel joists are strong in the vertical direction provided the joists are laterally
restrained in the horizontal direction. The number and placement of bracing locations have a
significant effect on the load carrying capacity. Under gravity loads, the top chord is in
compression. When the joist is subject to uplift loading, the bottom chord is in compression.
The load carrying capacity of a chord is determined by the degree of lateral restraint it receives.
For typical erection methods, the joist top chord is restrained by the bridging. When the steel
deck is installed to the top chord of a joist, the deck provides restraint to the top chord: an
exception being standing seam roof systems. For permanent bridging requirements when
standing seam roofs are used, see Chapter 3. For the joist bottom chord, the bridging provides
additional lateral restraint. A joist chord in compression buckles based on the distance between
lateral restraints. The greater the distance, the less load carrying capacity.

Joist lateral restraint from bridging is shown in Figures 2.1 through 2.4, 2.9, and 2.10. These
figures were developed by Dr. Ronald Ziemian (Ziemian, 2016).

Without lateral restraint, joists tend to deflect out of plane under load. In some
circumstances, joists are not self-supporting under self-weight. In these cases, the joists
will deflect out of plane and roll off their supports. For these circumstances, erection
bridging (X bridging) is required before hoisting devices are released.

Equations which have been verified with testing are used to determine when and how much
erection bridging is necessary to support joist self-weight plus construction loads.

Shown in Figure 2.1 is the buckling mode for an un-bridged joist.

7
 Figure 2.1
Un-bridged Joist Buckling Mode

With bridging installed, the joist has lateral restraint at the location where the bridging connects
to the joist. This provides a significant increase in the load carrying capacity. As shown in Figure
2.2, the bridging provides a fixed point of lateral restraint at the attachment location.

Figure 2.2
Buckling Mode with Bridging Lateral Restraint Points

8
8
op chord, this is considered “full” lateral support. For the bottom chord, even in tension, a
imited amount of restraint resisting twist is provided by the bridging.

Illustrated
Illustratedinin
inFigure
Figure2.3 2.3isis
isthe
the condition
condition where the top chord
chord islaterally
laterally restrainedbybythe the
Illustrated Figure 2.3 the condition where the top
top chord is is laterally restrained
restrained by the
metal
metaldeck,
metal deck,while
deck, whilethe
while thebottom
the bottom chord
bottom chord lacks
chord lacks such
lacks restraint. In
restraint.
such restraint. In the
In thecase
the caseof
case ofofan
anattached
an attacheddeck,
attached deck,
deck,
thethetop
topchord
chord isismodeled
modeled with
with lateral
lateral restraint
restraint assumed
assumed at
at 36
36 inches
inches
the top chord is modeled with lateral restraint assumed at 36 inches on center. For a joist on
on center.
center. For
For a a joist
joist
toptopchord,
chord,this
Illustrated
top chord, this
in
thisisis
isconsidered
Figureconsidered
2.3 is the
considered “full”
“full” lateral
condition
“full” lateral support.
lateral where For
For
theFor
support. the
the
topthe
chord bottom
bottom
bottom chord,even
chord,
is laterally
chord, evenin
even inintension,
restrained tension,
tension, aa
by the
a
limited
limited
limited amount
metalamount
deck,
amount of
while restraint
ofofrestraint
the bottom
restraint resisting
resisting
resisting twist
chordtwist is provided
provided
lacksissuch
twist provided by the
by the
restraint.
by the bridging.
bridging.
In bridging.
the case of an attached deck,
the top chord is modeled with lateral restraint assumed at 36 inches on center. For a joist
top chord, this is considered “full” lateral support. For the bottom chord, even in tension, a
limited amount of restraint resisting twist is provided by the bridging.

Figure 2.3
Buckling Mode with Top Chord Only Lateral Restraint
Figure 2.3
Figure 2.3
Although the deformed joist shape as shown in Figure 2.4 is exaggerated, it depicts a fully
Figure
Buckling Mode with Top 2.3Only Lateral Restraint
Chord
Buckling Mode with Top Chord Only Lateral Restraint
Buckling Mode with Top Chord Only Lateral Restraint
estrained top chord deformed
Although and a bottom chord laterally restrained by the bridging. This is an
Although thethe deformed joist
joist shape
shape as
as shown
shown in Figure
Figure 2.4
in2.3 2.4 is
is exaggerated,
exaggerated, itit depicts
depicts aa fully
fully
llustrationAlthough
of howthe
restrained
restrained the
top joist
top chordmight
deformed
chord and
and deflect
joistashape
a bottom
bottom
Buckling
under
aschord
chord
Mode with
Figure
shown in an
Top laterally
laterally uplift
Figure
restrained
restrained
Chord Only
load
2.4 is
by case
exaggerated,
by the where
the bridging.
Lateral Restraint bridging. the
it depicts
This
This is bottom
a an
is fully
an chord
restrained
s in compression top chord and a bottom chord laterally restrained by the bridging. This is an
illustrationand
illustration of
of how
howbridging
the joist provides
the joist might deflectthe
might deflect lateral
under
under an restraint.
an uplift
uplift load
load case
case where
where the
the bottom
bottom chord
chord
illustration
is of
thehow the joist might deflect underinan uplift load case where the bottoma chord
is in
in compression
Although
compression and
and bridging
deformed joist provides
shape
bridging the
the lateral
as shown
provides restraint.
Figure
lateral 2.4 is exaggerated,
restraint. it depicts fully
is restrained
in compression and bridging provides the lateral restraint.
top chord and a bottom chord laterally restrained by the bridging. This is an
illustration of how the joist might deflect under an uplift load case where the bottom chord
is in compression and bridging provides the lateral restraint.

Figure 2.4
Figure 2.4
Buckling Mode with Permanent Bridging
Buckling Mode with Permanent Bridging
Figure 2.4
Buckling Mode with Permanent Bridging
Figure 2.4
Buckling Mode with 9
Permanent Bridging
Figure9 2.4
Buckling Mode with99Permanent Bridging
9
CONSTRUCTION AND PERMANENT BRIDGING
For construction bridging
CONSTRUCTION AND and permanent bridging,
PERMANENT BRIDGING each joist chord (top or bottom) is modeled
as if it is a column. The axial forces in the
For construction bridging and permanent bridging, each chords arejoist
a function
chord (top of or
thebottom)
bending moment
is modeled
created
as if it isbyathe applied
column. Thejoistaxial
loads, divided
forces by the
in the joist effective
chords depth.of
are a function Thethechord compressive
bending moment
strength capacity is determined from the governing slenderness ratio
created by the applied joist loads, divided by the joist effective depth. The chord compressive and conventional
compressive
strength strength
capacity formulas. The
is determined length
from for the lateral
the Lgoverning slenderness
slenderness ratioratio
andis conventional
the distance
on the interior of the joist between bridging attachment points, and from the
compressive strength formulas. The length L for the lateral slenderness ratio is the distance attached bearing
seat
on thetointerior
the first
of bridging attachment
the joist between point attachment
bridging at the endspoints,
of theandjoist.
fromBottom chords bearing
the attached are not
typically extended nor restrained by an attachment to structural members.
seat to the first bridging attachment point at the ends of the joist. Bottom chords are not Therefore, as
shown
typicallyinextended
Figure 2.5,
northerestrained
SJI Specification requires antouplift
by an attachment bridging
structural row to beTherefore,
members. placed near
as
the first bottom chord panel point.
shown in Figure 2.5, the SJI Specification requires an uplift bridging row to be placed near
the first bottom chord panel point.

Figure 2.5
Uplift Bridging at the First Bottom Chord Panel Point
Figure 2.5
Uplift Bridging at the First Bottom Chord Panel Point

Strength Requirement
The required
Strength bridging strength to provide the chord buckling restraint is determined from
Requirement
The required bridging Stability
Appendix 6, “Member strength Bracing”,
to provideand
thethe associated
chord bucklingcommentary of the American
restraint is determined from
Institute of Steel Construction, “Specification for Structural Steel Buildings” (AISC,
Appendix 6, “Member Stability Bracing”, and the associated commentary of the American 2022);
hereafter
Institute ofreferred to as the AISC
Steel Construction, Specification.
“Specification for Structural Steel Buildings” (AISC, 2022);
hereafter referred to as the AISC Specification.

10
10
10
 Figure 2.6
Figure 2.6 Appendix 6 Commentary
Types of Bracing - AISC Specification
Figure 2.6 Appendix 6 Commentary
Types of Bracing - AISC Specification
Types of Bracing - AISC Specification Appendix 6 Commentary
For the chord, the bridging is considered bracing at a point of attachment, in the direction
For the chord, to
perpendicular thethe
bridging is considered
longitudinal bracing
axis of the at aThe
chord. point of attachment,
required strength in
ofthe
thedirection
support
For the chord, to
perpendicular thethe
bridging is considered
longitudinal axis of bracing
the at aThe
chord. point of attachment,
required strength in
of the
the direction
support
points of the bridging
perpendicular to the is Pbr = 0.01P
longitudinal r. of the chord. The required strength of the support
axis
points of the bridging is Pbr = 0.01Pr.
points of the bridging is Pbr = 0.01Pr.
Pr is the largest required axial force in the chord within the unbraced lengths adjacent to
P r is the largest required axial force in the chord within the unbraced lengths adjacent to
the
P r isbridging. Indicated
the largest requiredin Figure 2.7 isinwhere
axial force the maximum
the chord within theforce Pr occurs.
unbraced Theadjacent
lengths location to
is
the
at bridging.
the Indicated
joist panel in
whereintheFigure 2.7
maximum is where the maximum force Pr occurs. The location is
the
at thebridging. Indicated
joist panel where the Figure 2.7 is moment
maximum where the
moment
exists.
maximum force Pr occurs. The location is
exists.
at the joist panel where the maximum moment exists.

Figure 2.7
Pr Maximum Figure
Chord 2.7
Force Location
Pr Maximum Figure
Chord 2.7
Force Location
Pr Maximum Chord Force Location

The SJI Specification requires that horizontal bridging be continuous and have an
The SJI Specification
anchorage point at each requires
end of thethat horizontal
bridging bridging the
row. Therefore, be bracing
continuous
load and have half
is shared, an
The SJI
anchorage Specification
pointmember requires
at each end that
of theside horizontal
bridging bridging be continuous and have an
to the bridging
anchorage point at each on each
end of the of therow.
bridging row.
Therefore,
chord.
Therefore,
the this
However,
the
bracing
alsoload
bracing load
is shared,
means
is shared,
half
the brace
half
to theinbridging
force memberbridging
the horizontal on each onside
oneof the of
side chord. However,
the chord this
will be also means
tension, the brace
while the brace
to the
force bridging
in the member on each side of the chord. However, this also means the brace
force
force on
in the horizontal
the horizontal
bridging
opposite side of theon
bridging on
one side
chord
one will be
side
of compression.
of
the chord will This
the chord will
be tension,
be tension,
while
is referred to the
while as abrace
the two-
brace
force
way on the
bridging opposite
system as side of the
illustrated chord will
in Figure be
2.8. compression. This is referred to as a two-
force on the opposite side of the chord will
way bridging system as illustrated in Figure 2.8. be compression. This is referred to as a two-
way bridging system as illustrated in Figure 2.8.

11
11
11
11
 Figure 2.8
Bridging Anchored at Both Ends

Force Accumulation
When joists are placed in a parallel configuration with continuous horizontal bridging, the
displacements of the joists accumulate, and the bridging forces increase. This is depicted
in Figure 2.9. As more joists are added, the displacements increase as do the forces in the
bridging. See Figure 2.10.

Figure 2.9
Accumulation of Force in Horizontal Bridging

The configurations shown in Figures 2.9 and 2.10 are one-way systems wherein the
bridging is anchored at only one end. As stated previously, the SJI Specification requires
the horizontal bridging rows to be anchored at both ends, which creates a two-way
system, resulting in the bridging being in both compression and tension, reducing the
accumulated forces.

12
12
 Figure 2.10
Accumulation of Bridging Force, if All in One Direction

For longer horizontal bridging runs involving a series of joists, there is randomness to the
direction of buckling, thus the bracing forces will be reduced.

Equations that account for the randomness of the buckling and the degree of lateral
displacements are addressed in the 2022 AISI Specifications with Supplement 3 (AISI,
2022) and in the Canadian Standards Association (CSA, 2014). Chen and Tong (Chen,
1994) also provide equations for force reduction.

As discussed in Chapter 3, a total of eight joists are considered to determine construction

bridging. For construction bridging, the randomness of displacements and force reduction
is not considered. The reason not to consider displacement randomness and force
reduction is that construction loads are not linear with the number of joists being
considered. For example, a given joist could support the weight of two construction
workers and the adjacent joist could also have two additional construction workers;
however, in a bay of 15 joists, it is unlikely that each of the 15 joists would have two
construction workers on them.

Diagonal bridging is not considered a two-way system. The bracing force may act to
create either compression or tension for the diagonal bridging, thus, diagonal bridging
must have adequate strength for forces acting in both directions.

13
13
BRIDGING CRITERIA
The SJI Specification requires a positive connection at the intersection point for a diagonal
bridging set, with the unbraced length, slenderness ratio, and axial compression strength
calculated accordingly.

The SJI Specification imposes a maximum slenderness ratio of 200 for diagonal bridging.
In most cases, diagonal bridging members limited by this ratio have sufficient compressive
strength. For the rare exceptions where this is not the case, two approaches have been
taken. For a few combinations of joist depth and spacing where strength controls and
bridging at the maximum slenderness limit would not have sufficient strength, the joist
spacing limits in the tables are limited by strength, rather than slenderness.

First, there are a few combinations of joist depth and spacing where the required strength
is not achievable based on the maximum slenderness limits that are imposed in the SJI
diagonal bridging selection tables.

Second, the force in the diagonal bridging becomes proportionately large when the joist
depth relative to the joist spacing is large. Hence, the SJI Specification requires that for
these deep and narrow cases, both diagonal and horizontal bridging should be installed.
This creates a load path between two joists with the diagonal bridging in tension only. The
typical combined diagonal and horizontal bridging configuration is shown in Figure 2.11.
The SJI criteria where this becomes applicable is for joist spacings less than 0.7 times the
joist depth (applicable for DLH-Series joists only).

Figure 2.11
Use of Combined Diagonal and Horizontal Bridging

14
14
Bridging Stiffness
AISC Specification Appendix 6 addresses both the strength and stiffness requirements to
provide a brace point. So far, the discussion in this chapter and what follows in Chapter 3
focuses on strength. Stiffness must also be considered. The SJI Specification addresses
stiffness, with maximum slenderness and increasing the bridging force from one percent to
two percent of the chord compressive force. This achieves both relative stiffness and
required compressive strength.

Since bridging members are only axially loaded, they are inherently stiff as column braces.
The stiffness is related to the amount of deflection or movement.

Imagine a column with a brace point on a spring. As the spring depresses, more force will
be required to prevent buckling. For the computation of the bridging stiffness, it is essentially
related to the axial strain in the bridging member. This is a relatively low number, and the
amount of deflection or lateral movement of the chord due to the bridging axial strain is
small. Therefore, the bridging easily meets the minimum stiffness requirements of AISC
Specification Appendix 6. Consequently, a specific stiffness check as related to
chord/column bracing is not part of the SJI Specification.

Having discussed the theory of bridging as construction bridging and permanent bridging,
the following paragraphs will focus on the erection bridging role.

ERECTION BRIDGING
To set a joist and safely release the hoisting cable, the SJI Specification considers the
stability of the joist under its self-weight plus the weight of one erector traveling along the
length of the joist. This condition is analytically complex and involves more than considering
a joist chord as if it were a column. The torsional and rotational behavior must be
considered. A properly anchored joist can rotate from a near vertical plane at each end to
a ninety-degree rotated horizontal position in the center of the span. The joist may not
collapse or “fail”, with a type of catenary effect. The joist may remain elastic and fully
rebound to near the original position. However, this would be a perilous and unsafe
condition for a person supported solely by the joist.

Illustrated in Figure 2.12 is the testing to check joist stability without bridging. These tests
were performed with the self-weight of the joist plus the weight of one erector (Ziemian et
al, 2004). Note that this has been studied only for joist spans up to 60 feet. Beyond 60 feet,
the SJI Specification requires bolted diagonal erection bridging. For spans up to 60 feet, a
formula for erection stability is presented in Chapter 3. It has been established on analytics
and testing. Because this formula considers the rotational or overturning resistance of the
joist, it uses the properties of both the joist top and bottom chords.

15
15
 Figure 2.12
Testing for Erection Stability

JOIST GIRDER LATERAL STABILITY

Joist girders do not have bridging in the same sense as typical open web steel joists. The
same three objectives must be achieved: erection stability, construction bracing, and
permanent bracing. The theory behind the SJI Specification requirements to achieve these
objectives is discussed here.

For erection stability, joist girders have inherent advantages when compared to typical open
web steel joists. First, a joist girder has more self-weight than a typical joist, thus the
member sizes relative to the span are greater. With the additional self-weight, the larger
members provide additional lateral stiffness. Second, the standard for joist girders is to
have the bottom chords extended to a column mounted stabilizer plate, which provides a
point of lateral support. Unlike the complex steel joist erection stability equation including
torsional consideration, a simple criterion has been practiced with success since the
inception of joist girders. A slenderness limit, based on the full span length and the out-of-
plane radius of gyration of the joist girder top chord member, is imposed as 575 or less.

16
16
For construction loads, there are no special theoretical or design considerations for jo
girders. It is difficult to apply any significant construction loads to a free-standing joist gird
before the joists, being supported by the joist girder, are installed. Those joists provide t
lateral support for the joist girder top chord, both during the construction load phase, as w
asForpermanently. The SJI Specification requires the joist seat to be attached to the jo
construction loads, there are no special theoretical or design considerations for joist
girder
girders.chord
For construction to loads,
provide
It is difficult to apply end
there anchorage.
aresignificant
any no special Not only
theoretical
construction istothe
or design
loads initial endjoist
considerations
a free-standing anchorage
forgirder
joist importa
girders.
during It is difficult
beforeconstruction to apply
the joists, beingloading any
supported significant
to by
prevent construction
the joistdisplacement loads to a free-standing
of aThose
girder, are installed. joist off joist
theprovide
joists girder
supporting
the joist gird
before the joists, being supported by the joist girder, are installed. Those joists provide the
top chord,
lateral
lateral
support butforalso
support forThe
without
the joist
the joist
anchord,
girder top
girder
anchorage
top chord,
both during
both during
connection, the load
the construction
the seat
construction
joistphase,
mayas
load phase,
fail
wellto provide t
as joist
well
as permanently.
intended joist girder SJI Specification
lateral requires the joist to be attached to
support.requires the joist seat to be attached to the joist the
as permanently. The SJI Specification
girder chord to provide end anchorage. Not only is the initial end anchorage important
girder chord
during to provide
construction endtoanchorage.
loading Not only isofthe
prevent displacement initial
a joist off end anchoragejoist
the supporting important
girder
Permanent
during bracing
construction
top chord, but is required
loading
also without to for joist
prevent girder bottom
displacement
an anchorage of
connection,a the joistchords.
joist off may failThese
the supporting form
joist
to provide thea brace
girder ang
top
from chord, but
the joist
intended also
joistgirder
girderwithout
bottom
lateral an anchorage
chord to the joist bottom chord. The ends ofthethe joist
support. connection, the joist may fail to provide gird
intended joist girder lateral support.
bottom chord that extend to stabilizer plates are considered as laterally braced at the end
yetPermanent bracing
the full span is required for
slenderness joistmay
ratio girder bottom
bebottom chords.
too large. AsThese form member,
a tension a brace angle the bottom cho
Permanent
from bracing
the joist girder isbottom
required for
chord joist
to thegirder
joist bottom chords.
chord. These
The ends form a brace
of the angle
joist girder
lateral
from the
bottom slenderness
joist that
chord girder ratio
to must
bottom
extend chordbe less
to plates
stabilizer than
the joist or equal
arebottom chord.
considered to The
as 240. For
ends
laterally uplift,
of or
thefor
theatjoist
braced other load cas
girder
ends,
bottom
that
yet the chord
create
full spanthat extend to stabilizer
compression
slenderness in the
ratio plates
be tooare
maybottom considered
chord,
large. as laterally
As aatension
much smaller
member, braced at the chord
theslenderness
bottom ends, limit may
yet
needed. the full span slenderness
Like a joist
lateral slenderness bottom
ratio ratio
must bechordmay be too large.
in compression,
less than As a tension
or equal to 240. For member,
theuplift,
joistorgirderthe bottom
bottom
for other chord
chord is design
load cases
lateral
that slenderness
create compressionratio must
in thebebottom
less than or equal
chord, a to 240.
much For uplift,
smaller or for other
slenderness load
limit cases
may be length. T
like
thatacreate
braced column, in
compression andthe the chord
bottom is designed
chord, a much based
smaller on the unsupported
slenderness limit may be
needed. Like a joist bottom chord in compression, the joist girder bottom chord is designed
frequency
needed.
like
of joist
Like acolumn,
a braced
girder
joist bottom
and chord
braces is based
in compression,
the chord is designed the
on
based
the
joiston chord
girder size
the bottom
and the
chord length.
unsupported
magnitude
is designed
The
of t
compression
like a braced
frequency force.
column,
of joist andbraces
girder the chord is designed
is based on the based
chord onsizetheand
unsupported
the magnitude length.of The
the
frequency of force.
compression joist girder braces is based on the chord size and the magnitude of the
compression force.

Figure 2.13
Joist GirderFigure
Bottom2.13
Chord Brace
Joist Girder Bottom Chord Brace

Figure 2.13
Joist Girder Bottom Chord Brace

17
17
17
33
CHAPTER 3
SJI SPECIFICATION
CHAPTER 3 REQUIREMENTS
| SJI SPECIFICATION REQUIREMENTS

HISTORY AND BASIS OF SJI BRIDGING REQUIREMENTS

The theory for bridging spacing has been based upon assumed construction stress levels
in the joist top chord. The origin of the construction stress levels is unknown and predates
the introduction of K-Series joists in 1986. For K-Series joists, the construction stress was
taken as approximately 17 ksi, while for LH/DLH-Series it was approximately 12 ksi. In both
cases, these are ultimate stress levels, with no safety factor.

Using a historic ASD safety factor of 23/12 for compression members, the required stress
levels are approximately 9 and 6 ksi, respectively. With an allowable tensile stress level of
30 ksi, the allowable compressive stress for a lateral braced top chord might typically be in
the range of 24 to 25 ksi. Hence, the construction stress is approximately 35 percent of the
total load capacity for K-series, and approximately 25 percent for LH/DLH-Series.

The controlling factor for providing the assumed top chord compressive stress capacity is the
lateral slenderness ratio for the joist top chord. The assumed stresses are in the elastic stress
range, so working backwards from the assumed construction stresses, a slenderness limit
(L/ry) can be established. A k factor of 0.9 was allowed based on the continuity of the top
chord, and hence the slenderness limits of the SJI Specification up to 2010 were established
as 145 for K-Series, and 170 for LH/DLH-Series.

For the 2010 SJI Specification, a review of the prevailing historical theory and specifications
for bridging spacing revealed the following “issues”:

1. The assumed construction stress levels were too high. SJI and OSHA rules limit the
types and levels of construction loads. Erectors have become more educated about
the need to both get the bridging properly installed and to complete the deck
diaphragm before applying certain other loads. The low weight per foot of modern
metal deck used to provide the deck diaphragm and permanent top chord lateral
support also limits the construction load levels.
2. It is extremely difficult to predict the “worst case” behavior, practices, and
circumstances of the installation process of hundreds of individual erectors on
thousands of individual job sites. OSHA rules provide some limits and guidelines on
the construction loads and a typical construction loading case with joist self-weight
plus the weight of metal deck, erectors, and equipment could be readily established.
However, the non-typical cases are much harder to identify. In other words, the
breadth of the standard deviation of the range of variations from the typical condition
may prove unmanageable. In the end, the level of construction load would still be
built upon a certain level of assumptions.

18
18
3. There was not a good explanation for the difference between the K-Series and
LH/DLH-Series criteria. There is some historical reference to a perceived difference
in uses for the series, but this is inaccurate. First, neither series could be considered
exclusive to floor or roof construction in today’s environment. Second, while the
construction loads may vary significantly at certain times during the process for a floor
versus a roof (i.e., when concrete is being poured), these differences occur after the
deck is installed. There is no substantive difference between the construction loads
for a floor versus a roof, up to and during the installation of the metal deck.
4. The SJI Specification must achieve a balance between two objectives: public safety
and manufacturer innovation. The Specification must provide enough latitude to
allow individual manufacturers the right to construct joists and meet the Specification
in a variety of manners. The Specification should never be written to presume one
method of manufacture or construction. For this reason, standardized SJI charts and
tables should make allowances for the most conservative probable method of
manufacture. In the case of bridging spacing, this means the lowest possible ry value
should be the basis for bridging spacing charts.
5. There are two factors that significantly affect the radius of gyration of double angle
chords: the gap between the chord angles and the leg length of the chord angles.
There are two related industry trends for which the bridging tables and criteria have
not been adjusted. First, over the course of the past 20 plus years, fewer joists are
being built with rod webs, and more with crimped angle or channel web systems.
Typically, joists with rod webs are likely to have smaller gaps between chord angles
than crimped angles or channel web systems. The larger chord gaps increase ry,
creating a laterally stiffer joist. Second, for double angle chords, there has been a
transition from the use of some unequal leg angles, with the long legs vertical, to
almost exclusively equal leg angles. This also increases the ry values and creates a
laterally stiffer joist.
6. An assumption made with the previous bridging theory is that the ry values are
constant for a given chord number regardless of depth. But in fact, while the same
angles may be used for the same chord number at different depths, the gap may
vary. For example, a 16K7 may be built with rod webs, while a 30K7 has the same
chords, but a wider gap. For simplicity, it makes sense to have a bridging chart with
only one line item for K7 joists, so the more conservative values of the 16K7 should
be used, but only up to the maximum permissible length of 32 feet, which for a 16K
is 24 times the depth. When considering the number of required bridging rows for a
50-foot span, only the ry values of 26K and deeper joists need be considered.
7. Previous bridging theories did not consider the effect of the span to depth ratio on
construction stress. The span to depth ratio for joists varies between 12:1 and 24:1.
For a given span, there is no correlation between expected construction loads and
the depth of the joist. For a given span and construction load, the depth of the joist
will likely have an impact on the construction axial stress level in the top chord. The
construction axial top chord force will vary directly with the depth of the joist for a
given span. However, the area of the top chord will not vary at the same rate as the
axial force. This is due to the probable use of larger panel spacing with deeper
depths. Hence, the construction stress (construction axial force divided by top chord

19
19
 area) will not vary in direct proportion to the depth. For a 60-foot span and a given
construction load, a 60-inch-deep joist will have half the top chord axial construction
force as a 30-inch-deep joist. However, the 60-inch-deep joist is not likely to have
only half the chord area, so its construction stress level would be less than that of
the 30-inch-deep joist.

8. Previous bridging theories did not account for any correlation between tributary area
and construction loads. There is not a linear relationship between the construction
loads and the tributary area. Consider the case of a joist with a 10-foot span over a
breezeway that is adjacent to a 100-foot span over a gym. The amount of deck that
might be set on the 10-foot span joists could very easily be enough to cover several
multiples of the tributary area of that 10-foot joist – maybe enough deck for the
breezeway and one half of the gym roof. For the 100-foot span, it is unlikely that the
deck construction load would be for an amount of deck much greater than the
tributary area of that joist. Similarly, it is entirely possible that two erectors may apply
their weight to the breezeway joist at any one time. The gym joist is 10 times longer,
and then proportionally, should it be designed for the possibility of 20 erectors? That
is highly unlikely. So, the argument is that as the tributary area increases, the
construction load, in terms of pounds per square foot, decreases. The exact tributary
area is not known for the sake of bridging determination because the joist spacing
is not known. Assumptions can be made to relate the tributary area to either, or both,
the joist span and depth.

SJI 2020 CJ-SERIES ERECTION BRIDGING

Based partially on the above, new criteria and equations were first developed for the SJI
Standard Specification for CJ-Series Composite Steel Joists (SJI, 2020c), and have
remained unchanged since 2007. Fconstruction and the top chord slenderness limit varies
depending on the depth and span length as follows:
 
 
 π2 E 
Fconstruction =  2
 ≥ 12.2 ksi
  0.9   
  br 
 

  ry  
 d 
= br 100 + 0.67 d j + 40 j  r y but not greater than,  br = 170 ry
 L

CJ-Series composite joist top chords are inherently smaller than comparable non-
composite top chord sizes, and the maximum span to depth ratio is greater for composite
than non-composite joists.

20
20
SJI 2020 BRIDGING REQUIREMENTS
For the 2010 SJI Specification, a comprehensive overhaul of the K-Series and LH/DLH-
Series bridging requirements was undertaken and remained unchanged in the 2015 and
the 2020 Specification.

The purpose of these changes was to:

1. Unify the K-Series and LH/DLH-Series on bridging spacing.
2. Clarify the requirements for bridging design and specifically the force Pbr.
3. Gain economy in the number of required bridging rows by:
a. More liberal criteria for all joists that are like the LH-Series.
b. Up to date industry standards for the method of manufacture and the
resultant ry values.
c. Considering the variations in ry values by depth and length of joist.

A new definition of construction stress was provided, along with the new resultant
slenderness limits that govern bridging spacing. The bridging tables were updated
accordingly. Also, the required compressive design forces for bridging are now defined.

In developing the bridging criteria when the CJ-Series joists were introduced in 2007, a
new approach was taken for non-composite joists to vary the construction stress based
on the span and depth of the joist. This in turn causes the slenderness limit for the joist
top chord to vary as well as the required bracing force.

The format for the new proposed bridging spacing and slenderness limit equation is like
that of the CJ-Series, but the values for the constants are different. There are two reasons
for this. First, the CJ-Series joists with top chords designed primarily for construction
rather than total loads, tend to have smaller top chords and hence higher construction
stress than a similar non-composite joist. Second, the limit for the span to depth ratio is
25 percent greater than for non-composite joists.

SJI 2020 ERECTION BRIDGING

SJI Specification Section 6 provides requirements for erection bridging of all joists. The
SJI Specification states, for spans up through 60 feet, welded horizontal bridging shall be
permitted except where the row of bridging nearest the center is required to be bolted
diagonal erection bridging as indicated by the RED shaded area in the Load Tables.
Hoisting cables shall not be released until this row of bolted diagonal erection bridging is
completely installed and anchored.

For spans over 60 feet, bolted diagonal erection bridging shall be used as indicated by the
BLUE and GRAY shaded areas of the Load Tables. Hoisting cables shall not be released
until all rows of bolted diagonal erection bridging are completely installed and anchored.
When the joist spacing is less than 0.70 x joist depth, bolted horizontal bridging shall be
used in addition to bolted diagonal erection bridging.

21
21
 Erection bridging shall be provided as required in the SJI Load Tables whenever a standard
SJI Section Number designation is specified. In the absence of a standard SJI Section
Number designation, minimum erection bridging requirements are to be determined by:

1) Matching the joist design to an equivalent standard SJI Section Number designation
to determine the span at which erection bridging is needed as designated in the
tables; or
2) Using SJI Equation 5.5-1, Minkoff Equation, (SJI, 1975) to determine the joist
stability and the need for erection bridging.

The erection bridging determined by the above options are a minimum. The erection
bridging shall be indicated on the placement plans. Joists with special profiles having a
higher center of gravity as compared to a parallel chord joist, joists which are canted, or
joists having any condition which may create instability, may require additional bridging
and/or special erection methods.

Minkoff Equation

− b ± b2 − 4 ⋅ a ⋅ c wu
W = lbs., If, > 1.00 Erection Bridging is not required.
2⋅a wactual
2
π 2 + 3
a =  
 24 
π4 ⋅E⋅I
π2 +3 π2 + 4 y   π 2 − 3  yo 
− 
b P⋅
= ⋅ − ⋅ β ⋅

x  24  2 
12 16 2 ⋅ (k ⋅ L )3 
   
2
2π2 + 4  π4 ⋅ E ⋅ Iy   π2 − 4  π 4 ⋅ E ⋅ C w π2 ⋅ G ⋅ J 
c = (P )   − 3

⋅ P ⋅  βx ⋅ − ae  + 3
+ 
 16  2 ⋅ ( k ⋅ L )   16  2 ⋅ (k ⋅ L ) 2 ⋅ k ⋅ L 

Where:

L = Joist Span, in.

k = Effective length factor = 0.85
P = Factored weight of erector = 1.2 x (assumed weight of 250 lb) = 300 lb
E = Modulus of elasticity = 29,000,000 psi
G = Shear modulus, psi G = 0.385 E
At = Area of top chord, in. 2

Ab = Area of bottom chord, in.2

de = Joist effective depth, in. de d − yt − yb
=
J = St. Venant torsion constant, in.4 =J
1
3
( 2
At ⋅ t t + Ab ⋅ tb
2
)
tt = Thickness of top chord, in.
tb = Thickness bottom chord, in.

22
22
y = Distance from centroid of top chord to centroid of cross section, in.
Ab⋅ d e
y=
At + Ab
Iy = Joist moment of inertia about y-axis, in.4 I y I yt + I yb
=
I x At y 2 + Ab (d e − y )
2
Ix = Joist moment of inertia about x-axis, in.4 =
I yb ⋅ d e
yo = Distance from centroid of cross section to shear center, in. =
yo −y +
Iy
2
d e ⋅ I yb ⋅ I yt
Cw = Warping constant Cw =
Iy

βx = Cross-Sectional parameter =
βx
1
Ix
[ ]
A b ⋅ (d e − y ) − A t⋅ y 3 − 2 ⋅ y o
3

ae = Vertical location of load P from shear center (locate at joist center of gravity),
in. a e = y o
W ⋅ 12
wu = Ultimate lateral buckling load, plf wu =
L
wactual = Joist self-weight, plf

Standard K-Series joists that require erection bridging are indicated by the RED shaded
area in the Load Tables and are also found in the OSHA Safety Standards 1926.757 Table
A - Erection Bridging for Short Span Joists (OSHA, 2001). This table gives the minimum
span for each short span joist designation (e.g., 26K8) and indicates when erection bridging
must be installed. If Table A indicates that erection bridging is Not Mandatory (NM), the
joists can be spaced out, attached, and then bridged in accordance with SJI Specification
Section 5.5 and Section 6.

The required bolted diagonal erection bridging for K-Series joists must be installed as the
row of bridging nearest the mid-span of the joist. The erection bridging must also be
anchored to prevent lateral movement of the joist prior to the hoisting cables being
released. This can be accomplished by securing the bridging to a fixed object such as a
wall, steel beam, or other stable portion of the structure. OSHA refers to this anchorage
point as a bridging terminus point.

Standard LH-Series joists that require erection bridging are indicated by the RED or BLUE
shaded areas in the Load Tables and are also found in the OSHA Safety Standards
1926.757 Table B - Erection Bridging for Long Span Joists. This table gives the minimum
span for each long span joist designation (e.g. 32LH06) and indicates when erection
bridging must be installed. Erection bridging is the bolted diagonal bridging that is required
to be installed prior to releasing the hoisting cables. If Table B indicates that erection
bridging is Not Mandatory (NM), the joists can be spaced out, attached, and then bridged
in accordance with SJI Specification Section 5.5 and Section 6. All standard DLH-Series
joists require erection bridging as indicated by the BLUE or GRAY shaded areas in the
Load Tables.

23
23
The required bolted diagonal erection bridging for LH-Series joists depends on its length.
Where the span of the steel joist is less than or equal to 60 feet as indicated by the RED
shading, the row of bridging nearest the mid-span of the joist must be bolted diagonal
erection bridging and must be completely installed before hoisting cables are released.
Where the span of the steel joist is over 60 feet through 100 feet as indicated by the BLUE
shading, all rows of bridging are bolted diagonal erection bridging, and the two rows of
bridging nearest the third points of the joist must be completed installed before hoisting
cables are released. Where the span of the steel joist is over 100 feet through 240 feet as
indicated by the GRAY shading, all rows of bridging are bolted diagonal erection bridging
and must be completely installed before hoisting cables are released. The bridging rows
must be anchored to prevent lateral movement of the joist in accordance with SJI
Specification Section 5.5 and Section 6.

The shaded areas of the Load Tables were established based on the typical joist self-
weight and the typical minimum top and bottom chords sizes (from a survey of joist
manufacturers), plus the weight of an erector, taken as 300 lbs. The equation was
developed by Minkoff, using the Rayleigh-Ritz method with an assumed sinusoidal lateral
and torsional deformation (Minkoff, 1975) (Galambos, 1993).

For special joist designs, the specifying professional cannot check the Minkoff equation
without knowing the joist section properties. A conservative comparison can be made to a
standard joist type that would be found in the Load Tables, or the joist manufacturer can
be contacted to determine the need for erection bridging.

Since all erection bridging will in turn become construction bridging, the more severe
construction bridging criteria are used to establish the erection bridging forces, sizes,
and connections.

SJI 2020 CONSTRUCTION BRIDGING

Connections of the horizontal and diagonal bridging to the joist chord or bridging terminus
point shall be capable of resisting the nominal unfactored horizontal compressive force,
Pbr given in Equation 5.5-4, but not less than 700 pounds (SJI, 2020a).
Pbr = 0.0025 n At Fconstruction , kips (5.5-4)
Where:
n = 8 for horizontal bridging
n = 2 for diagonal bridging
At = cross sectional area of joist top chord, in.2
Fconstruction = assumed ultimate stress in top chord to resist construction loads

24
24
  
 
 π2 E 
Fconstruction =  2
 ≥ 12.2 ksi (5.5-5a)
  0.9   
 br 

  ry  
  
E = Modulus of elasticity of steel = 29,000 ksi
 br
is determined from SJI Specification Equations 5.5-2 or 5.5-3
ry

The bridging nominal unfactored compressive forces, Pbr, shall be in accordance with
Table 5.5-2.

Table 5.5-2 SJI Specification

Equation 5.5-4 is based on AISC Specification Appendix 6 Equation A-6-3 for point
bracing of columns, Pbr = 0.01Pr.

25
25
Pr is the largest of the required axial strengths of the columns within the unbraced lengths
adjacent to the point brace using LRFD or ASD load combinations. The equation is based
on the original work by Winter (Winter, 1958). The assumed out of straightness of the
column was taken as L/500. The SJI Specification value of Pbr is a nominal service load,
thus the equation is divided by 2 to account for the fact that Fconstruction is an ultimate load.
The resultant is again divided by two as the bridging is to be anchored at each end, thus
one half of the load goes to one anchor point and the other to the opposite anchor point.
The resulting equation is Pbr = 0.0025 Pr.

The tables provided in the SJI Specification for bridging sizes are based upon the force
Pbr for the typical top chord areas for a given designation. Table 2.7-1 of the SJI Code of
Standard Practice (SJI, 2020b) gives the maximum joist spacing for certain horizontal
bridging sizes based on joist chord section numbers for K-Series, LH-Series, and DLH-
Series joists. Diagonal bridging is only subjected to tension forces; thus, the bridging size
is governed by a slenderness limit (between connections) of 200, rather than by strength.

The bridging rows must be capable of resisting the bracing force in compression. While
the horizontal bridging slenderness limit of 300 often controls rather than compressive
strength, the chart in the SJI Code of Standard Practice (COSP) for horizontal bridging
sizes does properly consider the compressive strength requirement.

As previously mentioned, horizontal bridging rows are designed for a compressive force,
Pbr = 0.0025 n Atc Fc, where n = 8, Atc is the top chord area, and Fc is the construction
stress. While this compressive force has been the basis for the maximum allowed joist
spacing in both the COSP, K-Series, and LH-Series horizontal bridging charts, the tables
did not display the actual design bridging force. The force, Pbr, is now given in Table 2.7-
1. The compressive force is based on the bridging rows being anchored at each end.

The construction stress, Fc, now varies as a function of the joist depth and span. Both
existing COSP horizontal bridging tables have been updated accordingly. In addition, an
inconsistency that existed between the K-Series and LH-Series tables has now been
corrected. The K-Series table utilized a k factor of 0.9 for the bridging design, while the
LH-Series did not. A k factor of 1.0 is now used for the bridging design in both tables.

The SJI Specification requires that bridging be properly spaced and anchored to support
the decking and the employees prior to the attachment of the deck to the top chord. The
maximum spacing of lines of bridging, brmax shall be the lesser of:
 d 
 brmax 124 + 0.67 d j + 28 j  ry , in.
= (5.5-2a)
 L

 d 
 brmax 124 + 0.026 d j + 0.34 j  ry , mm
= (5.5-2b)
 L
or
 brmax = 170 ry (5.5-3)

26
26
Where:
dj is the steel joist depth, in. (mm)
L is the joist span length, ft. (m)
ry is the radius of gyration of the top chord about the vertical axis of the joist cross section,
in. (mm)

The number of rows of top chord bridging shall not be less than shown in Bridging Table
5.5-1 and the spacing shall meet the requirements of Equations 5.5-2 and 5.5-3. The
number of rows of bottom chord bridging, including bridging required per Section 5.12,
shall not be less than the number of top chord rows. Rows of bottom chord bridging are
permitted to be spaced independently of rows of top chord bridging. The spacing of rows
of bottom chord bridging shall meet the slenderness requirement of Section 4.3 and any
specified strength requirements.

For DLH-Series joist Section Number 21 and greater, bridging shall be installed near a
bottom chord panel point or an extra web member shall be furnished to brace the bottom
chord for the vertical component of the bridging force equal to the horizontal bracing force.

SJI 2020 PERMANENT BRIDGING

Top chord bridging serves a role as permanent bridging in the absence of a deck
diaphragm, as is the case with a standing seam roof applied directly to the joist top chords.
Section 5.9.7 of the SJI Specification provides the requirements for the horizontal bridging
design. The compressive force equation is,
Pbr = 0.001nP + 0.004P√n ≥ 0.0025nP
This equation is similar to the equation given above for construction bridging, but here, n
is not limited to eight, and is equal to the total number of joists between end anchors. P
represents the actual top chord design force, rather than the chord area times an arbitrary
construction stress.

Bottom chord bridging is always permanent bridging. It either limits slenderness for
bottom chords in tension or braces the bottom chord laterally for compression forces,
such as those present in a net uplift loading case. Traditionally, and for simplicity in the
field, the bottom chord bridging size is equal to the size as determined for the top chord.

When uplift forces are a design consideration, a row of bottom chord bridging is required
near each end of the joists in accordance with the SJI Specification Section 5.12.

27
27
Standing Seam Roofs
For the standing seam roof design, the force P is the nominal force in the chord, not an
ultimate load. To be consistent with the way the bracing forces were developed for an
initial out-of-straightness of L/500, the equation should be 0.005nP. However, there is an
established reduction formula for the accumulation of bracing forces, 0.2 + 0.8/√n, which
is present in the CAN/CSA-S136, Canadian Standards Association, (CSA, 2014). If the
reduction factor is multiplied by the bridging force formula:
(0.2 + 0.8/√n)0.005nP = (0.2n + 0.8√n)0.005P = 0.001nP + 0.004P√n
The reduction formula is contingent upon independent misalignments that are not likely
to be in the same direction or of the same magnitude. Since joists for a standing seam
roof application would typically all be installed at a side slope, it raises the question of
whether the initial misalignments will be truly random. Since the erector is required to pull
the joist into a straight position as the bridging is being installed, it can be argued that
some randomness will be introduced, and certainly the misalignment will vary.

Joist Girders
Joist girders are primary structural members that are normally supported by structural
steel columns; however, they can also bear on steel plates on masonry or concrete
supports. Joist girders must be erected singly as shown in Figure 3.1. They can be
underslung and rest on the top or side of the columns or be square-ended and frame into
the columns.

A loose connection of the bottom chord angles to the column or other support is required
during installation to stabilize the bottom chord laterally and to help brace it against
possible overturning. These plates "knife in" between the bottom chord angles that are
spaced apart (see Figure 3.2). A vertical stabilizer plate is required to be furnished on
each column by the structural steel supplier (minimum size 3/4 x 6 x 6 inches) and must
extend at least 3 inches below the bottom chord of the joist girder. If a stabilizer plate
cannot be used because of a constructability issue, some other means of laterally
stabilizing the joist girder must be provided. Any final connection, if required, of the joist
girder bottom chord to the column should be in accordance with instructions from the
specifying professional.

Since joist girders are erected without erection bridging, a minimum stiffness relative to
the overall length is required and is given in SJI Specification Section 4.4.1. The radius
of gyration of the joist girder top chord about the vertical axis shall not be less than the
joist girder span divided by 575.

Additional brace points may be required along the joist girder span length, either to limit
the slenderness ratio for bottom chords in tension or to laterally brace the bottom chord
in compression. In this case, permanent bracing is added and is referred to by several
terms: bottom chord bracing (BCB), girder bracing (GB), or knee bracing (KB). This
consists of separate individual pieces of material (furnished by the joist supplier) to be
attached either by bolting or welding from the bottom chord of the joist to the bottom chord
of the joist girder. Illustrated in Figure 3.3 is one type of brace detail.

28
28
 Figure3.1
Figure
Figure 3.1
3.1
Joist
Joist Girder
Girder Being
Being Set
Set on
on Two
Two
Joist Girder Being Set on Two Columns
Columns
Figure
Columns with
3.1 with
with TwoConnectors
Two
Two Connectors
Connectors
Figure 3.1
Joist Girder Being Set on Two Columns with Two Connectors
Joist Girder Being Set on Figure 3.1
Two Columns with Two Connectors
Joist Girder Being Set on Two Columns with Two Connectors

Figure3.2
Figure
Figure 3.2
3.2
JoistGirder
Joist
Joist Girder
Girder Bearingon
Bearing
Bearing onon StructuralSteel
Structural
Structural Steel
Steel Column
Column
Figure withVertical
3.2 with
Column with VerticalStabilizer
Vertical Stabilizer
Stabilizer Plate
Plate
Plate
Figure 3.2
Joist Girder Bearing on Structural Steel Column with Vertical Stabilizer Plate
Joist Girder Bearing on StructuralFigure 3.2
Steel Column with Vertical Stabilizer Plate
Joist Girder Bearing on Structural Steel Column with Vertical Stabilizer Plate

Figure3.3
Figure
Figure 3.3
3.3
Joist
Joist Girder
Girder Bottom
Bottom ChordBrace
FigureChord
Joist Girder Bottom Chord
3.3 Brace
Brace
Figure 3.3
Joist Girder Bottom Chord Brace
2929
Joist GirderFigure
Bottom 3.3
Chord Brace
Joist Girder Bottom Chord Brace
29
29
29
29
BOTTOM BEARING
BOTTOM BEARING JOISTS JOISTS
In certain
In certain design
design applications
applications thatthat utilize
utilize bottom
bottom bearing
bearing oror square-ended joists, the
square-ended joists, the
product is designed to bear on the bottom chord. This produces
product is designed to bear on the bottom chord. This produces a top-heavy condition. a top-heavy condition.
Therefore,
Therefore, their
their ends
ends mustmust bebe restrained
restrained laterally
laterally in
in accordance
accordance withwith SJI
SJI Specification
Specification
Section
Section 5.5.6. This is accomplished by means of an additional row of diagonal bridging
5.5.6. This is accomplished by means of an additional row of diagonal bridging
placed
placed at or near the bearing support ends of the joists as they are being erected. Where
at or near the bearing support ends of the joists as they are being erected. Where
a
a bottom
bottom bearing
bearing joist is extended
joist is extended beyond
beyond itsits support
support toto form
form aa cantilevered end, a
cantilevered end, a row
row of
of
diagonal bridging near the support should first be installed. In addition,
diagonal bridging near the support should first be installed. In addition, the structural the structural
drawings
drawings maymay indicate
indicate a a row
row of
of diagonal
diagonal bridging
bridging in in the
the cantilevered
cantilevered portion
portion toto provide
provide
lateral
lateral stability. If the joists have bottom chords extended over and connected to a
stability. If the joists have bottom chords extended over and connected to a column,
column,
beam,
beam, wall,
wall, or
or other
other structure,
structure, the
the connection
connection should
should be be made
made in in accordance
accordance with with the
the
structural drawings and/or instructions from
structural drawings and/or instructions from the EOR. the EOR.

BRIDGING
BRIDGING ROWSROWS FOR FOR KCS
KCS JOISTS
JOISTS
The
The KCS Joist designation is not directly
KCS Joist designation is not directly used
used toto establish
establish bridging
bridging requirements.
requirements. Instead,
Instead,
the
the KCS Load Table provides an equivalent K-Series section number to
KCS Load Table provides an equivalent K-Series section number to use
use in
in the
the bridging
bridging
tables.
tables. For
For example,
example, a a 12KCS2
12KCS2 joist
joist would
would require
require bridging
bridging equivalent
equivalent toto a
a K5
K5 joist
joist section
section
number as shown in Figure 3.4. The number of top chord bridging rows can
number as shown in Figure 3.4. The number of top chord bridging rows can be determined be determined
using
using SJI
SJI Table
Table 5.5-1.
5.5-1. An
An excerpt
excerpt is is shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 3.5.
3.5. The
The bridging
bridging size
size and
and spacing
spacing
limits are associated with the K1-8 listing in SJI Table 2.7-1 as shown in
limits are associated with the K1-8 listing in SJI Table 2.7-1 as shown in Figure 3.6.Figure 3.6.

Figure
Figure 3.4
3.4
SJI
SJI KCS Load Table
KCS Load Table Excerpt
Excerpt

30
30
30
 Figure 3.5
Figure
Figure 3.5
SJI Bridging Table3.5
Figure 5.5-1 Excerpt
3.5
SJI
SJI Bridging Table 5.5-1 Excerpt
SJI Bridging
Bridging Table
Table 5.5-1
5.5-1 Excerpt
Excerpt

Figure 3.6
Figure
Figure 3.6
SJI Bridging Table3.6
Figure 2.7-1 Excerpt
3.6
SJI
SJI Bridging Table 2.7-1 Excerpt
SJI Bridging Table 2.7-1
Bridging Table 2.7-1 Excerpt
Excerpt

31
31
31
31
31
 CHAPTER 4

4
RESPONSIBILITY FOR

4
THE DESIGN AND
CHAPTER 4
SPECIFICATION
RESPONSIBILITY OFDESIGN
FOR THE
AND SPECIFICATION OF BRIDGING
BRIDGING
________________________________________________________________________________________________________

RESPONSIBILITY OF THE MANUFACTURER

The joist manufacturer is responsible for supplying bridging required by the SJI
Specification. The bridging size, type, and layout shall be shown on the steel joist
placement plan. When the specified joists utilize a standard SJI designation, bridging
requirements are shown in tables within the SJI Specification based on joist depth, joist
series, chord designation, and span. When the specified joists utilize a non-standard
designation (load/load designation), the joist manufacturer will determine the bridging
requirements based on joist configuration, joist member sizing, and the SJI bridging
stability equations. If load cases specified in the contract documents result in compression
in the joist bottom chord, then additional bridging and/or a project-specific (joist-
specific/design-specific) bridging layout may be used by the joist manufacturer.

32

32
Table 5.5-1 of the SJI Specification can be used to determine the number of rows of
bridging required for standard designation joists.

33
33
The bridging requirements for joists with Total/Live designations such as a 24K300/180
will typically be determined by the joist provider since the actual chord sizes aren’t readily
discernable like standard K-Series Section Number designations. The maximum spacing
between lines of bridging is a function of the depth of the joist, the joist span length, and
the radius of gyration of the top chord about the vertical axis of the joist cross section.
The joist specifier can use a similarly sized standard joist designation to approximate the
number of rows that will be required. The actual number of required rows will not exceed
this value and may occasionally require fewer rows than the equivalent standard joist as
there is some conservativism built into the standard bridging tables.

The 24K300/180 joist will need a length to find an equivalent standard designation. If the
length is set to 37 feet, a reasonably equivalent standard designation could be a 24K7 at
37 feet (ASD).

The 24K7 joist would require three rows of horizontal bridging using Table 5.5-1.

If unable to match an existing standard SJI joist designation, the maximum spacing
between lines of bridging, ℓbrmax, shall be the lessor of,

 d 
 brmax 124 + 0.67 d j + 28 j  ry , in.
= (5.5-2a)
 L

 d 
 brmax 124 + 0.026 d j + 0.34 j  ry , mm
= (5.5-2b)
 L
or
 brmax = 170 ry (5.5-3)

Where:
dj is the steel joist depth, in. (mm)
L is the joist span length, ft. (m)
ry is the radius of gyration of the top chord about the vertical axis of the joist cross section,
in. (mm)

The load for this example could be carried by a joist with a top chord radius of gyration
about the vertical axis of the joist cross section equal to 1.225 inches. Entering this value
along with the depth and the span into SJI Specification Equation 5.5-2a reveals a
maximum spacing between bridging lines equal to:

 24 
 br max = 124+ ( 0.67 )( 24 ) +28  1.225 in. = 194 in.
 37 

L  37 ft   12 in. 
N= =  = 2.29
 br max  194 in.   ft 
Spaces

Rounding down, NRows = 2

34
34
Take note that the bridging spacing equation developed is empirical. The variables are
specifically defined using the units stated. The values should be entered into the
equation accordingly.

Several bridging tables are used to determine the size of bridging required. These tables
are shown in the SJI Code of Standard Practice Tables 2.7-1 through 2.7-5. They are
reproduced in this chapter.

Horizontal bridging shall act as a continuous member. The joist manufacturer is

responsible for specifying the lap and weld requirements to ensure continuity of the
horizontal bridging. This is typically 2 or 3 inches of lap with 1/8-inch fillet welds
connecting the horizontal pieces (typically 20 to 25 feet long) and will be shown or noted
on the steel joist placement plans.

35
35
Table 2.7-3 is used to determine the bridging angle size for a combination of joist depth
and joist spacing.

36
36
37
37
RESPONSIBILITY OF THE SPECIFYING PROFESSIONAL

Bridging Termination
There are many different methods to adequately anchor the termination of bridging. Most
of these methods involve other components of the building design. Thus, the design of
this anchorage is to be determined by the specifying professional. Per Section 6.1(b) of
the SJI Code of Standard Practice (COSP), “The specifying professional is responsible
for bridging termination connections. The contract documents shall clearly illustrate these
termination connections.” Table 2.7-1 provides the minimum bridging forces for standard
designation joists, Table 2.7-2 of the COSP can also be used to conservatively determine
the maximum bridging force for a given joist spacing. See Chapters 5 and 7 of this
document for more detailed information.

38
38
Specifying Bridging
For standard catalog joists or catalog equivalent joists, it is acceptable for the contract
documents supplied to the joist manufacturer to show only the standard joist designations
or designation load requirements and none of the bridging requirements. In such cases,
the contract documents shall include a note: “Bridging requirements shall be determined
by joist supplier.”

However, it is not an uncommon practice for the contract documents to include the
bridging requirements. In such cases, other trades bidding work on the project can see
more of the extent of the joist bridging. If bridging sizes or amount of bridging shown on
the contract documents exceeds the required bridging, the joist manufacturer will supply
the specified bridging unless the specified size and/or quantity is revised through
coordination between the joist supplier and the specifying professional. It is important to
remember that the joist supplier may increase the specified bridging to meet either the
SJI Specification or joist design requirements.

BRIDGING FOR TOP CHORD PITCHED JOISTS

Occasionally, joists will be specified with the top chord pitched. The standard SJI bridging
tables are used for joists with single or double pitched top chords of 1 inch per foot or less
(load tables have a limit of 1/2 inch per foot or less). For pitches that exceed 1 inch per
foot, a higher center of gravity may result with greater and greater pitch rates and hence
the joist becomes more unstable. The specifying professional may need to consider
adding additional rows of bridging and/or utilizing cross bridging when specifying a joist
with an increasingly higher center of gravity or for joists specified to be canted. See
Chapter 7 for additional information on canted joists. This bridging is not SJI standard
bridging and requires special consideration by the specifying professional as noted in
Section 6(c) of the SJI Code of Standard Practice.

SJI Technical Digest 7, “Special Profile Steel Joists and Joist Girders” (SJI, 2021), should
be referenced for important information regarding the use of special profile steel joists.

Bracing
If the contract drawings indicate angle bracing in the joist space adjacent to beam framing,
these angles are considered other miscellaneous steel and will not be supplied by the joist
manufacturer. If these braces apply any additional loads to the joists, it is imperative that
the contract drawings clearly note the load location, magnitude, direction, and load type, so
that the joist manufacturer can properly design the joists for such loads. Loads
perpendicular to joists cannot be resisted by joists and must be resisted by alternate means.

39
39
 5
555
CHAPTER
TYPICAL
TYPICAL
5 5
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
CHAPTER55
DETAILS
DETAILS
TYPICAL DETAILS
TYPICAL DETAILS
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
TYPICAL BRIDGING DETAILS
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
TYPICAL BRIDGING DETAILS
TYPICAL BRIDGING DETAILS
Bridging Termination to a Wall
Illustrated in Figures 5.1 throughto5.3
Bridging Termination a Wall
are details of a horizontal bridging row or uplift bridging
Bridging Termination
row terminating to
IllustratedatinaFigures a Wall
5.1 through
wall. Horizontal 5.3 are
bridging willdetails
allow of
thea joist
horizontal bridging
to deflect morerow or uplift
freely whichbridging
Illustrated
row in Figures
terminating5.1
atthrough
a wall. 5.3 are details
Horizontal of
bridginga horizontal
will allow bridging
the joist
will then help minimize unintended forces in the bridging members and the wall anchors.row
to or uplift
deflect bridging
more freely which
row terminating at a wall. Horizontal bridging will allow the joist to deflect more
will then help minimize unintended forces in the bridging members and the wall anchors. freely which
will then
The bridginghelpanchors
minimizeshown
unintended forces
in Figure 5.2 in
maytheorbridging
may notmembers and thealignment
be in a vertical wall anchors.
as it is
permittedThe bridging
per the SJIanchors shown
Specification toin Figure 5.2 may
independently or may
space notand
the top be in a vertical
bottom alignment
bridging rows. as it is
The bridging anchors
permitted shown
per the in Figure 5.2tomay
SJI Specification or may not space
independently be in athevertical alignment
top and as it is rows.
bottom bridging
permitted per the SJI Specification to independently space the top and bottom bridging rows.

Figure 5.1
Horizontal Bridging (Aligned)Figure
Termination
5.1 at Wall
Horizontal Bridging
Figure 5.1(Aligned) Termination at Wall
Horizontal Bridging (Aligned) Termination at Wall

40
40
40

40
 Figure 5.2
Horizontal Bridging (Top and Bottom Not Aligned) Termination at Wall
Figure
Figure 5.2 5.2 5.2
Figure
HorizontalHorizontal
Bridging Bridging
Horizontal (Top and(Top
Bridging and
Bottom
(Top Bottom
and
Not Not Not
Bottom
Aligned)Aligned) Termination
Termination
Aligned) at Wallat Wall
Termination
at Wall

Figure 5.3
Figure 5.3
Uplift Bridging
Uplift Bridging Termination
Termination at Wallat Wall
Figure 5.3 Figure 5.3
Uplift Bridging
UpliftTermination
Bridging Termination
at Wall at Wall

41
41

41 41
41
IllustratedIllustrated
in Figure 5.4
in Figure
is the termination
5.4 is the termination
of a diagonal
of abridging
diagonalrow bridging row Note
to a wall. that the
to a wall. Note that the
diagonal bridging in the space between the wall and the first joist is replaced with horizontal
diagonal bridging in the space between the wall and the first joist is replaced with horizontal
allow the
bridging tobridging joist tothe
to allow deflect more
joist to freely.
deflect moreThis is particularly
freely. important important
This is particularly when longwhen long
span joistsspan
are in proximity of an exterior wall due to the larger potential deflection.
joists are in proximity of an exterior wall due to the larger potential deflection.

Figure
Figure 5.4
5.4 Figure 5.4
Bolted
Bolted Diagonal
Diagonal Bridging
Bolted
Bridging Termination
Diagonal
Termination at
at Wall
Bridging Termination
Wall at Wall

Bridging Bridging
Termination to Beamsto Beams
Termination
in Figuresin5.5
IllustratedIllustrated and 5.6
Figures 5.5are
anddetails
5.6 areof details
a horizontal bridging row
of a horizontal and an
bridging rowuplift
and an uplift
bridging row terminating at a beam. Note the section of bridging between the beam
bridging row terminating at a beam. Note the section of bridging between the beam and and
the joist may needmay
the joist to be cut to be
need length
cut in
to the fieldintothe
length accommodate a difference
field to accommodate in depth in depth
a difference
between the members.
between the members.
It is recommended to avoid using
It is recommended diagonal
to avoid using bridging
diagonal inbridging
the space between
in the space abetween
long span
a long span
joist and a much shallower beam. The difference in deflection between both members
joist and a much shallower beam. The difference in deflection between both members
can resultcan
in unintended forces in the
result in unintended bridging
forces in the members and in theand
bridging members connections to the
in the connections to the
joist and joist
the beam. The use of diagonal bridging combined with horizontal bridging
and the beam. The use of diagonal bridging combined with horizontal bridging
between the last two
between thejoists mayjoists
last two be a better
may bealternative which would
a better alternative comply
which wouldwith the OSHA
comply with the OSHA
bridging terminus points.
bridging terminus points.

42 42
42
 Figure
Figure 5.55.5
Horizontal Figure
Bridging
Figure 5.5
Termination
5.5 at Beam
Horizontal Bridging
Horizontal Termination
Bridging at Beam
Termination at Beam
Horizontal Bridging Termination at Beam

Figure
Figure 5.65.6
Figure
Figure 5.65.6 at Beam
Uplift
Uplift Bridging
Bridging Termination
Termination at Beam
Uplift Bridging Termination at Beam
Uplift Bridging Termination at Beam
Illustrated
Illustrated
Illustratedin in
in Figure
Figure
Figure 5.75.7
is is
5.7 thethe
is the termination
termination
termination of of
aa
of a diagonal
diagonal
diagonal bridging
bridging
bridging row
row
rowto to
aa
to beam.
beam.
a beam. AsAs
Asforfor
for
Illustrated
termination
termination in Figure
to
to to a
a wall, 5.7
wall, is
the
thethe the
diagonal termination
diagonal bridging
bridging of
in
in in a
the
thethe diagonal
space
space bridging
between
between row
the
thethe to
beam
beam a
and beam.
and the
thethe As
first
first for
joist
joist
termination
termination towitha wall,
awith
wall, diagonal
the diagonal bridging
bridging inallow
the the space
space between
between beam
the beam andand first
the first joist
joist
is is
is replaced
replaced
replaced with horizontal
horizontal
horizontal bridging
bridging
bridging to to
allow
to allow the
the joist
joist to to
joist deflect
deflect
to deflect more
more
more freely.
freely.
freely. This
This
Thisis is
is
is replaced
particularly
particularly with
importanthorizontal
important when
when bridging
long
long span
span to allow
joists
joists areare the
in
in in joist to
proximity
proximity deflect
of
of of a
a beam more
beam or
or or freely.
beam
beam This
line
line duedueis to
to
particularly
particularly important
important when long span joists are proximity a beam
when long span joists are in proximity of a beam or beam line due to beam line due to
thethe larger
larger potential
potential deflection.
deflection.
thethe larger
larger potential
potential deflection.
deflection.
4343
43
4343
 Figure 5.7Figure 5.7
Bolted Diagonal Bridging Termination
Figure 5.7
Bolted Diagonal Bridging Termination at Beam5.7at Beam
Figure
Bolted Diagonal Bridging Termination at BeamTermination at Beam
Bolted Diagonal Bridging
Termination
Termination of Horizontalof Horizontal
Bridging Bridging to a Joist
to a Joist
Illustrated
Termination
Illustrated in Figure in5.8
Figure
of Horizontal
Termination
is how 5.8 isterminate
Bridging
toof how to terminate
a horizontal
Horizontal Joist horizontal
Bridging bridging
to a Joist
bridging atNote
at a joist. a joist.
theNote the diagonal
diagonal
bridging
Illustrated in Figure
bridging needs needs
5.8
be is
toIllustrated to
how be installed
to terminate
in Figure
installed directly
5.8 isagainst
directly how against
horizontal the
thebridging
to terminate horizontal
at a joist.
horizontal
horizontal bridging
Noterows.
bridging
bridging the rows.
at diagonal
a Where Where
joist. Note the diagon
bridging horizontal
needs to bridging
bridging
be is
needs
installed independently
to be
directly spaced
installed
against between
directly
the the
against
horizontal
horizontal bridging is independently spaced between the top and bottom chords of the top
the and bottom
horizontal
bridging rows. chords
bridging
Where of the Whe
rows.
horizontaljoists, termination
bridging horizontal
is diagonal
bridging
independently bridging
is
spaced needs
independently
between to be
theinstalled
spacedtop in
between
and
joists, termination diagonal bridging needs to be installed in alignment with both the top alignment
the
bottom top
chordswith
and both
bottom
of the the top of th
chords
joists, and the
and thetermination bottom
bottom chord joists,
diagonal chord
bridging bridging
termination
bridging rows.
rows.diagonal
needs tobridging needsintoalignment
be installed be installed
withinboth
alignment
the topwith both the to
and the bottom chord and the bottom
bridging chord bridging rows.
rows.

Figure 5.8
Horizontal
FigureBridging
5.8 Termination at Joist
Figure 5.8
Horizontal Bridging Termination
Figure 5.8 at Joist Termination at Joist
Horizontal Bridging
Horizontal Bridging Termination at Joist
44
44
44 44
44
Figure 5.9
5.9 illustrates
illustrates how5.9
Figure to terminate
terminate an
illustrates an
howuplift bridging row
to terminate row at a
a bridging
an uplift joist. Note
Note the
rowthe diagonal
at diagonal
a joist. Note the diagon
Figure how to uplift bridging at joist.
Figure
bridging5.9
Figure illustrates
needs to be
be how
bridging
5.9 illustrates to
installed
how terminate
needsdirectly
to an uplift
to beagainst
terminate bridging
the
installed uplift
directly
an uplift row at
bridging
against
bridging a joist.
row.
rowthe Note
at auplift the
joist.bridging
Note thediagonal
row.
diagonal
bridging needs to installed directly against the uplift bridging row.
bridging needs to be installed directly against the uplift bridging row.
bridging needs to be installed directly against the uplift bridging row.

Figure 5.9
Figure 5.9
Figure
Figure Uplift
5.9
5.9 Bridging Termination at Joist
Uplift Bridging Figure
5.9 5.9 at Joist
Termination
Figure
Illustrated inUplift
Figure
Uplift 5.10
Bridging
Bridging
Uplift is how
Termination
Termination
Bridging to at
at
Terminationterminate
Joist
Joist
at Joist a horizontal bridging row
where adjace
Illustrated in
Figure 5.10 is how to
Uplift terminate
Bridging a horizontal
Termination at Joist bridging row where adjacent
Illustrated in Figure 5.10
joists is
have how to terminate
aissignificant a horizontal
difference bridging
in depth. row where adjacent
joistsIllustrated
Illustrated in Figure
haveina significant
Figure 5.10
5.10difference
is how how to terminate
tointerminate
depth. a horizontal
a horizontal bridging
bridging rowrow where
where adjacent
adjacent
joists have
joists a
havesignificant
a difference
significant in
difference
joists have a significant difference in depth.depth.
in depth.

Figure 5.10
Horizontal
Figure 5.10 Bridging Termination at Deeper Joist
Figure
Figure 5.10 5.10
Horizontal BridgingFigure 5.10
Termination
Figure 5.10 at Deeper JoistJoist
Horizontal
Horizontal Bridging
Bridging Termination
Termination at Deeper
at Deeper Joist
Horizontal
Horizontal Bridging
Bridging Termination
Termination atat Deeper 45
Deeper Joist
Joist
45 45
45
45
45
TYPES
TYPES OF
OF BRIDGING
BRIDGING
TYPES CONNECTIONS
TYPES OF
OF BRIDGING
CONNECTIONS
BRIDGING CONNECTIONS
CONNECTIONS
Horizontal
Horizontal and
and Uplift
Uplift Bridging
Horizontal Bridging
and
Horizontal
Horizontal and uplift and Uplift
bridgingUplift
are
Bridging
Bridgingprovided in standard lengths which requires
generally
Horizontal
Horizontal and uplift
Horizontal and uplift
bridging are bridging
and uplift in generally
bridging are generally
provided
are generallyin provided
standard in
provided standard
lengths
in lengths
which
standard which
which requires
requires
lengths requires
the
the members
members theto
to be connected
members
be connected
to be in the field.
connected
the field. Shown
in
Shown
the in
field.
in Figures
Figures
Shown 5.11
5.11
in and
Figures
and 5.12
5.12
5.11are
are
andthe
the
5.12 are
the
minimum required members
laps andto be connected
connections to thein the
joist field.
chords. Shown in Figures 5.11 and 5.12 are the
the
minimum
minimum required lapsrequired
and laps and
connections connections
to the joist to the
chords.
minimum required laps and connections to the joist chords.joist chords.

Figure 5.11
Figure 5.11
Figure Bridging
5.11 Figure
Figure 5.11
5.11
Horizontal
Horizontal
Horizontal Bridging
Horizontal
Horizontal Bridging
Bridging Bridging

Figure 5.12
Figure
Figure 5.12
5.12 Figure
Figure 5.12
5.12
Uplift Bridging
Uplift
Uplift Bridging
Bridging Uplift
Uplift Bridging
Bridging

46
46
46 46
46
Welded
WeldedDiagonal
DiagonalBridging
Bridging
Welded
Welded diagonal
diagonal bridging
bridging isis typically
typically provided
provided cut cut at at specific
specific lengths
lengths byby the
the joist
joist
manufacturer toto be
manufacturer be installed
installed atat aa specific
specific location
location inin the
the structure.
structure. The
The depth
depth and
and the
the
spacing
spacingbetween
betweenthethejoists
joistswill
willdictate
dictatehow
howlong
longthe
themembers
membersneed needtotobe.
be.Shown
ShownininFigure
Figure
5.13
5.13isishow
howthe
thebridging
bridgingmembers
membersshould shouldbebeinstalled
installedandandconnected
connectedto tothe
thejoist
joistchords.
chords.

Figure
Figure5.13
5.13
Welded
WeldedDiagonal
DiagonalBridging
Bridging

47
47
47
Bolted Diagonal Bridging
Bolted Diagonal Bridging
Bolted diagonal bridging is provided cut at specific lengths by the joist manufacturer to be
Bolted diagonal bridging is provided cut at specific lengths by the joist manufacturer to be
installed at a specific location in the structure. The depth and the spacing between the
installed at a specific location in the structure. The depth and the spacing between the
joists will dictate how long the members need to be. Illustrated in Figure 5.14 is how the
joists will dictate how long the members need to be. Illustrated in Figure 5.14 is how the
bridging members should be installed and connected to the joist chords. Note that joist
bridging members should be installed and connected to the joist chords. Note that joist
manufacturers may utilize different types of connections between the bridging and the
manufacturers may utilize different types of connections between the bridging and the
joist chords which depends on the joist series and manufacturing preferences.
joist chords which depends on the joist series and manufacturing preferences.

Figure 5.14
Bolted Figure 5.14
Diagonal Bridging
Bolted Diagonal Bridging

48
48
48
JOIST
JOIST JOIST
GIRDER
GIRDER GIRDER
BOTTOM
BOTTOM BOTTOM
CHORD
CHORD CHORD
BRACING
BRACING BRACING
JOIST GIRDER BOTTOM CHORD BRACING
JOIST
Illustrated
Illustrated GIRDER
Illustrated
in
in inBOTTOM
Figures Figures
5.15 and CHORD
5.15
5.16andare BRACING
5.16
typical
are bottom
typical bottom
chord braces
chord braces
for joistfor
girders.
joist girders.
The The
Illustrated in inFigures
Figures 5.15
5.15 and
and 5.16
5.16 are
are typical
typical bottom
bottom chord
chord braces
braces for
forforjoist
joist girders.
girders. The
The
Illustrated
number
number number
of
of braces
braces Figures
of braces
and
and 5.15
the
the and and
the
location
location 5.16
location
is
is areis
determined
determinedtypical
by bottom
determined
by the
the by
joist
joistchord
the braces
joist manufacturer
manufacturer
manufacturer based
based joist
on
on girders.
based
their
theiron The
their
final final
number ofof
braces and the location is is
determined byby
the joist manufacturer based onon their final
final
number
design.
design. The
The braces
locations
design.
locations and
of
of the
the
The locations
the location
braces
of the and
braces and determined
bracestheand
the member
member the
size
the member
size joist
are
are manufacturer
shown
size
shown on
are on the joist
shown
the based
joist
on joisttheir
framing
the
framing finalplans.
plans.
framing
plans.
design. The locations of the braces and the member size are shown on the joist framing plans.
design. The locations of the braces and the member size are shown on the joist framing plans.

Figure
Figure 5.15
Figure 5.15
5.15
Girder Brace
Brace Figure
Girder
to 5.15
Brace
BottomtoChord
Bottomof Chord
Joist of Joist
Girder Figure 5.15
Girder Brace to Bottom Chord
to Bottom Chord of
of Joist
Joist
Girder Brace to Bottom Chord of Joist

Figure 5.16
Figure 5.16
Figure 5.16
Girder BraceFigure
Girder
to 5.16
Brace
Top Chord
to Top
of Chord
Joist of Joist
Girder Figure 5.16
Girder Brace to Top Chord of
Brace to Top Chord of Joist
Joist
Girder Brace to Top Chord of Joist
49
49 49
49
49
49
 DIAGONAL
DIAGONAL BOLTED BOLTED BRIDGING
BRIDGING COMBINED
COMBINED WITH HORIZONTAL
WITH HORIZONTAL BOLTED BOLTED BRIDGING
BRIDGING
A typical
A typical detail
detail of of bolted
bolted diagonal
diagonal and horizontal
and horizontal bridging
bridging is shown
is shown in Figure
in Figure 5.17. 5.17.

Figure 5.17
Figure 5.17
Bolted Diagonal
Bolted Diagonal and Horizontal
and Horizontal BridgingBridging

50
50
50
50
HORIZONTAL
HORIZONTALBRIDGING BRIDGINGSPLICESSPLICES
HORIZONTAL
Shown HORIZONTAL
ShownininFigures BRIDGING
Figures5.18 BRIDGING
5.18and SPLICES
and5.19
5.19 SPLICES
are
arerecommended
recommendedconnections
connectionsfor forhorizontal
horizontalbridging
bridgingand
and
Shown
uplift Shown
in Figures
upliftbridging in Figures
bridgingrows. 5.18 5.18
and
rows.Horizontal and
5.19 5.19
are recommended
Horizontalbridging
bridgingare recommended
isisgenerally connections
generallyprovided connections
provided for horizontal
ininstandard
standardforlengths
horizontal
lengthsbridging
by bridging
bythe and and
thejoist
joist
upliftuplift
bridging
manufacturer
manufacturer bridging
rows. rows.
Horizontal
andrequires
and Horizontal
requires bridging
cutting
cutting bridging
and
and is generally
is generally
splicing
splicing inintheprovided
the provided
field
field in standard
in standard
totoaccommodate
accommodate lengths
lengths
variousbyframing
various the
byjoist
the joist
framing
manufacturer
manufacturer
conditions. and
conditions. Overlapping and
requires
requires
Overlapping the cutting
cutting
and
the horizontal and
splicing
horizontal and splicing
in
and uplift the
in field
the
uplift bridging field
to accommodate
to accommodate
bridging significantly
significantly more various
various
more than framing
than shownframing
shown
conditions.
below
below conditions.
may Overlapping
mayresult
resultOverlapping theshortages.
ininbridging
bridging horizontal
the horizontal
shortages. and and
upliftuplift
bridging
bridging
significantly
significantly
moremore
thanthan
shownshown
below below
maymay resultresult
in bridging
in bridging
shortages.
shortages.

Figure
Figure5.18
5.18
Horizontal Figure
HorizontalBridging
Bridging Figure
5.18
Splice
Splicewith5.18
withVertical
VerticalWelds
Welds
Horizontal
Horizontal
Bridging
Bridging
SpliceSplice
with Vertical
with Vertical
WeldsWelds

Figure
Figure5.19
5.19
Horizontal BridgingFigure
HorizontalBridging Figure
Splice
Splice5.19
with 5.19
withHorizontal
HorizontalWelds
Welds
Horizontal
Horizontal
Bridging
Bridging
SpliceSplice
with Horizontal
with Horizontal
WeldsWelds

51
51
51
51 51
 6
6
CHAPTER 6
CHAPTER 6
INSTALLATION TOPICS
INSTALLATIONTOPICS
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________

INSTALLATION
INSTALLATION OF
OF JOISTS
JOISTS

Panelization
Panelization
Today,
Today, a a growing
growing number
number of of erectors
erectors are
are panelizing
panelizing joists
joists on
on the
the ground
ground prior
prior to
to final
final
installation,
installation, as shown in Figure 6.1. This method of joist erection can be safer and more
as shown in Figure 6.1. This method of joist erection can be safer and more
productive
productive with
with proper
proper planning.
planning.

Figure
Figure 6.1
6.1
Panelized
Panelized Erection of
Erection of Joists
Joists with
with Bridging
Bridging

52
52

52
There are numerous methods used for panelizing joists. Some erectors prefer to
assemble full bays, including the tie joist. Others install the tie joist prior to erecting the
filler panel. Refer to Technical Digest 9, “Handling and Erection of Steel Joists and Joist
Girders” (SJI, 2008), for additional information.

Current OSHA regulations allow for joists to be erected in panels without supporting
members being punched for bolting. An exception is made at tie joists, which must be
punched and bolted (see OSHA 1926.757(a)(8)).

Several steel erection companies have developed innovative panelized steel joist erection
procedures. They are quite different from what was considered panelized erection when
OSHA 1926.757 was last revised. Erection stability bridging requirements have also been
added to the SJI Specification steel joist load tables.

To reduce top chord bridging and eliminate the number of lifts, some panelized erection
methods have involved partially connecting the deck to the joists while on the ground and
finishing the deck connection after a panel is set in the air. Note that this type of procedure
requires clear and accurate written communication between the EOR and the joist fabricator.

A job-specific panelized erection plan must be provided by the EOR and/or the erector’s
qualified personnel. This job-specific erection plan should include all loads to be
supported during the assembly of joist and deck panels, as well as all loads to be
supported during the installation and final attachments of the individual pre-assembled
panels. If the deck is only partially fastened during pre-assembly and before the final
placement of individual panels, the temporary fastening scheme must be provided.

The SJI specification establishes design requirements and formulas for the maximum
unbraced length of chords, bridging forces, and quantity and spacing of bridging based
on conventional erection criteria and typical erection loading. For panelized erection
projects with clearly defined erection procedures, bracing, and construction loads, the
bridging spacing may be designed based on the top chord stresses and bracing
requirements to meet SJI Specification equations 4.4-5 thru 4.4-10, as appropriate, under
the construction loads suitable to the level of bracing at each stage of construction.

As with the conventional method of erection, the joists must be checked for vertical and
horizontal misalignment prior to welding the horizontal bridging. Also note, bolted diagonal
bridging, if required per the SJI Specification and OSHA Safety Standards for Steel
Erection, must be installed prior to erecting the panels.

53
53
Potential Problems Using Panelization
Potential
A frequentlyProblems
observedUsingproblem Panelization
with panelized erection is bridging shortage. This is because
A frequently observed problem
joist manufacturers typically provide with panelized
horizontal erection
bridging isin bridging
standardshortage. This is because
lengths, typically 20 feet,
Potential
joist Problems
manufacturers Usingprovide
typically Panelization
horizontal bridging in standard lengths, typically 20more
feet,
which may or may not be suited for a specific project. Erectors will often lap the bridging
A frequently
which observed
may or may problem
not behaving with
suitedbridging panelized
for a specific erection is bridging shortage. This is because
than required to avoid rowsproject.
extendErectors
from thewill often
joists atlap the extremity
each bridging more
of a
joist
than manufacturers
required to typically
avoid havingprovide
bridginghorizontal
rows bridging
extend in standard
from the lengths,
joists at each typically 20 feet,
extremity of a
panel, which makes the landing of the panel on the structure more difficult. Bridging shortage
which
panel, may or may not be suited for a specific project. Erectors will often lap the bridging more
can bewhich makes
avoided the landing
by informing theofjoist
the manufacturer
panel on the structure more difficult.
of the intended method Bridging shortage
of erection prior
than
can required
be avoided toby
avoid havingthe
informing bridging
joist rows extendoffrom
manufacturer the the joistsmethod
intended at eachofextremity
erection of a
prior
to fabrication allowing the joist manufacturer to evaluate and provide a more cost-effective
panel, which makes
to fabrication allowing thethe
landing
joist of the panel ontothe
manufacturer structure more difficult. Bridging shortage
bridging system. Custom bridging lengths canevaluate and
occasionally provide a more
be provided cost-effective
which will help
can be
bridging avoided
system. by informing
Custom the
bridgingjoist manufacturer
lengths can of the intended
occasionally be method
provided of erection
which will prior
help
minimize bridging shortage and waste as well as increase productivity since the bridging will
to fabrication
minimize allowing
bridging the joist manufacturer to evaluate and provide a more cost-effective
not have to be cutshortage
in the fieldand waste
where as well
each rowas increase
must be joinedproductivity
betweensince the bridging
adjacent panels. will
An
bridging
not have system.
to be cutCustom
in the bridging
field where lengths
each can
row occasionally
must be joined be provided
between which
adjacent will help
panels. An
example is illustrated in Figure 6.2.
minimize bridging shortage and
example is illustrated in Figure 6.2. waste as well as increase productivity since the bridging will
not have to be cut in the field where each row must be joined between adjacent panels. An
example is illustrated in Figure 6.2.

Figure 6.2
Panelized Bridging
Figure 6.2 Laps
Panelized Bridging Laps
Figure 6.2
Panelized Bridging Laps
INSTALLATION CONCERNS
INSTALLATION
Joist manufacturers CONCERNS
provide bridging per the SJI requirements. For low slope roofs, the
Joist
down manufacturers provide bridging
slope forces generated per thehowever,
are negligible; SJI requirements.
as the roofFor low increases,
slope slope roofs, the
these
INSTALLATION
down slope forces CONCERNS
generated are negligible; however, as the roof slope increases, these
forces accumulate and can become significant. Depending on where the erector chooses
Joist
forces manufacturers
accumulate provide
and bridging per the SJI
can become requirements. For low slope roofs, the
to anchor the bridging lines, the forcessignificant. Depending
may accumulate on where
as tension or as the erector chooses
compression, thus
down
to slope forces generated are negligible; however, as the roof slope increases, these
theanchor theofbridging
strength lines, the
the bridging andforces may accumulate
its attachment as tension
to the joists and toor theasanchorage
compression, thus
devices
forces accumulate
the dependent
strength of on and
thethe can
bridging become
and its significant.
attachment Depending
to the is
joists on where
and to the the erector chooses
are anchorage location. The erector responsible for anchorage
the bridgingdevices
design
to
areanchor the bridging
dependent on the lines, the forces
anchorage mayThe
location. accumulate
erector isas tension orfor
responsible asthe compression,
bridging thus
design
and the coordination of the bridging requirements with the joist manufacturer. Depending
the
and strength of the
the requirements, bridging
coordination ofthe and
thejoist its
bridging attachment
requirements to the joists
with thean and
joist to the anchorage
manufacturer. devices
Depending
on size manufacturer may require extra row from their original
are
on dependent on the anchorage location. The erector is responsible for the bridging design
quotation. Since the specifying professional determines the forces imposed original
size requirements, the joist manufacturer may require an extra row from their on the
and the coordination
quotation. structure,
Since theand of the bridging
specifying requirements
professional with the joist
determines for the manufacturer.
forces Depending
completed since he or she is not responsible means andimposed
methods,onthese
the
on size
completedrequirements, the joist manufacturer may require an extra row from their original
issues are structure, and since
not addressed he or
herein. shespecifying
The is not responsible for means
professional is still and methods,for
responsible these
the
quotation.
issues are Since
not the specifying
addressed herein. professional
The specifying determines
professionalthe isforces
still imposed on
responsible for the
the
anchorage of the bridging for the completed structure.
completed structure,
anchorage and since
of the bridging for thehecompleted
or she is not responsible for means and methods, these
structure.
issues are not addressed herein. The specifying professional is still responsible for the
anchorage of the bridging for the completed structure.

54
54
54
54
The application of bridging is vital for joist performance. If care is not taken during the handling
and installation of this component, the performance of the joist can be significantly impacted.

It is standard practice to apply primer to bridging angles to protect them from certain
atmospheric elements. If installation is to be delayed, proper care should be taken to
protect bridging angles while they are on site.

If depth changes are present between joists, this could either be handled using diagonal
bridging or bending of the horizontal rows. If a continuous row of horizontal bridging is
specified at a depth change, this depth can be made up by bending the horizontal row. If
the depth change is extreme such that the bridging is not able to be bent in place, a cut
can be made to the vertical leg at the location between the chord angles to aid in bending
the bridging in place. Proper attachment protocol of weld placement to both chord angles
must be followed.

HANDLING OF BRIDGING
Bridging angle sizes vary depending on the joist span and size but are generally small
which makes them prone to handling and welding damage. Special care should be given
while handling and welding the bridging angles. Additionally, bridging must not be used
to support any hanging loads. The bridging angles are designed as axially loaded
members. The introduction of a bending load could significantly impair the performance
of the bridging system.

It is also important to note that SJI bridging is designed to brace the joists against lateral
displacement during the erection/construction phases as well as during the service life of
the structure. The bridging supplied for the joist system is not designed to stabilize any
other structural elements. Any bracing required for structural elements other than the
joists and/or joist girders must be sized by the specifying professional and is not to be
provided by the joist manufacturer.

UPLIFT BRIDGING PLACEMENT OPTIONS

The SJI Specification for K, LH, and DLH-Series joists indicates that when uplift forces
are specified, they must be considered in the design of joists and/or bridging. A single line
of bottom chord bridging must be provided near the first bottom chord panel points
whenever uplift due to wind forces is a design consideration. Joist providers will typically
satisfy this requirement with one of several configurations:

1. For stacked top chord and bottom chord bridging as shown in Figure 6.3, add an
additional row near the first and last bottom chord panel points. The advantage of this
method is that the erector can install both the top and bottom chord bridging rows from
one man-lift location and continue through the bay until all rows are installed.

55
55
 Figure 6.3
Stacked Top Chord and Bottom Chord Bridging

When a row or rows of cross bridging is present, another configuration which is also
acceptable is to alter the spacing of the horizontal rows on the bottom chord such as shown
in Figure 6.4. This is advantageous to avoid having to add an additional row of bridging on
the bottom chord since the unbraced length between bridging rows can be made smaller
near the center of the joist when needed for an uplift condition.

Figure 6.4
Other Acceptable Bridging Arrangement

2. Evenly spaced bottom chord bridging which may or may not align with evenly
spaced top chord bridging. The advantage of this method is that a row of bottom
chord bridging can often be eliminated by spreading out the uplift bridging according
to the maximum allowable unbraced length compared to stacking top and bottom
rows. An example of this is depicted in Figure 6.5.

Figure 6.5
Evenly Spaced Bridging

In any instance, the total number of bottom chord rows shall not be less than the number
of top chord rows.

56
56
BRIDGING TERMINATION AT EXPANSION JOINTS
Expansion joints require specific bridging termination details considering the fixed and the
sliding side TERMINATION
BRIDGING of the expansionAT joint. To allow the
EXPANSION structure to move freely, the horizontal
JOINTS
bridging is not
BRIDGING joints
Expansion anchored
TERMINATION to the supporting
AT EXPANSION
require specific JOINTS See
structure.
bridging termination Figure
details 6.6.
considering the fixed and the
Expansion
sliding sidejoints require
of the specific bridging
expansion joint. Totermination
allow thedetails considering
structure to move thefreely,
fixed and
thethe
horizontal
sliding side of the expansion joint. To allow the structure to move freely, the horizontal
bridging is not anchored to the supporting structure. See Figure 6.6.
bridging is not anchored to the supporting structure. See Figure 6.6.

Figure
Figure 6.6 6.6
Figure 6.6
Bridging Termination
Bridging
Bridging at Expansion
Termination
Termination at Joint Joint
at Expansion
Expansion Joint

Figure 6.6
ESFR SPRINKLER SYSTEMSBridging Termination at Expansion Joint
ESFR SPRINKLER SYSTEMS
ESFR (Early Suppression, Fast Response) sprinkler systems are often used in large open
ESFR (Early
areas, typicallySuppression,
warehouses,Fast andResponse)
can present sprinkler
some systems
challenges arefor
often
bothused the injoist
large open
areas,
ESFR typically
manufacturer
SPRINKLER warehouses,
and the sprinkler
SYSTEMS and canaspresent
manufacturer coordinationsome challenges
of the two systemsfor both the joist
is required
manufacturer
to insure
ESFR optimal
(Early and the sprinkler
performanceFast
Suppression, manufacturer
of both systems. The
Response) as coordination
typicalsystems
sprinkler of
obstruction the two
arecriteria systems
oftenspecified
used in for is required
large open
to
aninsure
areas,ESFR optimal
sprinklerperformance
typically ofand
system prohibits
warehouses, both systems.
installation
can ofThe
present typical
bottom
some obstruction
chord horizontalcriteria
challenges bridging
for bothspecified for
orthe joist
an ESFR
diagonal sprinkler
bridging system
in proximity prohibits
of installation
the sprinkler heads. of As bottom
a result, chord
the joisthorizontal
manufacturer and the sprinkler manufacturer as coordination of the two systems is required manufacturer bridging or
must know
diagonal where each branch
bridgingperformance line
in proximity of will
ofboth be located
the sprinkler prior
heads.to fabrication of
As aobstruction the joists, as the
result, the joist manufacturer
to insureofoptimal
location the bottom chord bridging maysystems.
need toThe typical
be adjusted which may criteria
affect specified for
must
an know
ESFR where
sprinkler each branch
system line
prohibits will be located
installation ofprior to
bottom fabrication
chord of the chord
horizontal joists, as the
bridging or
design. Often,
location of thethe joist manufacturer
bottom chord bridgingwill need
may to
needmove to the
be bottom
adjustedchord
whichbridging
may away
affect chord
diagonal bridging
from the desired in proximity
or optimal locationsof the sprinkler
to avoid heads. As
any conflicts. Asa aresult,
result, the joist
additional manufacturer
bridging
design.
must knowOften, the each
where joist manufacturer
branch line willwill
beneed to move
located thefabrication
prior to bottom chord
of thebridging away
joists, as the
from the desired or optimal locations to avoid
57 any conflicts. As a result, additional
location of the bottom chord bridging may need to be adjusted which may affect chord bridging
design. Often, the joist manufacturer will need 57 to move the bottom chord bridging away
from the desired or optimal locations to avoid any conflicts. As a result, additional bridging
57
57
will occasionally be added, especially for projects where uplift loads are relatively high. This
translates to a heavier joist and bridging system and higher erection cost due to the
additional bridging required. Early coordination of the two systems is highly recommended
as it has proven to help minimize additional fabrication and erection costs for both the joist
and sprinkler systems. This will also help avoid possible field conflicts which would lead to
an even greater overall project cost increase.

Shown in Figure 6.7 is a typical bridging layout to accommodate an ESFR sprinkler system.

Figure 6.7
Bridging Layout for ESFR

TILTED JOISTS
Tilted joists are those joists that span in a direction perpendicular to the roof slope. Bridging
requirements for tilted joists may require special consideration when the roof slope exceeds
1/4 inch per foot. This is due to the significance of down slope forces due to gravity loads.
These forces are of concern during erection prior to the roof diaphragm being installed, and
for standing seam roof systems with limited diaphragm strength and stiffness.

If a significant tilt exists, i.e., greater than 2 inches per foot, as shown in Figure 6.8,
consideration should be given to the downhill component of the loads. This load component
can be resisted either by designing the roof diaphragm system to resist the loads or by
providing a special bridging system to transfer the loads from the joists through the bridging
and then to another element of the structure.

58
58
 Figure 6.8
Tilted Joists

Note that the accumulation of forces into the bridging system and anchorage to the
structure must be carefully evaluated to ensure stability during the construction phase
and service life of the structure. On double sloped roofs, the bridging can be designed to
be continuous across the ridge of the structure to provide a self-balancing system. This
mechanism works well unless unsymmetrical loading exists on the structure. In that case,
it may be possible to create a truss in the plane of the sloped roof by lacing the top chord
of two adjacent joists together. The specifying professional is responsible for the special
bridging or diaphragm design.

Another item requiring careful evaluation is the addition of hanging loads from tilted joists.
The joists manufacturers are often unaware of the presence of hanging loads and
therefore will not design the joists considering the out-of-plane component of the loads or
provide the additional bridging required to transfer the lateral component of the loads to
the roof diaphragm or other elements of the structure. The pertinence of adding special
bridging is a function of the severity of the lateral slope and magnitude of the loads hung
from the structure. The responsibility to design and specify a special bridging system,
once again, lies with the specifying professional for the project.

59
59
STRAIGHTENING OF JOISTS DURING INSTALLATION
Although open web steel joists have substantial strength and stiffness for supporting in-
plane loading, they are usually quite flexible in the out-of-plane direction. While erecting
joists, it is important for the erector to pull the joists plumb, straight, and true as bridging
is installed and attached to the joist chords. The presence of sweep or misalignment can
lead to potential premature lateral buckling of the joist chords and/or increased bracing
forces in the deck and deck attachments.

If obvious sweep or vertical misalignment is discovered after erection. The specifying

professional shall be made aware to determine what corrective action may be required.

COLUMN JOISTS
Joists located at or near column lines (see Figure 6.9) are referred to as OSHA column
joists, tie joists, strut joists, or “OC” joists. The current OSHA Safety Standards for Steel
Erection, 29 CFR Part 1926 require that, where columns are not framed in at least two
directions with solid structural steel members, joists at column lines shall be field bolted and
the joist bottom chords must be restrained by a vertical stabilizer plate (OSHA, 2001). The
bearing seats of column joists will always be provided with slotted holes so that bolts can
be inserted at the time of joist placement. Where constructability does not allow a steel joist
to be installed directly at the column, the OSHA Safety Standards state that an alternate
means of stabilizing the tie joists shall be installed on both sides near the column.

When the current OSHA Safety Standards for Steel Erection, Final Rule became
effective, it contained the following requirement for column joists:

“Where steel joists at or near columns span 60 feet or less, the joist shall be
“designed with sufficient strength to allow one employee to release the hoisting
“cable without the need for erection bridging.”

An “Inspection policy and procedures for OSHA’s steel erection standards for
construction” was subsequently issued on March 22, 2002, and following that, on July 18,
2003, an OSHA notice “Extension of enforcement policy on column joists” was issued.
The effective date of that enforcement policy was originally extended to July 18, 2004, or
until a new directive was to be issued. OSHA has now extended this policy indefinitely.
The policy is as follows: “for all joists at or near columns that span 60 feet or less,
employers will be considered to be in compliance with 1926.757(a)(3) if they erect these
joists either by: (1) installing bridging or otherwise stabilizing the joist prior to releasing
the hoisting cable, or (2) releasing the cable without having a worker on the joists.”

The SJI conducted extensive research to develop design methods to meet this original
OSHA provision for column joists (Emerson, 2001) (Ziemian et al, 2004). The research
was to produce procedures for SJI member companies to use in the design of column
joists. In attempting to develop these design procedures, it was necessary to make
assumptions regarding field conditions that could affect the strength of column joists. After
careful consideration of the wide range of variability in field conditions, the SJI member
companies determined that for some joist lengths there are no existing joist designs that

60
60
would provide the necessary stability (even with the vertical stabilizer plate). Therefore,
OSHA notwithstanding, the SJI cannot recommend that employees ever be allowed on
unbridged joists. SJI member companies warn erectors in various ways about erecting
unbridged joists. The danger tag shown in Figure 6.10 is a way to warn the steel erection
companies that the column joists or tie joists will not support the weight of an employee
unless the joist is properly stabilized and bridged.

If a column joist or tie joist spans more than 60 feet it needs to be set in tandem with an
adjacent joist with all bridging installed unless an alternative method of erection is used
that provides the same stability. This alternative method needs to have been designed by
a qualified person and be included in a site-specific erection plan (see OSHA 1926.752
site layout, site-specific erection plan and construction sequence). A site-specific erection
plan allows the employer to develop alternative means and methods that provide
employee protection equivalent to the provisions of the federal regulations.

Figure 6.9
Column Joist Being Connected

61
61
 Figure 6.10
Example of SJI Manufacturer's Column Joist Danger Tag

STANDING SEAM ROOFS

The designer of standing seam roof systems is responsible for informing the joist
manufacturer of the bridging requirements. This is true for both low and high slope roof
systems since this designer is the only one who knows the roof diaphragm strength and
stiffness. The erector must coordinate any additional bridging requirements with the joist
manufacturer.

TWO JOISTS BRACED BY EACH OTHER

Occasionally, a pair of joists are not braced by steel deck to provide lateral stability to joist
top chords. Additionally, the bridging lines cannot be anchored or terminated at the ends
to a beam or wall. In this case, the lateral bracing forces can be resisted in the horizontal
and vertical planes by providing an adequate bracing system in both directions. In the
horizontal plane, plan bracing takes the form of diagonal members, usually of angle and
channel sections, connecting the top chords and bottom chords to form horizontal trusses
when viewed in plan. Additionally, diagonal bridging lines are installed between the two
joists in the vertical plane. This makes the pair of joists possess adequate stiffness in
response to lateral movement.

62
62
FIELD MODIFICATIONS

Removing Bridging
The SJI frequently receives questions about removing bridging during or after the erection
process. Removing bridging refers to bridging being removed after the construction is
completed. Sometimes, bridging might conflict with other building components, such as
ESFR sprinkler systems, ductwork, or duct drops. After construction, engineers might find
that the joists are required to be reinforced for additional loads. In some cases, the
location of the bridging interferes with the necessary reinforcement of the joist members.

Bridging plays an important role in providing lateral stability during the erection process
and lateral stability for the bottom chord during wind uplift conditions. A typical bay can
consist of erection bridging, uplift bridging, and top and bottom horizontal bridging.

Joists generally have low flexural and torsional stiffness and will deflect out-of-plane
without the lateral stability provided by the bridging. In some cases, joists cannot support
their self-weight and construction loads without the lateral support bridging provides. With
the help of bridging, the load carrying capacity of the joists significantly increases.

The omission of all types of bridging is prohibited during the erection process. With no
bridging installed, under no circumstances should any construction loads be placed on
the joists, nor should a person try to sit, stand, or crawl onto a joist. Also, bridging terminus
points shall be established before the installation of bridging. It is a known fact that
unbridged joists are unstable and extreme caution should be used during the erection
process. All bridging must be properly installed according to the joist placement plan
designed by a qualified person.

Before further discussion, it is essential to understand that removing horizontal and

diagonal bridging has a distinct effect on the joist system. In some cases, the erection
bridging can be removed once the deck is in place and the building construction is
finished, since its purpose is to provide stability and safety during the erection process.
Generally, after it is installed, the deck provides the lateral restraint for the top chord. The
removal of the top chord bridging can be done after an analysis deems that the metal
deck alone provides the required lateral stability for the joist system. Where uplift force is
a design requirement, joists must have an additional row of uplift bridging near the first
bottom chord panel points. Removing this uplift bridging significantly reduces the bottom
chord and end web’s ability to resist lateral buckling due to uplift. Consult with the joist
manufacturer before removing any bridging.

When the roof deck does not provide sufficient lateral restraint to brace the joist top
chords, bridging plays a key role in providing the necessary lateral stability to resist out-
of-plane buckling. Examples of such roof systems include standing seam roofs and large
skylight openings. See SJI Specification Section 5.9.7 for more information.

63
63
Removal of Horizontal Bridging
Removal
Removal
Horizontal of Horizontal
must Bridging
of Horizontal
bridging beBridging
continuous and terminated properly. When ductwork, RTUs,
Horizontal
or Horizontal bridging
other equipment must
bridging be be
must continuous
interrupt continuous and
the continuous terminated
and terminated
horizontalproperly.
properly.When
bridging, When ductwork,
ductwork,
additional RTUs,
RTUs,
diagonal
or other
or equipment
other equipment interrupt
interruptthe continuous
the continuous horizontal
horizontal bridging,
bridging, additional
additional
bridging shall be installed in the joist space on each side to aid the overall stability of the diagonal
diagonal
bridging
joist shall
bridging
system. be be
shall
See installed
Figures in6.11,
installed the joist
in the space
joist
6.12, space
and onon
6.13 each
each
for side
sideto to
details. aid the
aid
Note theoverall
that stability
overall ofofthe
stability
diagonal bridging the
joist system.
joist system.See SeeFigures
Figures6.11, 6.12,
6.11, 6.12,and 6.13
and 6.13for details.
for details. Note
Notethat diagonal
that
cannot be removed in consecutive joist spaces, since it would result in an unbridged joist. diagonal bridging
bridging
cannot
cannotbe be
removed
removed in consecutive
in consecutive joist spaces,
joist spaces, since it would
since it would result inin
result anan
unbridged
unbridgedjoist.
joist.

Figure 6.11
Figure 6.11
Discontinuous Figure 6.11
Horizontal Bridging Detail
Discontinuous Horizontal Bridging Detail
Discontinuous Horizontal Bridging Detail

6464
64
64
Removal of Diagonal Bridging
The removal of diagonal bridging is permissible once a permanent means of stabilizing
the top chord is in place. Contrary to horizontal bridging, additional bridging is not typically
required following the removal of diagonal bridging. However, it is important to note that
diagonal bridging cannot be removed in consecutive joist spaces which would result in an
unbraced joist.

Figure 6.12
Removal of Diagonal Bridging to Allow Opening

Figure 6.13
Removal of Horizontal Bridging to Allow Opening

65
65
RemovalRemoval
of JoistofGirder
Joist Girder
BottomBottom
Chord Chord
BracesBraces
Girder Girder
bracesbraces
are members
are members
that join
that
thejoin
joist's
thetop
joist's
or bottom
top or bottom
chord tochord
the girder's
to the girder's
bottombottom
chord. chord.
Illustrated in Figure
Illustrated in Figure
6.14 are6.14
typical
are typical
bottombottom
chord braces
chord braces
for joistfor
girders.
joist girders.

Girder Girder
bracesbraces
are installed
are installed
as required
as required
at joist at
locations
joist locations
to provide
to provide
lateral lateral
supportsupport
to the to the
joist girder's
joist girder's
bottombottom
chord and
chord
to and
satisfy
to satisfy
all the all
strength
the strength
and slenderness
and slenderness
requirements
requirements
for the for
girder's
the girder's
bottombottom
chord specified
chord specified
in the SJI
in the
Specification.
SJI Specification.

Girder braces are alsoare

Girder braces known as bottom
also known chord bracing
as bottom chord bracing
or kneeorbracing.
knee bracing.
They are
They
essential
are essential
to reduce the slenderness
to reduce ratio ofratio
the slenderness girder
of bottom chordschords
girder bottom in tension.
in tension.
The quantity,
The quantity,
size, and
size, and
locationlocation
of the girder
of the braces
girder braces
are usually
are usually
provided
provided
by the by
joistthe
manufacturer.
joist manufacturer.

In the situation when girder

In the situation when braces are specified
girder braces only ononly
are specified oneonside
oneofsidethe girder
of the bottom
girder bottom
chord and they
chord andmust
theybemust
removed,
be removed,
a commona common
alternative
alternative
is to install
is to itinstall
on theit on
other
theside
other
of side of
the girder
the bottom chord. chord.
girder bottom If that is
If that
not possible,
is not possible,
analysis
analysis
shall beshall
done betodone
determine
to determine
new new
locations of girder
locations braces.braces.
of girder When When the girder bracesbraces
the girder are removed
are removed and the andabove
the above
alternatives cannotcannot
alternatives be achieved,
be achieved,
the girder
the bottom
girder bottom
chord must
chordbe must
reinforced
be reinforced
to meettothe
meet the
slenderness requirements.
slenderness requirements.

Figure 6.14
Figure 6.14
Girder Brace
Girder
toBrace
Joist Top
to Joist
ChordTop
orChord
Bottom
or Chord
Bottom Chord

66 66
66
 7
CHAPTER 7

7
CHAPTER
SPECIAL7PROFILE
SPECIAL
JOISTS PROFILE JOISTS
________________________________________________________________________________________________________

SPECIAL PROFILE JOISTS

Steel joist manufacturers frequently provide special profile joists when requested for various
architectural and economic reasons. Four of the most common profiles are shown here,
but many others are possible when slopes and non-symmetric variations are desired. Refer
to SJI Technical Digest 7 for more information on how to specify joists with these non-
standard shapes. See Figure 7.1.

GABLE SCISSOR

BOWSTRING ARCH

Figure 7.1
Special Profile Joists

It is imperative that the specifying professional and erectors understand that special profile
joists have special non-standard bridging requirements.

Indicated in the colored regions in the standard joist load tables are the minimum
requirements for erection bridging. The bridging equations in the SJI Specification are
based on research and testing of standard designation joists.

The erector must be aware that not only is special bridging to be considered, but that
different site-specific erection procedures may be necessary to comply with the mandatory
requirements of OSHA 29 CFR Part 1926, Safety Standards for Steel Erection, and more
specifically 29 CFR Part 1926.757, Open Web Steel Joists.

67

67
Erection stability of special profile joists is more critical than for standard joists because
Erection stability of special profile joists is more critical than for standard joists because
their center of gravity is typically above their bearing elevation as shown in Figure 7.2.
their center of gravity is typically above their bearing elevation as shown in Figure 7.2.
Unlike an unbridged underslung standard designation joist which tends to self-plumb, a
Unlike an unbridged underslung standard designation joist which tends to self-plumb, a
special profile joist has a higher degree of instability and tendency roll over.
special profile joist has a higher degree of instability and tendency roll over.

Figure 7.2
Figureof
Higher Degree 7.2
Instability
Higher Degree of Instability

To help ensure these joists remain stable during erection prior to deck installation, it may
To help ensure these joists remain stable during erection prior to deck installation, it may
be necessary to use both bolted horizontal and bolted diagonal bridging in the same joist
be necessary to use both bolted horizontal and bolted diagonal bridging in the same joist
spacing as shown in Figure 7.3. This also facilitates quicker stabilization by eliminating
spacing as shown in Figure 7.3. This also facilitates quicker stabilization by eliminating
having to thread horizontal bridging angles between the joist webs, measuring the location
having to thread horizontal bridging angles between the joist webs, measuring the location
along the span, and then welding.
along the span, and then welding.

Figure 7.3
Bolted DiagonalFigure 7.3
and Horizontal Bridging
Bolted Diagonal and Horizontal Bridging

This bridging scheme is mandatory when the joist spacing is less than 0.7 times the joist
This bridging scheme is mandatory when the joist spacing is less than 0.7 times the joist
depth at the location of a bridging row.
depth at the location of a bridging row.

68
68
68
Two-Piece Gable Profiles
Due to manufacturing, shipping, or job-site restrictions, some special profile joists consist
of multiple components that are field assembled to create a single joist as shown in Figure
7.4. The joist manufacturer considers the bridging requirements for each of the components
considering the lower components will be erected first and then the “top hat” component.
Since there is no metal deck on the flat portion of the bottom half top chord, the bridging for
the bottom half must be spaced to provide top chord lateral support. Diagrams or
instructions showing bridging locations will be shown on the joist erection drawings for the
erector. The steel erector must carefully plan their means and methods of erection to
ensure a safe, stable installation. Order of erection may be critical to ensure bridging is
appropriately terminated to laterally support the joists as they are erected.

Figure 7.4
Two-Piece Gable Joist

If the joist is in a vertical plane, the SJI bridging equations can generally be used as a basis
for required erection bridging spacing and size. If the bracing is intended to do more than
provide lateral support for the self-weight, the weight of erectors, deck, and bridging bundles,
etc., then the bracing and connections shall be designed by the specifying professional. Due
to the unique geometry of special profile joists, bolted diagonal bridging is often the preferred
bridging type rather than welded horizontal bridging. Welded horizontal bridging may be
provided for situations where there are shorter spans, lower centers of gravity, shallow
depths, and close joist spacing.

Terminating and Anchoring Special Profile Joist Bridging Forces

With the assistance of the joist manufacturer, the specifying professional can specify and
design the means of bridging termination. All rows of bridging must be anchored or
otherwise terminated.

If adjacent framing cannot provide sufficient anchorage, the joist manufacturer can provide
a terminus by providing additional bridging between the first and second joist. This may
also require horizontal trusses or temporary cable bracing to prevent potential lateral
displacement in certain scenarios.

69
69
 8
CHAPTER 8

8
CHAPTER 8 OF
SUMMARY
SUMMARY OF
BRIDGING RESEARCH
BRIDGING RESEARCH
________________________________________________________________________________________________________

This section documents the origin of the various bracing provisions in the SJI Specification
and the Code of Standard Practice for K, LH, DLH, and CJ-Series joists. Many of the early
bridging requirements were based on the recommendations and calculations by Dr.
Galambos, Emeritus Professor, University of Minnesota.

RESEARCH DOCUMENTS AND PAPERS

1. The SJI bridging requirements are based on bracing developed by George Winter,
(Winter, 1960) which can be found in several textbooks (Salmon and Johnson 1996)
and currently found in the AISC Specification (AISC, 2022). The equations are a
function of the initial assumed out-of-straightness of the member being braced. The
AISC equations are based on an out-of-straightness of L/500, whereas the SJI uses
an out-of-straightness of L/920.

2. Galambos suggested in his 1993 paper, “Bracing of Trussed Beams”, that L/920 is
used as the joist out-of-straightness. Galambos also suggests that for construction
bridging calculations that the total number of joists considered as out of straight is
eight, and that the braces act in both tension and compression and must be
anchored at both ends. This recommendation permits the brace forces to be divided
by a factor of two. His rational for using eight joists is that construction loads tend to
be localized, and due to the probability, that not all joists in each bay would exhibit
the maximum out-of-straightness at any given time.
Galambos also recommended that for construction loads (bridging requirement), the
stress in the compressive chord for K-Series joists is assumed to be 17 ksi, and for
LH and DLH-Series joists it is assumed to be 12 ksi. These are peak or maximum
stresses, not allowable stresses.

3. The required bridging strength for joists supporting standing seam roofs is given in
SJI Specification Section 5.9.7 (SJI, 2020a). Horizontal bridging forces are
determined from the 0.0025nP equation, and the attachment of the bridging is
determined from 0.005P. To determine the maximum spacing of the bridging, one
calculates the maximum unbraced length of the chord for the chord force imposed
by the loading. An effective slenderness of 0.94L/ry is given in Section 5.8 (g) (SJI,
2020a). The effective length factor of 0.94 was calculated by Galambos based on
the variation of load in the top chord (Galambos, 1987).
70

70
4. Diagonal erection bridging requirements are determined using the Minkoff
equation (Minkoff, 1975). The equation is solved for the critical length of the joist
for the weight of a steel erector.

5. Bridging requirements for composite joists are presented by Galambos

(Galambos, 2001).

The paper addresses:

• The stability of joists under self-weight
• The stability of joists under self-weight and the weight of an erector
• The stability of joists under the weight of decking and workers
• The stability of non-composite joists under construction loads.

6. Computational studies also aimed at defining bridging requirements for steel joists
are published in the Proceedings of the Annual Stability Conference Structural
Stability Research Council in Grapevine, Texas (J.R. Eberle, R.D. Ziemian, D.R.
Potts, 2012). Computational models of systems of one to ten parallel joists with
intermittent out-of-plane bracing were investigated. Studies were conducted to
evaluate several modes of initial imperfections, load types (including gravity and
uplift conditions), bridging types (including horizontal and diagonal bracing), and
bridging support conditions. The paper provides an overview of the research and
provides several conclusions for defining erection bridging requirements contained
in the SJI Specification.

Summary for Joists with Gravity Loading

1. Force continues to accumulate in bracing, approximately linearly.
2. Reverse curvature is the worst-case initial imperfection.
3. Attaching top chord bridging at both ends results in:
a. Reduction in ideal brace stiffness.
b. Reduction in brace force (by an approximate factor of 2).
4. As bracing stiffness increases, the bracing force decreases.
5. A larger initial imperfection provides a larger bracing force.
6. The relationship between applied load and brace force is not linear.
7. Bracing forces continue to accumulate as joists are added in parallel.
8. Reducing the applied load results in a linear reduction in bracing forces.
9. Reducing the initial imperfection magnitude results in a linear reduction in
bracing forces.
10. By inducing an initial imperfection in only 4 joists, the bracing forces are
reduced to 40% of the original forces.
11. For diagonal bracing on a system of joists:
a. Providing anchorage reduces the bracing forces.
b. Bridging forces accumulate only slightly due to much of the forces
being carried out of the system through the joists.
c. Significantly larger bracing forces are observed when only tension
bracing is assumed to be engaged.

71
71
Summary for Joists with Uplift Loading
1. Reverse curvature provides a worse case for uplift loading.
2. Bridging forces accumulate like gravity loading conditions and are reduced
by approximately 50% when employing tension/compression fixities.
3. Impact of decking:
a. As flexural decking stiffness is increased, the elastic critical load of
the system also increases (17-32%) to a point of diminishing returns.
b. The ideal bracing stiffness of a system of joists can be significantly
reduced (75-95%) by the addition of flexural decking stiffness.
c. Bracing forces are reduced (2-10%) as the flexural stiffness of the
decking is increased.

72
72
 9
9
CHAPTER
CHAPTER 9
EXAMPLES
EXAMPLES
9

________________________________________________________________________________________________________

MINKOFF EQUATION

For a 32LH10 with Span = 50’-0”, ry =1.45 in.

The required number of bridging rows is given in Table 5.5-1

For LH10 with Joist Span > 28 to 54 ft nrows = 2

Per Spec. 5.5.3.1, the maximum spacing of bridging lines Lbridg shall be the lesser of:

 dj 
Lbridg1 :=  124+0.67d j +28  ry =236 in (Eq. 5.5-2a)
 L 

Lbridg2 := 170ry =247 in (Eq. 5.5-3)

Lbridg1 := min ( Lbridg1 , Lbridg2 ) =236 in

Span
Bridging Spacing = Lbridg_spag := = 200 in
nrows + 1

CheckLimit ( Lbridg_spag Lbrdg_gov ) := "OK"

Therefore, the assumed chords are sa�sfactory with maximum bridging spacing of 19’-10” (238”)

Check if bolted-X Erec�on Bridging is required per Spec. Sec�on 5.5.2.1:

L =Span = 600 in. P = 300 lbf G = 0.385*E YSteel = 489.6 lbf/ft3

k =0.85 Atc=2.93 in2 Abc = 2.38 in3 de = 30.54 in

73

73
St. Venant torsion constant:

Distance from centroid of top chord to centroid

of joist cross section:

Joist Moment of Inertia about Y-axis:

Calculate y-axis Moment of Inertia for top and bottom chord:

Note: Manufacturer may use actual chord gap.

Joist Moment of Inertia about X-axis:

Distance from joist centroid to shear center:

Warping Constant:

Cross Sectional Parameter:

Vertical location of load P from shear center

(locate at joist center of gravity):

74

74
 SJI Eq. (5.5-1)

For the example, 20% is added to account for the weight of the webs. Designs should use the
actual joist weight.

75
75
EXAMPLE:
EXAMPLE:
K-SERIES
K-SERIES
JOIST
JOIST
WITH
WITH
STANDING
STANDING
SEAM
SEAM
ROOF
ROOF
Standing
Standing
seamseam
roofsroofs
cannot
cannot
be counted
be counted
on toonprovide
to provide
lateral
lateral
stability
stability
to thetojoists
the joists
whichwhich
support
support
the roof.
the roof.
Sufficient
Sufficient
bridging
bridging
mustmust
be provided
be provided
to brace
to brace
the joist
the laterally
joist laterally
underunder
the full
thedesign
full design
load.load.
The example
The example
covers:
covers:
1. Designing bridging
1. Designing spacing
bridging for a for
spacing given top chord
a given size size
top chord
2. Effect of varying
2. Effect the top
of varying thechord size on
top chord sizethe
onbridging spacing
the bridging spacing
3. Design of horizontal
3. Design bridging
of horizontal bridging
4. Design of Bridging
4. Design in anchorage
of Bridging bay using
in anchorage a baya of
bay using baydiagonal bridging
of diagonal bridging
5. Lateral
5. Lateral
stability
stability
bridging
bridging
duringduring
erection
erection

The joist
The configuration
joist configuration
is shown in Figure
is shown in Figure
1: 1: 26KSP243/150
26KSP243/150
@ 40'-0"
@ 40'-0"
spanspan

Figure 1
Figure
Figure
1 1

Given:
Given:
YieldYield
Stress:
Stress: Modulus
Modulus
of Elasticity:
of Elasticity:

Required
Required
total total
allowable
allowable
uniform
uniform
load:load:

Required
Required
live allowable
live allowable
uniform
uniform
load:load:

TotalTotal
depthdepth
of joist:
of joist: Joist Joist
Span: Span:

Joist Joist
Spacing
Spacing

Design
Design
Length:
Length: L = Span
L = Span
- 4 in- 4 in

Check
Check
[Span/Depth]
[Span/Depth]
RatioRatio
- SJI -Spec
SJI Spec
5.2 5.2

Joist Joist
PanelPanel
Lengths:
Lengths: First First
End Panel
End Panel
Length:
Length:

Second
Second
End Panel
End Panel
Length:
Length:
Interior
Interior
PanelPanel
Length:
Length:
76 76
76
 1. Design of Chords:
1. Design of Chords:
Assume Top and Bottom Chord Sizes:
Assume Top and Bottom Chord Sizes:

Top Chord: 2 - L1½ x 1½ x 0.163 Bottom Chord : 2 - L1½ x 1½ x 0.145

Top Chord: 2 - L1½ x 1½ x 0.163 Bottom Chord : 2 - L1½ x 1½ x 0.145

Effective depth:
Effective depth:

Gap between chord angles:

Gap between chord angles:

Calculate y-axis Moment of Inertia for top and bottom chord:

Calculate y-axis Moment of Inertia for top and bottom chord:

Maximum design Moment: in-kip

Maximum design Moment: in-kip

Chord Force in Center Panel:

Chord Force in Center Panel:
Check Top Chord (Compression):
Check Top Chord (Compression):
Safety Factor:
Safety Factor:
Note: Specification Section 4.2.3.2, Eq 4.2-4 uses Allowable Stress = 0.6Fcr i.e., 1/Ωc = 0.6.
Note: Specification Section 4.2.3.2, Eq 4.2-4 uses Allowable Stress = 0.6Fcr i.e., 1/Ωc = 0.6.
Reduction Factor for unstiffened elements in single angle, Q: AISC Spec E7.1(c)
Reduction Factor for unstiffened elements in single angle, Q: AISC Spec E7.1(c)

77
77
77
Check Top Chord Interior Panels
Check Top Chord Interior Panels
Axial stress:
Axial stress: (For purposes of this analysis the interior panel is considered to be a
Calculate bending stresses: fixed-fixed
(For beam.
purposes A analysis
of this more rigorous analysis
the interior panel ismay be performed
considered to be a
Calculate bending stresses: considering the top A
fixed-fixed beam. chord to be
more a continuous
rigorous member/
analysis may bebeam subject
performed
to combinedthe
considering axial
topand bending
chord to be stresses per SJI
a continuous Spec 4.4.1.)
member/ beam subject
to combined axial and bending stresses per SJI Spec 4.4.1.)
At Panel Point In Panel
At Panel Point In Panel

in-kips
in-kips
in-kips
in-kips

Bridging must be provided to brace the joist laterally under the full design load. Out-of-plane strength may
be achieved
Bridging mustbybeadjusting
providedthe
to bridging
brace thespacing and/orunder
joist laterally increasing the
the full compression
design chord area,strength
load. Out-of-plane joist depth,
may
andachieved
be the y-axis byradius of gyration.:
adjusting the bridging spacing and/or increasing the compression chord area, joist depth,
and the y-axis radius of gyration.:
Assume maximum bridging spacing
Assume maximum bridging spacing
Add fillers at the mid-panel of the top chord center panels
Add fillers at the mid-panel of the top chord center panels
Check slenderness ratio per SJI Table 4.3-1 Part I.A with fillers
Check slenderness ratio per SJI Table 4.3-1 Part I.A with fillers

SJI Table 4.3-1 Part I.A

SJI Table 4.3-1 Part I.A
78
78
78
Calculate Allowable Stress: "k" values for calculation of Fcr per Table 4.3-1 Part I.B.1 w/ filler

"k" value for calculation of effective slenderness ratio for Fe for bending from Table 4.3-1 Part I.C

Maximum slenderness ratio:

Critical Stress:

Check Top Chord Center Panel for Combined Axial and Bending: SJI Eqs. 4.4-9 & 4.4-10

79
79
Check Top Chord Panel Point for Combined Axial and Bending: SJI Eq. 4.4-8

Required Bridging Spacing in

Number of horizontal bridging

lines
Note: Unequal bridging spacing may be used with wider spacing at the ends of the joists and narrower
spacing near mid-span, to reduce the number of total bridging rows and maximize the efficiency of chord
size to number of bridging rows.

2. Effect of Varying Top Chord Size on Bridging Spacing:

Assume Top and Bottom Chord Sizes:

Top Chord: 2 - L1 3/4 x 1 3/4 x 0.155 Bottom Chord : 2 - L1½ x 1½ x 0.145

Effective depth:

Calculate y-axis Moment of Inertia for top and bottom chord:

Chord Force in Center Panel:

80
80
Check Top Chord (Compression):
Reduction Factor for unstiffened elements in single angle, Q: AISC Spec E7.1(c)

Check Top Chord Interior Panels

Axial stress:

Calculate bending stresses: (For purposes of this analysis the interior panel is considered to be a fixed-
fixed beam. A more rigorous analysis may be performed considering the
top chord to be a continuous member/ beam subject to combined axial and
bending stresses per SJI Spec 4.4.1.
At Panel Point In Panel

in-kips in-kips

Assume fillers at the mid-panel of the top chord center panels

Assume maximum bridging spacing

Check slenderness ratio per SJI Table 4.3-1 Part I.A with fillers

81

81
Calculate Allowable Stress: "k" values for calculation of Fcr per Table 4.3-1 Part I.B.1 w/ filler

"k" value for calculation of effective slenderness ratio for Fe for bending from Table
4.3-1 Part I.C

Maximum slenderness ratio:

Critical Stress:

Check Top Chord Center Panel for Combined Axial and Bending: SJI Eqs. 4.4-9 & 4.4-10

82

82
Check Top Chord Panel Point for Combined Axial and Bending: SJI Eq. 4.4-8

Required Bridging Spacing in

Number of horizontal bridging lines:

Summary
Top Chord Required Bridging Spacing Number of Bridging Lines

1 1/2 x 1 1/2 x 0.163

1 3/4 x 1 3/4 x 0.155

3. Design of Horizontal Bridging in Anchorage Bay

Shown in Figure 2, the horizontal and diagonal bridging in an anchorage bay

Figure 2

For horizontal bridging

Number of joists between end anchors or anchorage bay

83

83
Size of horizontal bridging 1L 1 1/2 x 1 1/2 x 0.109
Size of horizontal bridging 1L 1 1/2 x 1 1/2 x 0.109

Elastic Buckling Stress:

Elastic Buckling Stress:

Allowable force in horizontal bridging:

Allowable force in horizontal bridging:

4. Design of Bridging in Anchorage Bay:

4.
UseDesign
a bay of of Bridging
diagonal in at
bridging Anchorage
each end of Bay: lines of joist
Use a bay of diagonal bridging at each end of lines of joist
Diagonal bridging acts in tension if horizontal bridging is continued over the anchorage bay. Assume that
Diagonal bridging
the diagonal actsmembers
bridging in tensionare
if horizontal
connectedbridging
at their is continued over the anchorage bay. Assume that
intersection.
the diagonal bridging members are connected at their intersection.
Length of unsupported diagonal bridging segment
Length of unsupported diagonal bridging segment

Try 1L 1 x 1 x0.109
Try 1L 1 x 1 x0.109
Note: one must also count the forces in the two joists of the anchor bay joists
Note: one must also count the forces in the two joists of the anchor bay joists

84
84

84
Force in diagonal
Force in diagonal

Allowable force kip

Allowable force kip

5. Lateral Stability of Joist During Erection:

5. Lateral Stability of Joist During Erection:
The required number of bridging rows is given in Table 5.5-1
The required number of bridging rows is given in Table 5.5-1
For 26K6 w/ Joist Span > 28 to 41 feet
For 26K6 w/ Joist Span > 28 to 41 feet

Max Bridging Spacing:

Max Bridging Spacing:

Per Spec. 5.5.3, the maximum spacing of bridging lines Lb-max shall be the lesser of:
Per Spec. 5.5.3, the maximum spacing of bridging lines Lb-max shall be the lesser of:

[EQ 5.5-2a]
[EQ 5.5-2a]

[EQ 5.5-3]
[EQ 5.5-3]

Bridging Spacing
Bridging Spacing

Note: Unequal bridging spacing may be used with wider spacing at the ends of the joists and narrower
spacing near mid-span,
Note: Unequal to reduce
bridging spacing thebe
may number of total
used with bridging
wider rows
spacing andends
at the maximize
of thethe efficiency
joists of chord
and narrower
size to number of bridging rows.
spacing near mid-span, to reduce the number of total bridging rows and maximize the efficiency of chord
size to number of bridging rows.
85
85
85
TILTED
TILTED (CANTED)
(CANTED) JOISTS
JOISTS
TILTED (CANTED) JOISTS
TILTED (CANTED) JOISTS
TILTED (CANTED) JOISTS
Example: Determine
Example: Determine the
the bridging
bridging forces
forces for
for the
the canted
canted joists
joists shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure 9.3.
9.3.
Example: Determine the bridging forces for the canted joists shown in Figure 9.3.
Example: Determine
Example: Determine the
the bridging
bridging forces
forces for
for the
the canted
canted joists
joists shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure 9.3.
9.3.

Figure
Figure 9.3
9.3
Figure
Tilted
Tilted 9.3
Joists
Joists
Figure
Figure 9.3
9.3
Tilted Joists
Tilted Joists
Tilted Joists
Given:
Given: Twenty
Twenty 30K12
30K12 K-series
K-series joists
joists spaced
spaced 55 feet
feet apart,
apart, span
span equal
equal to
to 50
50 feet,
feet, and
and
Given: Twenty
perpendicular to30K12
a 4 onK-series
12 roof joists
slope. spaced 5 feet apart, span equal to 50 feet, and
Given:
Given: Twenty
perpendicular
Twenty to30K12
a 4
30K12 onK-series
12 roof
K-series joists
slope.
joists spaced
spaced 5
5 feet
feet apart,
apart, span
span equal
equal to
to 50
50 feet,
feet, and
and
perpendicular to a 4 on 12 roof slope.
perpendicular to a 4 on 12 roof slope.
perpendicular to a 4 on 12 roof slope. Roof slope:
Roof slope:
Roof slope:
Roof
Roof slope:
slope:
Self-Weight
Self-Weight of
of a
a 30K12
30K12 joist
joist from
from SJI
SJI load
load tables.
tables.
Self-Weight of a 30K12 joist from SJI load tables.
Self-Weight
Self-Weight of
of a
a 30K12
30K12 joist
joist from
from SJI
SJI load
load tables.
tables.
From
From the
the Bridging
Bridging Tables,
Tables, 3
3 rows
rows of
of bridging
bridging are
are required.
required.
From the Bridging Tables, 3 rows of bridging are required.
From
From the Bridging Tables, 3 rows of bridging are required.
the Bridging Tables, 3 rows of bridging are required.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Tributary
Tributary length
length for
for each
each row
row of
of bridging.
bridging.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Tributary length for each row of bridging.
Tributary
Tributary length
length for
for each
each row
row of
of bridging.
bridging.

Vertical
Vertical dead
dead load
load tributary
tributary to
to each
each bridging
bridging line:
line:
Vertical dead load tributary to each bridging line:
Vertical
Vertical dead load tributary to each bridging line:
dead load tributary to each bridging line:
Down
Down slope
slope force
force per
per joist
joist at
at each
each bridging
bridging line:
line:
Down
Note: slope force
Divide by 2 pertop
for joistand
at each bridging
bottom chord line:
rows.
Down
Note:
Down slope
Divide
slope force
by 2
force per
for
per joist
top at
and
joist at each bridging
bottom
each chord
bridging line:
rows.
line:
Note: Divide by 2 for top and bottom chord rows.
Note: Divide by 2 for top and bottom chord rows.
Note: Divide by 2 for top and bottom chord rows.

Solution:
Solution: Looking
Looking only
only at
at the
the joist
joist self-weight,
self-weight, the
the bridging
bridging would
would need
need toto handle
handle 593lbs
593lbs of
of
Solution:
force. If Looking
additional only
loading at the
is joist
present, self-weight,
then this the
would bridging
need would
to be need
accountedto handle
for 593lbs
when of
Solution:
force. If
Solution: Looking
additional only
loading
Lookingloading at the
is joist
present,
only at isthe self-weight,
then this
joist self-weight, the
would bridging
need
the bridging would
to be
would need
accountedto handle
for
need to handle 593lbs
593lbs of
when of
force. If additional
determining bridging forces. present, then this would need to be accounted for when
force.
force. If
If additional
determining loading
bridging
additional forces.
loading is
is present,
present, then
then this
this would
would need
need to
to be
be accounted
accounted for
for when
when
determining bridging forces.
determining
Unless bridging
directed forces.
otherwise,
forces.the
determining bridging
Unless directed otherwise, the joist
joist manufacturer
manufacturer will
will only
only provide
provide bridging
bridging based
based upon
upon the
the
Unless
values ondirected
table otherwise,
5.5-2. In thisthe joist
case ofmanufacturer
the 30K12 atwill only
50'-0", provide
table bridging
5.5-2 calls based
for the upon the
bridging
Unless
values
Unless ondirected
table
directed otherwise,
5.5-2. In
otherwise, thisthe
the joist
case of
joist manufacturer
the 30K12
manufacturer atwill only
50'-0",
will only provide
table bridging
5.5-2
provide calls
bridging based
for the
based upon the
bridging
upon the
values on table 5.5-2. In this case of the 30K12 at 50'-0", table 5.5-2 calls for the bridging
values
to have
values
to on
haveon a table 5.5-2.
a capacity
capacity
table 5.5-2.
of In this
of 560lbs.
560lbs. case of the
Note:ofThe
In this case
Note: The 30K12 at
connection
theconnection 50'-0", table
designtable
30K12 at 50'-0",
design 5.5-2
will have
will have
5.5-2a calls for
acalls for the bridging
determined by
the bridging
determined by
to
SJIhave a capacity
Specification of 560lbs.
Equation Note:
5.5-4 but The
not connection
less than design will have a determined by
to
SJIhave
to have a
a capacity
Specification of 560lbs.
Equation
capacity of 560lbs. Note:
5.5-4 butThe
Note: The than 700
not connection
less86
86
connection 700 pounds.
design will
pounds.
design will have
have a
a determined
determined by
by
SJI Specification Equation 5.5-4 but not less than
86 700 pounds.
SJI Specification Equation 5.5-4 but not
SJI Specification Equation 5.5-4 but not less86 less than
than 700
700 pounds.
pounds.
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 10
10
CHAPTER
CHAPTER 1010
REFERENCES
REFERENCES
________________________________________________________________________________________________________

REFERENCES

AISC (2022), ANSI/AISC 360-22, “Specification for Structural Steel Buildings”, American
Institute of Steel Construction, Chicago, IL.

AISI (2022), AISI S100-16 (2020) w/S3-22, “North American Specification for the Design
of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members,” American Iron and Steel Institute,
Washington, D.C.

Chen, S. and Tong, G. (1994), “Design for Stability: Correct Use of Braces,” Steel
Structures, Journal of the Singapore Structural Steel Society, SSSS, Vol. 5, No. 1,
December, pp. 15-23.

CSA (2012), CAN/CSA-S136, “North American Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed
Steel Structural Members”, Canadian Standards Association, Rexdale, Ontario, Canada.

CSA (2014), CSA S16-14, “Design of Steel Structures”, Canadian Standards Association,
Rexdale, Ontario, Canada.

Emerson, M. R., (2001), “Stability of Unbraced Steel Joists Subject to Mid-span Loading”,
A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of Bucknell University in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in Civil Engineering, Lewisburg, PA.

Galambos, T. (1993), “Bracing of Trussed Beams”, Structural Stability Research Council,

1993 Conference, Milwaukee, WI.

Hodge, P. T. and Galambos, T. V. (1986), “A theoretical study of the lateral performance

of steel joists when restrained by bridging and standing seam deck,” In Partial Fulfillment
of a Master of Science in Civil Engineering at the University of Minnesota, MN.

Minkoff, R. M. (1975), "Stability of Steel Joists During Erection”, Research Report No. 39,
Washington University.

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OSHA (2001), Federal Register, Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health
Administration, 29 CFR Part 1926 Safety Standards for Steel Erection; Final Rule,
§1926.757 Open Web Steel Joists, Washington, DC.

SJI (2008), Technical Digest 9, “Handling and Erection of Steel Joists and Joist Girders”,
Steel Joist Institute, Florence, SC.

SJI (2015), “Standard Specification for CJ-Series Composite Steel Joists”, Steel Joist
Institute, Florence, SC.

SJI (2020a), “Standard Specification for K-Series, LH-Series, and DLH-Series Open Web
Steel Joists and for Joist Girders,” Steel Joist Institute, Florence, SC.

SJI (2020b), “Code of Standard Practice for Steel Joists and Joist Girders,” Steel Joist
Institute, Florence, SC.

SJI (2021), Technical Digest 7, “Special Profile Steel Joists and Joist Girders”, Steel Joist
Institute, Florence, SC.

Winter, G. (1958), “Lateral Bracing of Columns and Beams,” Journal of the Structural
Division, Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Volume 84, Issue 2.

Winter, G. (1960), “Lateral Bracing of Columns and Beams,” Transactions of the

American Society of Civil Engineers, Volume 125, Part 1.

Ziemian, R. D., Schwarz, J. E., Emerson, M. R., and Potts, D. R. (2004), “Stability of
Unbraced Steel Joists Subject to Mid-span Loading.” 2004 Annual Stability Conference,
Structural Stability Research Council, Long Beach, CA.

Ziemian, R.D. (2016), "Bridging for Open Web Steel Joists”, Webinar provided to the Steel
Joist Institute, Florence, SC.

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