Springs

32
Mechanical springs may be defined as elastic bodies the primary function of which is
to deform under a load and return to their original shape when the load is removed. In
practice, the vast majority of springs are made of metal, and of these the greatest pro-
portion are of plain-carbon steel.

Plain-carbon steels
These steels have a carbon-content ranging from about 0.5% to 1.1%. In general it may
be taken that, the higher the carbon-content, the better the spring properties that may be
obtained.
In the manufacture of flat springs and the heavier coil springs, it is usual to form the
spring from annealed material and subsequently to heat treat it. However, it is some-
times possible to manufacture flat springs from material which is already in the hard-
ened and tempered condition, and this latter technique may give a lower production
cost than the former.
For light coil springs, the material loosely known as piano wire is used; this is a
spring wire which obtains its physical properties from cold-working, and not from
heat treatment. Springs made from this wire require only a low-temperature stress-
relieving treatment after manufacture. Occasionally wire known as oil-tempered is
used e this is a wire which is hardened and tempered in the coil form, and again re-
quires only a low-temperature stress relief after forming.
Plain-carbon steel springs are satisfactory in operation up to a temperature of about
180  C. Above this temperature they are very liable to take a permanent set, and alter-
native materials should be used.

Alloy steels
Alloy steels are essentially plain-carbon steels to which small percentages of alloying
elements such as chromium and vanadium have been added. The effect of these addi-
tional elements is to modify considerably the steels’ properties and to make them more
suitable for specific applications than are the plain-carbon steels. The two widely used
alloy steels are:
(a) chromiumevanadium steel e this steel has less tendency to set than the plain-carbon steels;
(b) siliconemanganese steel e a cheaper and rather more easily available material than
chromeevanadium steel, though the physical properties of the two steels are almost
equivalent.

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446 Manual of Engineering Drawing

Stainless steels
Where high resistance to corrosion is required, one of the stainless steels should be
specified. These fall into two categories:
(a) Martensitic. These steels are mainly used for flat springs with sharp bends. They are formed
in the soft condition and then heat treated.
(b) Austenitic. These steels are cold-worked for the manufacture of coil springs and flat springs,
with no severe forming operations.
Both materials are used in service up to about 235  C.

High-nickel alloys
Alloys of this type find their greatest applications in high-temperature operation. The
two most widely used alloys are:
(a) Inconel e a nickelechromeeiron alloy for use up to about 320  C.
(b) Nimonic 90 e a nickelechromiumecobalt alloy for service up to about 400  C, or at
reduced stresses to about 590  C.

Both of these materials are highly resistant to corrosion.

Copper-base alloys
With their high copper-content, these materials have good electrical conductivity and
resistance to corrosion. These properties make them very suitable for such purposes as
switch-blades in electrical equipment.
(a) Brass e an alloy containing zinc, roughly 30%, and the remainder copper. A cold-worked
material obtainable in both wire and strip form, and which is suitable only for lightly
stressed springs.
(b) Phosphor bronze e the most widely used copper-base spring material, with applications the
same as those of brass, though considerably higher stresses may be used.
(c) Beryllium copper e this alloy responds to a precipitation heat treatment, and is suitable for
springs which contain sharp bends. Working stresses may be higher than those used for
phosphor bronze and brass.

Compression springs
Fig. 32.1 shows two alternative types of compression springs for which drawing con-
ventions are used. Note that the convention in each case is to draw the first and last two
turns of the spring and to then link the space in between with a long dashed dotted nar-
row line. The simplified representation shows the coils of the springs drawn as single
lines.
Springs 447

(A) (D)

(B) (E)

φ φ

(C) (F)
Fig. 32.1 (A) Conical compression springs with ground ends, (B) section convention,
(C) simplified representation, (D) cylindrical compression spring with ground ends, (E) section
convention and (F) simplified representation.

Note: If a rectangular section compression spring is required to be drawn then the

appropriate shape will appear in view (E), view (D) will be modified with square cor-
ners and the Ø symbol in view (F) will be replaced by ,.
A schematic drawing of a helical spring is shown in Fig. 32.2. This type of illustra-
tion can be used as a working drawing in order to save draughting time, with the appro-
priate dimensions and details added.
448 Manual of Engineering Drawing

Type of end No. of coils Dia. of wire

finish

Outside dia.
Pitch

Free length

Fig. 32.2 Schematic drawing of helical spring.

Fig. 32.3 shows four of the most popular end formations used on compression
springs. When possible, grinding should be avoided, as it considerably increases
spring costs.

(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)
Fig. 32.3 (A) Closed ends, ground, (B) closed ends, (C) open ends, ground and (D) open ends.

Fig. 32.4 shows a selection of compression springs, including valve springs for
diesel engines and injection pumps.
Springs 449

Fig. 32.4 Compression springs.

Flat springs
Fig. 32.5 shows a selection of flat springs, circlips, and spring pressings. It will be
apparent from the selection that it would be difficult, if not impossible, to devise a
drawing standard to cover this type of spring, and at present none exists.
Flat springs are usually made from high-carbon steel in the annealed condition, and
are subsequently heat treated; but the simpler types without bends can frequently be

Fig. 32.5 Flat Springs, circlips and spring pressings.

450 Manual of Engineering Drawing

made more economically from material pre-hardened and tempered to the finished
hardness required. Stainless steels are used for springs where considerable forming
has to be done. For improved corrosion-resistance, 18/8 stainless steel is recommen-
ded; but, since its spring temper is obtained only by cold-rolling, severe bends are
impossible. Similar considerations apply to phosphor bronze, titanium, and brass,
which are hardened by cold-rolling. Beryllium copper, being thermally hardenable,
is a useful material as it can be readily formed in the solution-annealed state.
Fig. 32.6 shows a selection of flat spiral springs, frequently used for brush mecha-
nisms, and also for clocks and motors. The spring consists of a strip of steel spirally
wound and capable of storing energy in the form of torque.

Fig. 32.6 Flat spiral springs.

The standard for spiral springs is illustrated in Fig. 32.7; parts (A) and (B) show
how the spring is represented in conventional and simplified forms.
If the spring is close wound and fitted in a housing then the illustrations in (C) and
(D) are applicable.

(A) (B)

(C) (D)
Fig. 32.7 Spiral springs conventional form (A & C) and simplified form (B & D).
Springs 451

Torsion springs
Various forms of single and double torsion springs are illustrated in Fig. 32.8.

Fig. 32.8 Single and double torsion springs.

Fig. 32.9 gives a schematic diagram for a torsion spring. This type of drawing,
adequately dimensioned, can be used for detailing.

Length
L

No. of coils and

dia. of wire Angle
Outside dia.

Fig. 32.9 Schematic drawing of a torsion spring.

The drawing conventions for a cylindrical right-hand helical torsion spring are
shown in Fig. 32.10. Part (A) shows the usual drawing convention, part
(B) illustrates how to show the spring in a section and part (C) gives the simplified
representation.
452 Manual of Engineering Drawing

(B)

(A) (C)
Fig. 32.10 Drawing conventions of a torsion spring.

Although torsion springs are available in many different forms, this is the only type
to be represented in engineering-drawing Standards. Torsion springs may be wound
from square-, rectangular-, or round-section bar. They are used to exert a pressure
in a circular arc, for example in a spring hinge and in door locks. The ends of the
wire in the spring may be straight, curved, or kinked.

Leaf springs
The two Standards applicable to leaf springs are shown in Fig. 32.11. These springs are
essentially strips of flat metal formed in an elliptical arc and suitably tempered. They
absorb and release energy, and are commonly found applied to suspension systems.

(A) (B)

(C) (D)
Fig. 32.11 (A and B) Conventional and simplified representations for a semi-elliptic leaf spring, (C
and D) conventional and simplified representations for a semi-elliptic leaf spring with fixing eyes.

Helical extension springs

A helical extension spring is a spring which offers resistance to extension. Almost
invariably they are made from circular-section wire, and a typical selection is illus-
trated in Fig. 32.12.
The conventional representations of tension springs are shown in Fig. 32.13 and a
schematic drawing for detailing is shown in Fig. 32.14.
Springs 453

Fig. 32.12 Helical extension springs.

Fig. 32.13 Simplified, section and conventional representation of a tension spring.

Free length
Dia. of wire
Outside dia.

Pitch No. of coils

Overall length

Fig. 32.14 Schematic drawing of tension spring.

454 Manual of Engineering Drawing

Coils of extension springs differ from those of compression springs in so far as they
are wound so close together that a force is required to pull them apart. A variety of end
loops are available for tension springs, and some of the types are illustrated in
Fig. 32.15.

Full eye Half eye Extended reduced eye

Extended full hook Full double eye V-hook

Coned end, Plain end, screw Coned end,

reduced hook hook swivel bolt

Coned end, extended Square hook Full hook

swivel hook
Fig. 32.15 Types of end loops.

A common way of reducing the stress in the end loop is to reduce the moment
acting on it by making the end loop smaller than the body of the spring, as shown
in Fig. 32.16.
Springs 455

Fig. 32.16 Smaller loop end.

Disc springs
For bolted connections a very simple form of compression spring utilizes a hollow
washer manufactured from spring steel, although other materials can be specified.
Table 32.1 shows a selection of Belleville washers manufactured to DIN 6796 from
spring steel to DIN 17222.
If the disc has its top and bottom surfaces ground to approximately 95% of the
appropriate thickness given in Table 32.1 then bearing surfaces will be formed. These
surfaces improve guidance where several discs are used together. Fig. 32.17 shows the
disc spring with flats.
A disc spring stack with six springs in single series is given in Fig. 32.18. In this
arrangement six times the number of individual spring deflections are available. The
force available in the assembly is equivalent to that of a single disc spring. In single
series, concave and convex surfaces are opposed alternatively.
Fig. 32.19 shows three disc springs assembled in parallel with the convex surface
nesting into the concave surface. Here the deflection available is equivalent to that of a
single spring and the force is equal to three times that of an individual disc.
The methods of assembly illustrated in Figs. 32.18 and 32.19 can be combined to
give many alternative selections of force and deflection characteristics. In the stack
given in Fig. 32.20 there are four disc spring components assembled in series and
they each contain two disc springs assembled in parallel. This combination will give
a force equal to twice that of an individual disc and a deflection of four times that
of an individual disc.
Belleville washers are manufactured by Bauer Springs Ltd., of Eagle Road, North
Moon Moat Industrial Estate, Redditch, Worcestershire, B98 9HF where full specifi-
cations are freely available.
Drawing conventions for these springs are given in Fig. 32.21, and show (A) the
normal outside view, (B) the view in section and (C) the simplified representation.
These conventions can be adapted to suit the disc combination selected by the designer.

Spring specifications
A frequent cause of confusion between the spring supplier and the spring user is lack of
precision in specifying the spring. This often results in high costs due to the
Table 32.1 A selection of Belleville washers manufactured to DIN 6796 from spring steel to DIN 17222.
h (mm)

456
Notation d (mm) H 14 d (mm) h 14 max.c min.d se (mm) Forcea Test forceb Weight (kg/1000 z) Core diameter
2 2.2 5 0.6 0.5 0.4 628 700 0.05 2
2.5 2.7 6 0.72 0.61 0.5 946 1,100 0.09 2.5
3 3.2 7 0.85 0.72 0.6 1,320 1,500 0.14 3
3.5 3.7 8 1.06 0.92 0.8 2,410 2,700 0.25 3.5
4 4.3 9 1.3 1.12 1 3,770 4,000 0.38 4
5 5.3 11 1.55 1.35 1.2 5,480 6,550 0.69 5
6 6.4 14 2 1.7 1.5 8,590 9,250 1.43 6
7 7.4 17 2.3 2 1.75 11,300 13,600 2.53 7
8 8.4 18 2.6 2.24 2 14,900 17,000 3.13 8
10 10.5 23 3.2 2.8 2.5 22,100 27,100 6.45 10
12 13 29 3.95 3.43 3 34,100 39,500 12.4 12
14 15 35 4.65 4.04 3.5 46,000 54,000 21.6 14
16 17 39 5.25 4.58 4 59,700 75,000 30.4 16

Manual of Engineering Drawing

18 19 42 5.8 5.08 4.5 74,400 90,500 38.9 18
20 21 45 6.4 5.6 5 93,200 117,000 48.8 20
22 23 49 7.05 6.15 5.5 113,700 145,000 63.5 22
24 25 56 7.75 6.77 6 131,000 169,000 92.9 24
27 28 60 8.35 7.3 6.5 154,000 221,000 113 27
30 31 70 9.2 8 7 172,000 269,000 170 30
a
This force applies to the pressed flat condition and corresponds to twice the calculated value at a deflection h e s.
b
The test force applies for the loading tests to DIN 6796.
c
Max. size in delivered condition.
d
Min. size after loading tests to DIN 6796.
e
Permissible range of tolerance of s to DIN 1544 and DIN 1543 respectively for s > 6 mm.
Springs 457

0.95h

Fig. 32.17 Single disc spring.

Fig. 32.18 Stack of disc springs in series.

Fig. 32.19 Stack of disc springs in parallel.

Fig. 32.20 Stack of 2 parallel disc springs in series.

manufacturer taking considerable trouble to meet dimensions which are not necessary
for the correct functioning of the spring.
It is recommended that, while all relevant data regarding the design should be
entered on the spring detail drawing, some indication should be given as to which
of the particular design points must be adhered to for the satisfactory operation of
the component; this is necessary to allow for variations in wire diameter and elastic
modulus of the material. For example, a compression spring of a given diameter
458 Manual of Engineering Drawing

(A) (B) (C)

Fig. 32.21 Drawing conventions for disc springs.

may, if the number of coils is specified, have a spring rate which varies between 15%
of the calculated value. In view of this, it is desirable to leave at least one variable for
adjustment by the manufacturer, and the common convenient variable for general use
is the number of coils.
A method of spring specification which has worked well in practice is to insert a
table of design data, such as that shown below (see p. 274), on the drawing. All design
data are entered, and the items needed for the correct functioning of the spring are
marked with an asterisk. With this method the manufacturer is permitted to vary
any unmarked items, as only the asterisked data are checked by the spring user’s
inspector. The following are specifications typical for compression, tension and torsion
springs.

Compression spring
Total turns 7
Active turns 5
Wire diameter 1 mm
*Free length 12.7  0.4 mm
*Solid length 7 mm max.
*Outside coil diameter 7.6 mm max.
*Inside coil diameter 5 mm
Rate 7850 N/m
*Load at 9 mm 31  4.5 N
Solid stress 881 N/mm2
Springs 459

*Ends Closed and ground

Wound Right-hand or left-hand
*Material S202
*Protective treatment Cadmium-plate
Tension spring
Mean diameter 11.5 mm
*O.D. max. 13.5 mm
*Free length 54  0.5 mm
Total coils on barrel 161/2
Wire diameter 1.62 mm
*Loops Full eye, in line with each other and central with
barrel of spring
Initial tension None
Rate 2697 N/m
*Load 53  4.5 N
*At loaded length 73 mm
Stress at 53 N 438 N/mm2
Wound Right-hand or left-hand
*Material BS 1408 B
*Protective treatment Lanolin
Torsion spring
Total turns on barrel 4
Wire diameter 2.6 mm
*Wound Left-hand close coils
Mean diameter 12.7 mm
*To work on 9.5 mm diameter bar
*Length of legs 28 mm
*Load applied at 25.4 mm from center of spring
*Load 41  2 N
*Deflection 20
Stress at 41 N 595 N/mm2
*Both legs straight and tangential
to barrel
*Material BS 5216
*Protective treatment Grease
460 Manual of Engineering Drawing

Wire forms
Many components are assembled by the use of wire forms which are manufactured
from piano-type wire. Fig. 32.22 shows a selection, though the number of variations
is limitless.

Fig. 32.22 Wire form components.

Corrosion prevention
Springs operating under severe corrosive conditions are frequently made from phos-
phor bronze and stainless steel, and occasionally from nickel alloys and titanium al-
loys. For less severe conditions, cadmium- or zinc-plating is recommended;
alternatively, there are other electroplatings available, such as copper, nickel, and
tin. Phosphate coatings are frequently specified. Organic coatings, originally confined
to stove enamels, now include many plastics materials such as nylon and polythene, as
well as many types of epoxy resins.

Fatigue conditions
Many springs, such as valve springs, oscillate rapidly through a considerable range of
stress and are consequently operating under conditions requiring a long fatigue life.
The suitability of a spring under such conditions must be considered at the detail
design stage, and a satisfactory design and material must be specified. Special treat-
ments such as shot-peening or liquid-honing may be desirable. In the process of
shot-peening, the spring is subjected to bombardment by small particles of steel
shot; this has the effect of workhardening the surface. Liquid honing consists of
placing the spring in a jet of fine abrasive suspended in water. This has a similar effect
to shot-peening, and the additional advantage that the abrasive stream removes or re-
duces stress raisers on the spring surface.