Assignment on: Data analysis, data analysis

method; measurement, levels of measurement,

reliability and validity factors.

Course Code: DSW3207

Course Title: Advanced Social Research

Submitted by
Name: Md. Mobarak Hossen
Roll: ASH1930019M
Year: 3rd, Term: 2nd
Session: 2018-19
Department of Social work

Submitted To
Chayon Sikder
Assistant Professor
Department of Social work
Noakhali Science and Technology University
Noakhali: 3814

Submission Date: 02/12/2022

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Data Analysis:
Data Analysis is the process of systematically applying statistical and/or logical techniques to
describe and illustrate, condense and recap, and evaluate data. While data analysis in qualitative
research can include statistical procedures, many times analysis becomes an ongoing iterative
process where data is continuously collected and analyzed almost simultaneously. Indeed,
researchers generally analyze for patterns in observations through the entire data collection
phase. The form of the analysis is determined by the specific qualitative approach taken (field
study, ethnography content analysis, oral history, biography, unobtrusive research) and the
form of the data (field notes, documents, audiotape, videotape).
An essential component of ensuring data integrity is the accurate and appropriate analysis of
research findings. Improper statistical analyses distort scientific findings, mislead casual
readers and may negatively influence the public perception of research. Integrity issues are just
as relevant to analysis of non-statistical data as well.

Definition:
According to LeCompte and Schensul, research data analysis is a process used by researchers
for reducing data to a story and interpreting it to derive insights. The data analysis process helps
in reducing a large chunk of data into smaller fragments, which makes sense.
Marshall and Rossman, on the other hand, describe data analysis as a messy, ambiguous, and
time-consuming, but a creative and fascinating process through which a mass of collected data
is being brought to order, structure and meaning.
According to Kothari, “Data analysis is the process of organization, manipulation and
consideration of the meaning of data collected”.
We can say that “the data analysis and data interpretation is a process representing the
application of deductive and inductive logic to the research and data analysis”.

Types of data in research:

Every kind of data has a rare quality of describing things after assigning a specific value to it.
For analysis, you need to organize these values, processed and presented in a given context, to
make it useful. Data can be in different forms; here are the primary data types.
Qualitative data: When the data presented has words and descriptions, then we call it
qualitative data. Although you can observe this data, it is subjective and harder to analyze data
in research, especially for comparison. Example: Quality data represents everything describing
taste, experience, texture, or an opinion that is considered quality data. This type of data is
usually collected through focus groups, personal qualitative interviews, or using open-ended
questions in surveys.
Quantitative data: Any data expressed in numbers of numerical figures are called quantitative
data. This type of data can be distinguished into categories, grouped, measured, calculated, or
ranked. Example: questions such as age, rank, cost, length, weight, scores, etc. everything

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comes under this type of data. You can present such data in graphical format, charts, or apply
statistical analysis methods to this data. The (Outcomes Measurement Systems) OMS
questionnaires in surveys are a significant source of collecting numeric data.
Categorical data: It is data presented in groups. However, an item included in the categorical
data cannot belong to more than one group. Example: A person responding to a survey by
telling his living style, marital status, smoking habit, or drinking habit comes under the
categorical data. A chi-square test is a standard method used to analyze this data.

Data analysis in qualitative research:

Data analysis and qualitative data research work a little differently from the numerical data as
the quality data is made up of words, descriptions, images, objects, and sometimes symbols.
Getting insight from such complicated information is a complicated process. Hence it is
typically used for exploratory research and data analysis.
Finding patterns in the qualitative data:
Although there are several ways to find patterns in the textual information, a word-based
method is the most relied and widely used global technique for research and data analysis.
Notably, the data analysis process in qualitative research is manual. Here the researchers
usually read the available data and find repetitive or commonly used words.
For example, while studying data collected from African countries to understand the most
pressing issues people face, researchers might find “food” and “hunger” are the most
commonly used words and will highlight them for further analysis.
The keyword context is another widely used word-based technique. In this method, the
researcher tries to understand the concept by analyzing the context in which the participants
use a particular keyword.
For example, researchers conducting research and data analysis for studying the concept of
‘diabetes’ amongst respondents might analyze the context of when and how the respondent has
used or referred to the word ‘diabetes.’
The scrutiny-based technique is also one of the highly recommended text analysis methods
used to identify a quality data pattern. Compare and contrast is the widely used method under
this technique to differentiate how a specific text is similar or different from each other.
For example: To find out the “importance of resident doctor in a company,” the collected data
is divided into people who think it is necessary to hire a resident doctor and those who think it
is unnecessary. Compare and contrast is the best method that can be used to analyze the polls
having single answer questions types.
Metaphors can be used to reduce the data pile and find patterns in it so that it becomes easier
to connect data with theory.
Variable Partitioning is another technique used to split variables so that researchers can find
more coherent descriptions and explanations from the enormous data.

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Data analysis in quantitative research:
Preparing data for analysis:
The first stage in research and data analysis is to make it for the analysis so that the nominal
data can be converted into something meaningful. Data preparation consists of the below
phases.
Phase I: Data Validation
Data validation is done to understand if the collected data sample is per the pre-set standards,
or it is a biased data sample again divided into four different stages
Fraud: To ensure an actual human being records each response to the survey or the
questionnaire
Screening: To make sure each participant or respondent is selected or chosen in compliance
with the research criteria
Procedure: To ensure ethical standards were maintained while collecting the data sample
Completeness: To ensure that the respondent has answered all the questions in an online survey.
Else, the interviewer had asked all the questions devised in the questionnaire.
Phase II: Data Editing
More often, an extensive research data sample comes loaded with errors. Respondents
sometimes fill in some fields incorrectly or sometimes skip them accidentally. Data editing is
a process wherein the researchers have to confirm that the provided data is free of such errors.
They need to conduct necessary checks and outlier checks to edit the raw edit and make it ready
for analysis.
Phase III: Data Coding
Out of all three, this is the most critical phase of data preparation associated with grouping and
assigning values to the survey responses. If a survey is completed with a 1000 sample size, the
researcher will create an age bracket to distinguish the respondents based on their age. Thus, it
becomes easier to analyze small data buckets rather than deal with the massive data pile.

Methods used for data analysis in qualitative research:

There are several techniques to analyze the data in qualitative research, but here are some
commonly used methods,
Content Analysis: It is widely accepted and the most frequently employed technique for data
analysis in research methodology. It can be used to analyze the documented information from
text, images, and sometimes from the physical items. It depends on the research questions to
predict when and where to use this method.

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Narrative Analysis: This method is used to analyze content gathered from various sources
such as personal interviews, field observation, and surveys. The majority of times, stories, or
opinions shared by people are focused on finding answers to the research questions.
Discourse Analysis: Similar to narrative analysis, discourse analysis is used to analyze the
interactions with people. Nevertheless, this particular method considers the social context
under which or within which the communication between the researcher and respondent takes
place. In addition to that, discourse analysis also focuses on the lifestyle and day-to-day
environment while deriving any conclusion.
Grounded Theory: When you want to explain why a particular phenomenon happened, then
using grounded theory for analyzing quality data is the best resort. Grounded theory is applied
to study data about the host of similar cases occurring in different settings. When researchers
are using this method, they might alter explanations or produce new ones until they arrive at
some conclusion.

Methods used for data analysis in quantitative research:

After the data is prepared for analysis, researchers are open to using different research and data
analysis methods to derive meaningful insights. For sure, statistical techniques are the most
favored to analyze numerical data. The method is again classified into two groups. First,
‘Descriptive Statistics’ used to describe data. Second, ‘Inferential statistics’ that helps in
comparing the data.
Descriptive statistics
This method is used to describe the basic features of versatile types of data in research. It
presents the data in such a meaningful way that pattern in the data starts making sense.
Nevertheless, the descriptive analysis does not go beyond making conclusions. The
conclusions are again based on the hypothesis researchers have formulated so far. Here are a
few major types of descriptive analysis methods.
For quantitative market research use of descriptive analysis often give absolute numbers, but
the analysis is never sufficient to demonstrate the rationale behind those numbers.
Nevertheless, it is necessary to think of the best method for research and data analysis suiting
your survey questionnaire and what story researchers want to tell. For example, the mean is the
best way to demonstrate the students’ average scores in schools. It is better to rely on the
descriptive statistics when the researchers intend to keep the research or outcome limited to the
provided sample without generalizing it. For example, when you want to compare average
voting done in two different cities, differential statistics are enough.
Descriptive analysis is also called a ‘univariate analysis’ since it is commonly used to analyze
a single variable.

Inferential statistics
Inferential statistics are used to make predictions about a larger population after research and
data analysis of the representing population’s collected sample. For example, you can ask some

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odd 100 audiences at a movie theatre if they like the movie they are watching. Researchers then
use inferential statistics on the collected sample to reason that about 80-90% of people like the
movie.
Here are two significant areas of inferential statistics:
Estimating parameters: It takes statistics from the sample research data and demonstrates
something about the population parameter.
Hypothesis test: It’s about sampling research data to answer the survey research questions.
For example, researchers might be interested to understand if the new shade of lipstick recently
launched is good or not, or if the multivitamin capsules help children to perform better at
games.
These are sophisticated analysis methods used to showcase the relationship between different
variables instead of describing a single variable. It is often used when researchers want
something beyond absolute numbers to understand the relationship between variables.

Here are some of the commonly used methods for data analysis in research:
Correlation: When researchers are not conducting experimental research or quasi-
experimental research wherein the researchers are interested to understand the relationship
between two or more variables, they opt for correlational research methods.
Cross-tabulation: Also called contingency tables, cross-tabulation is used to analyze the
relationship between multiple variables. Suppose provided data has age and gender categories
presented in rows and columns. A two-dimensional cross-tabulation helps for seamless data
analysis and research by showing the number of males and females in each age category.
Regression analysis: For understanding the strong relationship between two variables,
researchers do not look beyond the primary and commonly used regression analysis method,
which is also a type of predictive analysis used. In this method, you have an essential factor
called the dependent variable. You also have multiple independent variables in regression
analysis. You undertake efforts to find out the impact of independent variables on the
dependent variable. The values of both independent and dependent variables are assumed as
being ascertained in an error-free random manner.
Frequency tables: The statistical procedure is used for testing the degree to which two or more
vary or differ in an experiment. A considerable degree of variation means research findings
were significant. In many contexts, ANOVA testing and variance analysis are similar.
Analysis of variance: The statistical procedure is used for testing the degree to which two or
more vary or differ in an experiment. A considerable degree of variation means research
findings were significant. In many contexts, ANOVA testing and variance analysis are similar.

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Considerations in research data analysis:
Researchers must have the necessary skills to analyze and manipulation the data, Getting
trained to demonstrate a high standard of research practice. Ideally, researchers must possess
more than a basic understanding of the rationale of selecting one statistical method over the
other to obtain better data insights.
Usually, research and data analytics projects differ by scientific discipline; therefore, getting
statistical advice at the beginning of analysis helps design a survey questionnaire, select data
collection methods, and choose samples.
The primary aim of data research and analysis is to derive ultimate insights that are unbiased.
Any mistake in or keeping a biased mind to collect data, selecting an analysis method, or
choosing audience sample il to draw a biased inference.
Irrelevant to the sophistication used in research data and analysis is enough to rectify the poorly
defined objective outcome measurements. It does not matter if the design is at fault or intentions
are not clear, but lack of clarity might mislead readers, so avoid the practice.
The motive behind data analysis in research is to present accurate and reliable data. As far as
possible, avoid statistical errors, and find a way to deal with everyday challenges like outliers,
missing data, data altering, data mining, or developing graphical representation.

Measurement:
In our daily life we are said to measure when we use some yardstick to determine weight,
height, or some other feature of a physical object. We also measure when we judge how well
we like a song, a painting or the personalities of our friends. We, thus, measure physical objects
as well as abstract concepts. Measurement is a relatively complex and demanding task,
specially so when it concerns qualitative or abstract phenomena. By measurement we mean the
process of assigning numbers to objects or observations, the level of measurement being a
function of the rules under which the numbers are assigned.

Definition:
According to Gerald R. Adams and Jay D. Schvaneveldt, “Measurement begins with the idea
of quantity, condition, property, or their characteristics of the issue or property to be
considered. Measurement helps to answer the questions of how much or how after”.
According to B. S. Philips “Measurement is a process by which the individual obtains
information, and as such is fundamental not only to the cybernetic process and everyday life
but also to life itsel”.

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Measurement scales:
From what has been stated above, we can write that scales of measurement can be considered
in terms of their mathematical properties. The most widely used classification of measurement
scales are:
1. Nominal scale
2. Ordinal scale
3. Interval scale
4. Ratio scale
Nominal Scale:
Nominal scale is simply a system of assigning number symbols to events in order to label them.
The usual example of this is the assignment of numbers of basketball players in order to identify
them. Such numbers cannot be considered to be associated with an ordered scale for their order
is of no consequence; the numbers are just convenient labels for the particular class of events
and as such have no quantitative value. Nominal scales provide convenient ways of keeping
track of people, objects and events. One cannot do much with the numbers involved. For
example, one cannot usefully average the numbers on the back of a group of football players
and come up with a meaningful value. Neither can one usefully compare the numbers assigned
to one group with the numbers assigned to another.
The counting of members in each group is the only possible arithmetic operation when a
nominal scale is employed. Accordingly, we are restricted to use mode as the measure of central
tendency. There is no generally used measure of dispersion for nominal scales. Chi-square test
is the most common test of statistical significance that can be utilized, and for the measures of
correlation, the contingency coefficient can be worked out. Nominal scale is the least powerful
level of measurement. It indicates no order or distance relationship and has no arithmetic origin.
A nominal scale simply describes differences between things by assigning them to categories.
Nominal data are, thus, counted data. The scale wastes any information that we may have about
varying degrees of attitude, skills, understandings, etc. In spite of all this, nominal scales are
still very useful and are widely used in surveys and other ex-post-facto research when data are
being classified by major sub-groups of the population.

Ordinal scale:
The lowest level of the ordered scale that is commonly used is the ordinal scale. The ordinal
scale places events in order, but there is no attempt to make the intervals of the scale equal in
terms of some rule. Rank orders represent ordinal scales and are frequently used in research
relating to qualitative phenomena. A student's rank in his graduation class involves the use of
an ordinal scale. One has to be very careful in making statement about scores based on ordinal
scales. For instance, if Ram's position in his class is 10 and Mohan's position is 40, it cannot
be said that Ram's position is four times as good as that of Mohan. The statement would make
no sense at all. Ordinal scales only permit the ranking of items from highest to lowest. Ordinal
measures have no absolute values, and the real differences between adjacent ranks may not be

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equal. All that can be said is that one person is higher or lower on the scale than another, but
more precise comparisons cannot be made. Thus, the use of an ordinal scale implies a statement
of 'greater than' or 'less than' (an equality statement is also acceptable) without our being able
to state how much greater or less. The real difference between ranks 1 and 2 may be more or
less than the difference between ranks 5 and 6. Since the numbers of this scale have only a rank
meaning, the appropriate measure of central tendency is the median. A percentile or quartile
measure is used for measuring dispersion. Correlations are restricted to various rank order
methods. Measures of statistical significance are restricted to the non-parametric methods.

Interval scale:
In the case of interval scale, the intervals are adjusted in terms of some rule that has been
established as a basis for making the units equal. The units are equal only in so far as one
accepts the assumptions on which the rule is based. Interval scales can have an arbitrary zero,
but it is not possible to determine for them what may be called an absolute zero or the unique
origin. The primary limitation of the interval scale is the lack of a true zero; it does not have
the capacity to measure the complete absence of a trait or characteristic. The Fahrenheit scale
is an example of an interval scale and shows similarities in what one can and cannot do with it.
One can say that an increase in temperature from 30° to 40° involves the same increase in
temperature as an increase from 60° to 70°, but one cannot say that the temperature of 60° is
twice as warm as the temperature of 30° because both numbers are dependent on the fact that
the zero on the scale is set arbitrarily at the temperature of the freezing point of water. The ratio
of the two temperatures, 30° and 60°,,means nothing because zero is an arbitrary point. Interval
scales provide more powerful measurement than ordinal scales for interval scale also
incorporates the concept of equality of interval. As such more powerful statistical measures
can be used with interval scales. Mean is the appropriate measure of central tendency, while
standard deviation is the most widely used measure of dispersion. Product moment correlation
techniques are appropriate and the generally used tests for statistical significance are the 't' test
and 'F' test.

Ratio scale:
Ratio scales have an absolute or true zero of measurement. The term 'absolute zero' is not as
precise as it was once believed to be. We can conceive of an absolute zero of length and
similarly we can conceive of an absolute zero of time. For example, the zero point on a
centimetre scale indicates the complete absence of length or height. But an absolute zero of
temperature is theoretically unobtainable and it remains a concept existing only in the scientist's
mind. The number of minor traffic-rule violations and the number of incorrect letters in a page
of type script represent scores on ratio scales. Both these scales have absolute zeros and as such
all minor traffic violations and all typing errors can be assumed to be equal in significance.
With ratio scales involved one can make statements like "Jyoti's" typing performance was twice
as good as that of "Reetu." The ratio involved does have significance and facilitates a kind of
comparison which is not possible in case of an interval scale. Ratio scale represents the actual
amounts of variables. Measures of physical dimensions such as weight, height, distance, etc.

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are examples. Generally, all statistical techniques are usable with ratio scales and all
manipulations that one can carry out with real numbers can also be carried out with ratio scale
values. Multiplication and division can be used with this scale but not with other scales
mentioned above. Geometric and harmonic means can be used as measures of central tendency
and coefficients of variation may also be calculated.

Influencing factors of reliability and validity of data:

Reliability:
Reliability refers to the extent to which the same answers can be obtained using the same
instruments more than one time. In simple terms, if your research is associated with high levels
of reliability, then other researchers need to be able to generate the same results, using the same
research methods under similar conditions. It is noted that “reliability problems crop up in
many forms.
Definition:
Keith F. Punch in his Introduction to Social Research: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches
book, “Reliability is a central concept in measurement and it basically means consistency.
There are two main aspects to this consistency; consistency over time (stability) and internal
consistency.”
H. Russell Bernard define reliability in different ways “Reliability refers to whether or not you
get the same answer by using an instrument to measure something more than once.”
According to H. Kidder C. M. Judd “A reliable measure is one that has a small error component
and, therefore does not fluctuate randomy form one moment to the next.”

Factors affecting reliability:

Reliability of the test is an important characteristic as we use the test results for the future
decisions about the students' educational advances and for the job selection and many more.
The methods to assure the reliability of the tests have been discussed. Here we shall focus upon
the different factors that may affect the reliability of the test. The degree of the affect of each
factor varies from the situation to situation. Controlling the factor may improve the reliability
and otherwise it may lower the consistency of production of scores. Some of the factors that
directly or indirectly affect the test reliability are given as under.

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Test length:
As a rule, adding more homogeneous questions to a test will increase the test's reliability. The
more observations there are of a specific trait, the more accurate the measure is likely to be.
Adding more questions to a psychological test is similar to adding finer distinctions on a
measuring tape.

Heterogeneity of scores:
Heterogeneity is referred as the differences among the scores obtained from class. You may
say that there are some students who got high scores and some students who got low scores or
intelligent students who got high scores and other one got low scores or the difference could
be due to any reason may be income level, intelligence of the students, parents’ qualification
etc.
Difficulty:
A test that is too difficult or too easy reduces the reliability (e.g., Fewer test-takers get the
answers correctly or vice-versa). A moderate level of difficulty increases test reliability.
The test itself: The overall look of the test may affect the students score. Normally a test is
written in well readable font size and style, the language of the test should be simple and
understandable.
The test administration: After the development of the test, the test developer may . have to
prepare the manual of the test administration, the time, environment, invigilation, and the
anxiety also affects students' performance while attempting the test. Therefore, the uniform
administration of the test leads to the increased reliability.

The test scoring: Marking of the test is another factor towards the variation in the scores of
the students. Normally there are many raters to rate the students’ responses/answers on the test.

Activity:
Develop a test of English for sixth grade students, administer it twice with a gap of six weeks,
find the relationship between the scores of students between 1st and 2nd administration.

Validity:
The validity of a research study refers to how well the results among the study participants
represent true findings among similar individuals outside the study. This concept of validity
applies to all types of clinical studies, including those about prevalence, associations,
interventions, and diagnosis. The validity of a research study includes two domains: internal
and external validity.

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Internal validity is defined as the extent to which the observed results represent the truth in the
population we are studying and, thus, are not due to methodological errors. Once the internal
validity of the study is established, the researcher can proceed to make a judgment regarding
its external validity by asking whether the study results apply.

Definition:
Keith F. Punch, “In this view, measurement validity means the extent to which an instrument
measures what it is claimed to measure; an indicator is valid to the extent that it empirically
represents the concept it purposes to measures.
Walter R. Borg, " Validity is generally defined as the degree to which a test measures what it
claims to measure.”
Gerald R. Adams Jay d. Schvaneveldt, "Validity refers to the general correctness of the fact or
evidence used in understanding and studying behaviour."

Measurement of Validity:
There are some extremely important points to remember about the way that researchers
evaluate the validity of a measurement method.
First, this process requires empirical evidence. A measurement method cannot be declared
valid or invalid before it has ever been used and the resulting scores have been thoroughly
analyzed.
Second, it is an ongoing process. The conclusion that a measurement method is valid generally
depends on the results of many studies done over a period of years.
Third, validity is not an all-or-none property of a measurement method. It is possible for a
measurement method to judged "somewhat valid" or for one measure to be considered "more
valid" than another.
Example, it would be fine to conclude that an English-language achievement test is valid for
children who are native English speakers but not for children who are still in the process of
learning English.

Factors Affecting Validity:

1. History: Events that occur besides the treatment (events in the environment).
2. Maturation: Physical or psychological changes in the participants.
3. Testing: Effect of experience with the pretest -- become testwise.
4. Instrumentation: Learning gain might be observed from pre to posttest simply due to nature
of the instrument. Particularly a problem in observation studies when observers more likely to
give ratings based on expectations (conscious or subconscious).

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5. Statistical Regression: Tendency for participants whose scores fall at either extreme on a
variable to score nearer the mean when measured a second time.
6. Differential Selection: Effect of treatment confounded with other factors because of
differential selection of participants, problem in non-random samples.
7. Experimental Mortality: Participants lost from the study, attrition.
8. Selection-maturation Interaction: Similar to differential selection, except maturation is
the confounding variable.
9. Experimental Treatment Diffusion: Treatment is perceived as highly desirable and
members of control group seek access.
10. Compensatory Rivalry by Control Group: (John Henry Effect) control group performs
beyond expectations because they perceive they are in competition with experimental group.
11. Compensatory Equalization of Treatments: Occurs when experimental group received
goods or services perceived as desirable and control group is given similar goods and services
on compensate. Not comparing treatment with no treatment but one treatment with another.
12. Resentful Demoralization of Control Group: Control group becomes discouraged
because they perceive experimental group is receiving a desirable treatment that is being
withheld from them.

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