STRUCTURE AND WRITTEN EXPRESSION

There are two types of questions in the Structure and Written Expression section of the paper TOEFL
test.
1. Structure (questions 1-15) tests sentence completion. The sentences in this part are not
complete. You must choose the answer that completes the sentence in a grammatically correct
way.
Example
Birds make nests in trees _______ hide their young in the leaves and branches.
(A) can where they
(B) where they can
(C) where can they
(D) where can
The best answer is (B). The sentence should read, “Birds make nests where they can hide their young
in the leaves and branches.”
2. Written Expression (questions 16-40) tests error identification. Choose the one word or phrase
that must be changed for the sentence to be correct.
Example
Aspirin is recommend to many people for its ability to thin the blood.
A B C D
The best answer is (A). The sentence should read, “Aspirin is recommended to many people for its
ability to thin the blood.”

GENERAL STRATEGIES
Strategies for Structure:
1. Look for the main subject and verb of the sentence. If there is no complete subject or verb
phrase, you know that you need to find these in the answer choices.
2. Decide what kind of structure the sentence needs. Use the testing points in this book to help you
decide what is needed.
3. Read the sentence to see if it makes sense and sounds correct.
Strategies for Written Expression:
1. Read the complete sentence quickly to look for the main subject and verb of the sentence. Do
not read just the underlined words or phrases.
2. Look at the underlined words to see what part of speech they are and how they relate to the
main subject and verb.
3. If you cannot find the error, eliminate the parts that seem correct, and then take a guess from
your remaining options.

1
SIMPLE SENTENCES
KEY CONCEPT
A sentence in English must have at least one clause. Therefore, it must have at least one subject and
one verb.
Caroline should have studied hard for the exam.
SUBJECT VERB
Andrew and Jane will go to the library and read some books..
SUBJECT VERB VERB

SUBJECTS AND VERBS

The following chart shows important things that you have to know about subjects and verbs.
SUBJECTS Andy
The subject of s sentence is always a He
noun or a noun structure that can Loving you always makes me happy.
function as subjects. However, there Watching good movies VERB
are two noun structures that cannot To love you
function as subjects: prepositional To be number one

phrases and appositives.

Prepositional Phrases
A prepositional phrase is a For the fever and headache, Christine took two aspirin tablets.
combination of a preposition, such as PP SUBJECT
in, on, of, at, by, and so on, and a The books in my room are big and thick.
noun. On the hill, in my house, before
Incorrect:
the dawn are examples of
On Sundays goes to the beach.
prepositional phrases. PP

Appositives George, my friend, got an A on the exam.

An appositive is a noun or a noun SUBJECT APPOSITIVE VERB
phrase that comes before or after A good basketball player, She rarely misses her basketball shots.
another noun and has the same APPOSITIVE SUBJECT VERB
meaning. When an appositive comes Incorrect:
with the subject of a sentence, it is Melissa, sang beautifully last night.
separated by a comma. APPOSITIVE

2
 VERBS writes
The verb of a sentence is usually wrote
Philippe
placed after its subject. The verb can is writing a letter.
be a present tense verb, past tense has written
SUBJECT
can write
verb, or a verb accompanied by
must have written
helping verb(s).
VERBS
Present Participles (eating, crying,
writing) Incorrect/incomplete: Correct/Complete:
Present participles are verb+ ing The boy waiting for me. The boy is waiting for me.
(eating, crying, deciding, etc.). A The girl being foolish. The girl is being foolish.
present participle can function as a The boy waiting for me is my friend.
verb ONLY WHEN it is present with the Incorrect/incomplete: Correct/Complete:
verb be (be, being, been, is/am/are, The letter written by Eliza. The letter was written by Eliza.
Eliza written the letter. Eliza has written the letter.
was/were)
The letter written by Eliza has been
Past Participles posted.
Past participles are verb+ ed (eaten,
cried, decided, etc.). A past participle
can function as a verb ONLY WHEN it
is present with the verb have (have,
has, had, having) when the meaning is
active or the verb be (be, being, been,
is/am/are, was/were) when the
meaning is passive.

THE SUBJECT AND THE VERBS Correct:

There is only one subject in a clause. Phyllis Wheatley wrote poetry books.
Be aware that on the test, the subject Phyllis Wheatley wrote poetry books and published them.
Phyllis Wheatley, an American poet, wrote poetry books.
may be repeated or there are two verb
Incorrect:
structures that refer to one subject
Phyllis Wheatley wrote poetry books published them.
without any connectors. Phyllis Wheatley she wrote poetry books.

EXERCISE 1: Underline the subject and the verb of each of the following sentences.
1. He is the new director of the institute.
2. Roller-skating has recently become a popular means of transportation.
3. One can fell on the floor.
4. A country’s military might determines its international policies.
5. At the last minute, a swift kick by one player tied the game.
6. Influenza, a common disease, has no cure.
7. Cigars from Cuba are expensive.
8. Your laughing at me hurt my feeling.
9. The letters needing immediate answers are on the desk.
10. The students registered in this course are listed on that sheet of paper.

EXERCISE 2: Mark complete and correct sentences with a check ( √ ) in the blank. Mark a group of words with a
minus ( - ) if an element is omitted. Mark a group of words with a plus ( + ) if an element is repeated.
√ 1. Too much alcohol harms the liver.
+ 2. Running it is good exercise.
is
- 3. The girl / wearing a large hat.

3
 4. For three weeks at the beginning of the semester students with fewer than the maximum number
of units can add additional course.
5. On her lunch hour went to a nearby department store to purchase a wedding gift.
6. Many vegetables such as tomatoes and lettuce in south Texas
7. Tonight’s supper, leftovers from last night, did not taste any better tonight than last night.
8. The students are completing the course will graduate in June.
9. The new tile pattern, yellow flowers on a white background, really brightens up the room.
10. Those applicants returning their completed forms at the earliest date have the highest priority.
11. At long last, the chief executive officer, has decided to step down.
12. The papers being delivered at 4:00 will contain the announcement of the president’s resignation.
13. Exercising in the hot sun can cause heat stroke.
14. The spices flavoring the meal were quite distinctive.
15. With a sudden jerk of his hand threw the ball across the field to one of the other players.

ON THE TOEFL®
1. Make sure that the sentence has a subject and a verb and that neither of them is repeated.
2. Be careful of prepositional phrases and appositives. Remember that they cannot function as subjects.
3. Be careful of V-ing (Present participles) without the verb be and V-ed past participles) without the verb be
or the verb have. Without one of these helping verbs, they cannot function as verbs.

EXAMPLE EXPLANATION
_______ grow close to the ground in the short In this example, you should notice immediately that
Arctic summer. there is a verb grow, but there is no subject. Answers (A)
(A) Tundra plants is the best answer because it contains the subject
(B) Above tundra plants Tundra plants. Answer (A) and (D) are incorrect because
(C) Tundra plants are found Above tundra plants and For tundra plants are
(D) For tundra plants prepositional phrases. Answer (C) is incorrect because
the sentence already has a verb grow and does not need
an extra verb are found.
The plane _______ landing at the airport in five The sentence has a subject plane and has part of a verb
minutes. landing; to be correct, some form of the verb be is
(A) it is needed to make the verb complete. The best answer is
(B) it really is answer (D); will be together with landing is a complete
(C) is descending verb. Answers (A) and (B) are not correct because the
(D) will be sentence does not need an extra subject it. Answer (C) is
incorrect because descending is an extra part of a verb
that is unnecessary because of landing.

4
The chapters _______ by the professor this The sentence has a subject The chapters and has a verb
morning will be on next week will be; therefore, it does not need any extra subject and
(A) taught verb. Answer (A) is the best answer to the questions
(B) were taught since the word taught is not a verb but an adjective.
(C) they taught Answer (B) is not correct because the sentence does not
(D) they were taught need an extra verb were taught. Answers (C) and (D) are
incorrect because they contain subjects and verbs.
_______, one of the most famous presidents, The sentence has a verb was, but it has no subject. By
was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth. looking at the comma before and after the phrase one of
(A) For Abraham Lincoln the most famous presidents, you should know it is an
(B) Abraham Lincoln was appositive. The best answer to the question is answer
(C) Of all the presidents (D). Answers (A) and (C) are incorrect because they are
(D) Abraham Lincoln prepositional phrases.
The state of Ohio getting its name from an The verb of the sentence is missing since the verb
A B C getting cannot function as a verb. However, we can
Iroquoian word meaning “great river.” change the verb getting into got. Therefore, the best
D answer is (C).
The Dambovita River, a tributary of the Danube, The subject of the sentence is the Dambovita River, and
A B the verb is runs. The sentence doesn’t need another
it runs through Bucharest. subject, it. Therefore the best answer is (C).
C D

5
TOEFL® EXERCISE
Directions: Choose the letter of the word or group of words that best completes the sentence.
1. _________ Biloxi received its name from a 6. The irregular coastline of _______ a
Sioux word meaning “first people.” succession of bays and inlets, with the hook of
(A) The city of the Cape Cod peninsula in the southeast.
(B) Located in (A) Massachusetts
(C) It is in (B) Massachusetts is
(D) The tour included (C) Massachusetts it is
2. _________ are the most poisonous fish in the (D) Massachusetts on
world. 7. Thomas Jefferson, _______ a personally
(A) There are stonefish designed and constructed lap-top desk, wrote
(B) That are stonefish the Declaration of Independence in the
(C) They are the stonefish summer of 1776.
(D) Stonefish (A) he used
3. Blood in vessels just under the nasal lining (B) had used
_________ up its heat to warm the air. (C) the use of
(A) gives (D) using
(B) it gives 8. American actress and director Margaret
(C) giving Webster _______ for her production of
(D) is given Shakespeare plays.
4. Early ________ toes instead of hooves on (A) she famous
their feet. (B) famous as she became
(A) horses (C) becoming famous
(B) had horses (D) became famous
(C) horses had 9. _______ gas tanks connected to welding
(D) horses having equipment, one full of oxygen and the other
5. Henry Adams, born in Boston, _________ full of acetylene.
famous as a historian and novelist. (A) It is two
(A) became (B) Of the two
(B) and became (C) There are two
(C) he was (D) Two
(D) and he became 10. On November 19, 1863, Abraham Lincoln,
speaking from notes on an old _______ the
famous Gettysburg Address in only two
minutes time.
(A) gave the envelope
(B) envelope giving
(C) envelope, gave
(D) gift an envelope

Directions: Identify the one underlined word or phrase (A), (B), (C), or (D), that must be changed for the
sentence to be correct.

11. Borax, generally found in the desert, being useful as a water softener in the laundry industry.
A B C D

12. Boston, the hub of historic New England, it is the capital of Massachusetts and the largest city in the area.
A B C D

6
 SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

BASIC RULES
1. Subject-verb agreement is simple: if the subject of a sentence is singular, then the verb must be singular;
if the subject of the sentence is plural, then the verb must be plural. An –s on a verb usually indicates that
the verb is singular, while an –s on a noun usually indicates that the noun is singular.

The dog barks at night.

The dogs bark at night.

2. Expressions such as along with, as well as, together with, in addition to, or accompanied by, when they
come between a subject and its verb, do not change the number of the subject.

together with
in addition to
The man along with his ten children is leaving soon.
as well as
accompanied by

3. Prepositional phrases that come between the subject and the verb do not change the number of the
subject.

The door to the room is locked.

The doors to the room are locked.

4. There and here are never subjects. When a sentence begins with one of these words, the subject comes
after the verb.

There are no books in my room.

There is a book in my room.

EXERCISE 3: Underline the subjects and the verbs. Then indicate if the sentences are correct (C) or incorrect
(I).

1. The cost of the clothes was higher than I had expected.

2. Here is the results of the experiments.
3. The store owner, as well as other property owners, feels the need for better security.
4. The key to a politician’s success is ideas.
5. Here are the music as well as the words to the song.
6. Coffee with milk are my favorite drink.
7. There are already calls for Smith’s resignation.
8. The building destroyed during the fire is being rebuilt at the taxpayers’ expense.
9. Manufacture of the items that you requested have been discontinued.
10. The interrogation, conducted by three police officers, have lasted for several hours.
11. The lights in the corner of the room need to be kept on all night.
12. The chairs under the table in the dining room is quite comfortable.

7
SINGULAR SUBJECTS
1. When the following words are used as subjects, they are always singular.
everyone someone anyone no one each
everybody somebody anybody nobody either
everything something anything nothing neither

Everyone was here.

Neither of the books is cheap.

2. When each and every comes before singular subjects joined by and, a singular verb is required.
Every man and woman is eligible to vote.
Each student and teacher has a locker.

EXERCISE 4: Underline the subjects and the verbs. Then indicate if the sentences are correct (C) or incorrect
(I).
1. Each fruit and vegetable were organically grown.
2. Everyone in the two classes speaks English very well.
3. Each of the doctors in the building needs to have a separate reception area.
4. Nothing more is going to be completed today.
5. Someone have to clean up the house.
6. Everybody know the rules, but somebody is not following them.
7. Each plant in the garden appear healthy and strong.
8. Anyone in one of the classes has to take the final exam.

PLURAL SUBJECTS
1. Subjects joined by and or both … and … take a plural verb (but see rule 2 in singular subjects).
Tigers and elephants are becoming extinct.
Both tigers and elephants are becoming extinct.
2. Several, many, both, few are plural words and always take a plural verb.
Both are going to go to the party.
Only a few have done their homework.

EXERCISE 5: Underline the subjects and the verbs. Then indicate if the sentences are correct (C) or incorrect
(I).
1. Many of you are going to score above 500 on the TOEFL.
2. Both my good trousers and my old jeans are at the laundry.
3. There are several on the top shelf of the bookcase.
4. There is several Universities in this city.
5. A red Honda and a blue Ford are parked outside.
6. Both are going to the University of Texas.
7. Several of the fish appears to be dying.
8. Only a few has passed the exam.

ALTERNATIVES
1. When expressions of quantity, such as all, most, some, any, majority, half, percent, or none, are followed
by the preposition of, the verb agrees with what follows the preposition of.
All of the book has been destroyed.
All of the books have been destroyed.
All of the money has been destroyed.
2. The expression a number of is plural, and the expression the number of is singular.

8
 A number of students are absent. The number of students in this class is 20.

EXERCISE 6: Underline the subjects and the verbs. Then indicate if the sentences are correct (C) or incorrect
(I).
1. All of the medicine is gone.
2. Half of the furniture is in the truck.
3. All of the information is interesting.
4. Some of the animals from the zoo was released into the animal preserve.
5. All of the details in the report needs to be checked.
6. The first half of the class consists of lecture and note-taking.
7. Some of the movie were just too violent for me.
8. Most of the money is needed to pay the bills.
9. All of the next chapter contains very important information.

EXERCISE 7: Underline the subjects and the verbs. Then fill in the blanks with the correct verb from the two
choices in parentheses.
1. Restricted ownership and enforced registration ______ two major approaches to handgun control.
(is/are)
2. Further development of any new ideas for future products ______ to be approved in advance. (has/have)
3. A catalog of courses and requirements often ______ students. (baffle/baffles)
4. A gray and white car ______ parked outside the building. (is/are)
5. Everything, including the clothes in the closets, ______ stolen from the apartment. (was/were)
6. Any houses built in that development before 1970 ______ to be upgraded to meet current standards.
(has/have)
7. The scheduled departure time of the trams, posted on panels throughout the terminal buildings, ______
going to be updated. (is/are)
8. Some of the meetings at the conference ______ limited to ten participants. (is/are)
9. The sauce on the vegetables in the yellow bowl ______ really delicious. (taste/tastes)
10. There ______ no doubt in anyone’s mind about the guilt of the defendants. (was/were)

ON THE TOEFL® TEST

Subject-verb agreement is tested in the Structure as well as in the Written Expression section. Look at the
following examples.

EXAMPLE EXPLANATION
In 1736, the number of poor people in Boston In this example, you should notice immediately
receiving public assistance _______ about 4,000. that there is a subject the number of poor people,
(A) was which is a singular subject, but there is no verb.
(B) were Answers (A) is the best answer because it contains
(C) it was the verb was which agrees with the subject.
(D) they were
Each number in a binary system are formed from only Because the subject of the sentence, each number,
A B C is a singular subject, the sentence should read.
two symbols. “Each number in a binary system is formed from
D only two symbols. ” Therefore, the best answer is
answer (B).

9
10
TOEFL® EXERCISE
Directions: Choose the letter of the word or group of words that best completes the sentence.
1. During the eighteenth century, 3. Nearly three quarters _________ heated by
communication within and between cities solar energy have special collectors on the
_________ at first. roofs to trap sunlight.
a) were difficult a. A home is
b) they were difficult b. Homes are
c) difficult c. A home
d) was difficult d. Homes
2. _________ of the surface of the Earth is 4. The major cause _________ the pull of the
covered by water. Moon on the Earth.
a) Three quarters is nearly a. of ocean tides are
b) There is nearly three quarters b. of ocean tides is
c) It is nearly three quarters c. of the tides in the ocean
d. the ocean’s tides
Directions: Identify the one underlined word or phrase (A), (B), (C), or (D), that must be changed for the
sentence to be correct.
5. The ability to conceal themselves by camouflage enable some otherwise defenseless animals to survive
A B C D
6. Of all the evidence that has piled up since Webster’s paper was published, there is no new
A B C
ideas to contradict his original theory.
D
7. The great digital advances of the electronic age, such as a microcomputer and integrated
A
circuitry, has been planted in tiny chips.
B C D
8. More than half of the children in the 1,356-member district qualifies for reduced-price or free lunches.
A B C D
9. The term “Yankee” was originally a nickname for people from New England, but now
A
anyone from the United States are referred to as a Yankee.
B C D
10. The first set of false teeth similar to those in use today it was made in France in the 1780s.
A B C D

11
 VERBS
VERB FORMS

There are five verb forms: the base form, the present tense, the past, the present participle, and the past
participle. The following are examples of each of these verb forms.

BASE FORM PRESENT PAST PRESENT PARTICIPLE PAST PARTICIPLE

be is, am, are was, were being been
decide decide(s) decided deciding decided
sing sing(s) sang singing sung
hear hear(s) heard hearing heard
cut cut(s) cut cutting cut

The following chart outlines the types of verbs and how to use them in sentences.

VERB FORMS EXAMPLES

THE BASE FORM She must study hard.
The verb that follows a modal (will, would, shall, She must be studying hard.
should, can, could, may, might, must, ought to) must She must have been studying hard.
be the verb in its base form. She must to study hard. (incorrect)
She must studies hard. (incorrect)
She must studied hard. (incorrect)
She must studying hard. (incorrect)

THE PRESENT TENSE

There are two types of present tense verbs: singular
verbs (usually end in –s/-es to the base form of the I am very strong.
verbs, except verb be) and plural verbs (usually take She is very strong.
the same form as the base form, except verb be). The I always study hard.
number or the subject determines what type of verb She always studies hard.
to use.

THE PAST TENSE I was very strong.

A past tense verb is formed by adding –ed to the base She was very strong.
form of the verb, except irregular verbs. I always studied hard.
She always studied hard.

THE PRESENT PARTICIPLES TENSE

We are doing our homework.
The present participle is the –ing form of a verb. The
Tom is taking the book.
present participle must follow the verb be in any of its
At 12:00 Sam is eat his lunch. (incorrect)
forms (is, am, are, was, were, be, been, being).
THE PAST PARTICIPLES TENSE
They had walked to school.
The past participles are used after the helping verb
She should have done the job.
have in any of its forms (have, has, having, had) or the
The homework was done early.
helping verb be in any of its forms (is, am, are, was,
The book was taken by Tom.
were, be, been, being).

12
TOEFL® EXERCISE

Directions: Identify the one underlined word or phrase (A), (B), (C), or (D), that must be changed for the
sentence to be correct.
1. Alice In Wonderland, first published in 1865, has since being translated into thirty languages.
A B C D
2. Linus Pauling has wins two Nobel Prizes: the 1954 Nobel Prize in Chemistry and the 1962
A B C D
Nobel Peace Prize.
3. The Federated Boys Clubs, the forerunner of the Boys Clubs of America, were organize in 1906.
A B C D
4. At the start of the American Revolution, lanterns were hung in the Old North Church as a signal that
A B C
the British were came.
D
5. Even miniature gardens can creating the sound and movement of water by using a recirculating pump.
A B C D
6. On the huge Ferris wheel constructed for a world exhibition in Chicago in 1893, each of the thirty-six cabs
A B C
could held sixty people.
D
7. At the start of the American Revolution, lanterns were hung in the Old North Church
A B C
8. To overcome rejection of a skin graft, a system for matching donor and recipient tissues has be
developed.
A B C D
9. Lung cancer rarely strikes before age 50, even among people who have be lifelong heavy smokers.
A B C D
10. Nails are commonly make of steel but also can contain substances such as aluminum or brass.
A B C D
11. A patient suffering from amnesia may had partial or total loss of memory.
A B C D
12. The idea of using pure nicotine to help smokers stop was first tries in the mid-1980’s with
A B C D
nicotine-laced chewing gum.

13
 PASSIVE VERBS

The difference between an active and a passive verb is that the subject in an active sentence does the action
of the verb, and the subject in a passive sentence receives the action of the verb. The verb in the passive
sentence is formed by putting the helping verb be in the same form as the verb in the active sentence and
then adding the past participle of this verb.

Magdalena wrote the letter. The letter was written by Magdalena.

SUBJECT OBJECT SUBJECT OBJECT

It should be noted that in a passive sentence, by + object does not need to be included to have a complete
sentence. Both of the following sentences are correct.

The letter was written by Magdalena. The letter was written yesterday.

Remember that the verb in a passive voice is a past participle that follows the helping verb be. The following
table shows how to form the passive.

ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE (BE + PAST PARTICIPLE)

The flame opens the game. The games are opened by the flame.
The flame opened the game. The games were opened by the flame.
The flame is opening the game. The games are being opened by the flame.
The flame has opened the game. The games have been opened by the flame.

It is sometimes difficult to determine if the sentence should be active or passive when there is no By + object.
When there is no object after a verb, you must look at the meaning of the sentence to determine whether to
use an active or a passive verb. Always remember that in an active sentence, the subject does the action of
the verb, while in a passive sentence, the subject receives the action of the verb.

We mailed the package at the post office. (correct)

The letter was mailed by us today before noon. (correct)
The letter was mailed today before noon. (correct)
The letter mailed today before noon. (incorrect)

The fourth example is the type of passive error that appears most often on the TOEFL test.

14
TOEFL® EXERCISE

Directions: Choose the letter of the word or group of words that best completes the sentence.
1. The famous architect, Frank Lloyd Wright, was greatly _____ , who wanted him to study architecture.
(A) influenced by his mother (C) his mother influenced him
(B) from his mother’s influence (D) influencing from his mother
2. Petroleum _____ on every continent and beneath every ocean.
(A) is found (C) found
(B) are found (D) find
3. Much of the carnage of elephants, giraffe, and big cats _____, uncaring hunters.
(A) must commit by (C) must have committed
(B) must be committed (D) must have been committed by

Directions: Identify the one underlined word or phrase (A), (B), (C), or (D), that must be changed for the
sentence to be correct.
4. Oyster farming has been practice in most parts of the world for many years.
A B C D
5. In English these questions have been formed by changed the word order of a statement, whereas in
A B C
some languages the word order remains the same.
D
6. On June 30, 1992, international timekeepers in Paris were added an extra second to the day.
A B C D
7. Particular issues that concern teenagers were covering in the half-hour program.
A B C D
8. Columbus Day is celebrated on the twelve of October because on that day in 1942, Christopher
A B C D
first landed in the Americas.
9. We should have been informed Janis about the change in plans regarding our weekend trip
A B C D
to the mountains.
10. The proposal has repealed after a thirty-minute discussion and a number of objections to its failure
A B C D
to include our district.

15
 NOUNS
NOUNS

There are two types of nouns: countable nouns and uncountable nouns. Countable nouns can come in
quantities of one, two, or a hundred, etc. The noun apple is countable because you can have one apple or
many apples. A countable noun usually takes an s in its plural form.

Uncountable nouns, on the other hand, are nouns that cannot be counted because they come in some
indeterminate or mass. A noun such as water or happiness cannot be counted; you cannot have one milk or
two milks, and you cannot have one happiness or two happiness. Uncountable nouns are often liquid or gas
items, such as water, oil, air, pollution, or shampoo. Uncountable nouns can also refer to abstract ideas, such
as security, excitement, or hope.

The following chart summarizes the differences between countable and uncountable nouns.

Countable Nouns Uncountable Nouns

 Take a/an or one in the singular  Do not take a/an or one in the singular
 Usually take a final s/es in the plural  Do not generally have a plural form

SINGULAR AND PLURAL COUNTABLE NOUNS

For most countable nouns, the spelling indicates whether the particular noun refers to only one person or
thing (a singular noun) or to more than one person or thing (a plural noun). Plural nouns usually take a final
s/es.

book books buffalo buffaloes

class classes baby babies

A countable noun may come with a determiner. Some determiners, such as each, single, or that, can only be
used with singular nouns, while some other determiners, such as both, various, or several, can only be used
with plural nouns.

The following chart lists some determiners that indicate whether a noun should be singular or plural.

DETERMINERS FOR SINGULAR AND PLURAL NOUNS

For Singular Nouns each every single one a/an that

For Plural Nouns both two many several various those

He just finished several book. (INCORRECT)

He just finished several books. (CORRECT)
She studied each chapters. (INCORRECT)
She studied each chapter. (CORRECT)

COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

Although uncountable nouns cannot be pluralized, they can also have quantifiers that indicate an amount or
quantity. Some quantifiers can only be used with countable nouns. While some other quantifiers can only be
used with uncountable nouns.

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The following chart lists the quantifiers that indicate to you whether a noun should be countable or
uncountable.

QUANTIFIERS FOR COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

For Countable Nouns many number few fewer

For Uncountable Nouns much amount little less

He has seen much foreign films. (INCORRECT)

He didn’t have many fun at the movies. (INCORRECT)
Andy bought many books yesterday. (CORRECT)
We have fewer cells as we get older. (CORRECT)

TOEFL® EXERCISE

Directions: Identify the one underlined word or phrase (A), (B), (C), or (D), that must be changed for the
sentence to be correct.

1. The leaves of the common sunflower are rough to the touch on both side.
A B C D
2. Through aquaculture, or fish farming, more than 500 million tons of fish are produced
A B C
each years.
D
3. The legal system has much safeguards to protect the right of a defendant to an impartial
A B C
jury.
D
4. Those with narcolepsy experience the uncontrollable desire to sleep, perhaps several time
A B C
in one day.
D
5. Another great artists of the time and possibly the most gifted silversmith in the colonies
A B C
was Paul Revere.
D
6. In the 1920s, Tulsa had a higher number of millionaire than any other U.S. city.
A B C D
7. The red cardinal spends many of its time feeding on the ground.
A B C D
8. The first of two such investigation requires the students to read continuously over a period
A B C
of four hours.
D
9. Because Washington is a district and not a state, its residents have less rights than
A B C
other citizens.
D
10. Implosive consonants occur in many different language, but they are particularly common
A B C D

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 in American Indian and African languages.
PRONOUNS
PRONOUNS

The following chart outlines the five forms of pronouns:

Subject Object Possessive

Reflexive Pronouns
Pronouns Pronouns Adjectives Pronouns
1st person I me my mine myself
we us our ours ourselves
nd
2 person you you your yours yourself
you you your yours yourselves
he him his his himself
she her her hers herself
3rd person
it it its its itself
they them their theirs themselves

Adjective who whom

whose whose -
connectors that that

SUBJECT AND OBJECT PRONOUNS

1. A subject pronoun is used for a subject of a verb. An object pronoun can be used as the object of a verb
or the object of a preposition.
He left his books in the classroom.
John talked to the man who is standing near him.
That policeman is watching me.
The student whom I advised is smart.

2. Only a subject pronoun that can follow the be-verb.

It was he at the door.
It must have been they who left the message.

3. A subject pronoun is used when the subjects of two clauses are being compared. An object pronoun is
used when the objects of two clauses are being compared.
She is taller than he (is).
My little sister is angry because I get to stay out later than she.
The teacher likes you better than me.
The child responds to her more readily than to him.

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 POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES AND POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS

1. A possessive adjective describes a noun: it must be accompanied by a noun. A possessive pronoun, on the
other hand, takes the place of a noun: it cannot be accompanied by a noun.

This is his coat. This coat is mine.

His car can go faster than your cars. His car can go faster than yours.

2. A possessive adjective is used to modify an –ing noun form (gerund).

The audience really likes his singing.

I appreciate your helping me.
The music teacher knows whose playing is the best.

3. A possessive pronoun is used after the preposition of meaning possession.

Audrey is a good friend of mine.

I found an old composition of yours in the file.

PRONOUN AGREEMENT

Every pronoun must agree in person, number, and gender with the noun it refers to. The following are
examples of errors of this type that you might find on the TOEFL test:

The boys will cause trouble if you let him.

Everyone must give their name.

In the first example, the singular pronoun him is incorrect because it refers to the plural noun boys. This
pronoun should be replaced with the plural pronoun them. In the second example, the plural possessive
adjective their is incorrect because it refers to the singular everyone. This adjective should be replaced with
the singular his or his or her.

The following are rules for pronoun agreement:

1. A plural pronoun is used to refer to two words joined by both .... and or two or more words joined by
and.

Both John and Mary are returning to their class.

John and I are returning to our class.

2. A singular pronoun is used to refer to indefinite pronouns (somebody, nothing, everyone, etc.). any of the
third person singular pronouns may be used (he, his, she, it, etc.) depending on the meaning of the
sentence.

Everyone must do his homework.

He never puts anything back in its place.

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TOEFL® EXERCISE

Time : 6 minutes.

Directions: Identify the one underlined word or phrase (A), (B), (C), or (D), that must be changed for the
sentence to be correct.

1. Animals like frogs have waterproof skin that prevents they from drying out quickly in air, sun
A B C
or wind.
D
2. When children experience too much frustration, its behavior ceases to be integrated.
AB C D
3. On March 30, 1981, President Reagan was shot as his was leaving a Washington hotel.
A B C D
4. Although the destruction that it causes is often terrible, cyclones benefit a much wider
A B C
belt than they devastate.
D
5. Almost half of the Pilgrims did not survive theirs first winter in the New World.
A B C D
6. Because of its ability to survive close to human habitations, the Virginia deer has actually
A B C
increased their range and numbers.
D
7. During the Civil War, Clara Barton became known as the “Angel of the Battlefield” for hers
A B C
fearless care of wounded soldiers.
D
8. The narwhal is the only animal in the world that has a tusk on only one side of it’s body.
A B C D
9. Some scallops can open and close theirs valves and swim rapidly when they are disturbed.
A B C D
10. Pearl S. Buck began her first novel, East Wind, West Wind, in 1925, while her was traveling
A B C D
between the United States and China.

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 ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS
ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

There are two skills involving adjectives and adverbs that will help you on the TOEFL test: knowing when to
use adjectives and adverbs and using adjectives rather than adverbs after linking verbs.

BASIC USE OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

Adjectives and adverbs have very different uses. Adjectives have only one job: they describe nouns or
pronouns. An adjective usually comes before the noun it modifies or after the verb be.

She is a beautiful woman. She is beautiful.

ADJ. NOUN PRO. ADJ.

Adverbs do three different things. They describe verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.

She sings beautifully. She is a beautifully dressed woman.

She is a truly beautifully dressed woman.

ADJECTIVES AFTER LINKING VERBS

Generally an adverb will come directly after a verb because the adverb is describing the verb.

She spoke angrily.

However, if the verb is a linking verb, it is followed by an adjective rather than an adverb.

She looks angry. She looks unusually angry.

ADJ. ADV. ADJ.
The following chart lists commonly used linking verbs and outlines the different uses of adjectives and
adverbs after regular verbs and linking verbs.

ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS AFTER VERBS

SUBJECT + REGULAR VERB + ADVERB

A regular verb is followed by an adverb. The adverb describes the verb.

SUBJECT + LINKING VERB + ADJECTIVE

A linking verb is followed by an adjective. The adjective describes the noun.

SUBJECT + LINKING VERB + ADVERB + ADJECTIVE

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It is possible that a linking verb is followed by an adverb and an adjective. The adverb describes the adjective,
and the adjective describes the subject.

LINKING VERBS: appear feel seem taste remain

be look smell become prove

TOEFL® EXERCISE

Directions: Identify the one underlined word or phrase (A), (B), (C), or (D), that must be changed for the
sentence to be correct.
1. Modern art is on display at the Guggenheim Museum, a building with an unusually design.
A B C D
2. Often the best farmland is next to a river that floods periodical.
A B C D
3. In spite of a tremendous amount of electronic gadgetry, air traffic control still depends
A B C
heavy on people.
D
4. Heart attack are fatally in 75 percent of occurrences.
A B C D
5. An eighteen-watt fluorescent bulb seems as brightly as a seventy-five-watt incandescent
A B C
bulb.
D
6. Fifty million Americans continue to smoke despite abundant evidence that smoking is
A B
extremely unhealthily.
C D
7. The U.S. Military Academy sits on scenic heights overlooking a strategically bend in
A B C D
the Hudson River.
8. In the Northern United States, two European species of small white birch are extensive
A B C
planted as ornamentals.
D
9. The Erie Canal became so successfully at providing cheap transportation that it was greatly
A B C
enlarged between 1835 and 1862.
D
10. The Infra-Red Astronomy Satellite (IRAS), launched in 1983, contained a special coded
A B C
reflecting telescope that detected infrared rays.
D

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 COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES
COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES

THE FORM OF COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES

The comparative is formed with either –er or more and than, while the superlative is formed with the, either –
est or most, and sometimes in, of, or a that-clause. The following chart describes how to use the comparatives
or the superlatives in sentences.

.......... COMPARATIVE + THAN + ......... .......... THE + SUPERLATIVE (+ IN/OF/THAT +) .........

Bob is taller than Ron. Bob is the tallest man in the room.
Sally is more beautiful than Sharon. Bob is the tallest of all the man in the party.
This car is much smaller than the cello. Of all the mass-produced violins, this one is the least
Harry’s watch is far more expensive than mine. expensive.
Bob is the tallest man that I have ever seen.
Note: Much and far can be added before the The fastest runner wins the race.
comparative form.

The following are the rules to follow to change an adjective or an adverb into its comparative or superlative
form.

EXAMPLE
RULE
ADJECTIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

1. The comparative and the superlative of a one- small smaller smallest

syllable adjective/adverb are formed by adding cheap cheaper cheapest
–er or –est to the adjective/adverb. fast faster fastest

2. The comparative and the superlative of a long important more important most important
adjective or adverb are formed by adding –er or beautiful more beautiful most beautiful
–est to the adjective or adverb. slowly more slowly most slowly

3. The comparative and the superlative of a two- angry angrier angriest

syllable adjective ending in –y, -er or -le are happy happier happiest
formed by adding –er or –est to the adjective. simple simpler simplest

4. Some adverbs and adjectives have irregular good/well better best

forms of comparatives and superlatives. bad/badly worse worst
little less least
many/much more most
late later last

THE USES OF COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES

The comparative is used to compare two equal things.

The history class is larger than the math class.

Andrew is more intelligent than Andrea.

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The superlative is used when there are more than two items to compare and you want to show the one that is
the best, the biggest, or is some way the most outstanding.

The history class is the largest in the school.

Andrew is the most intelligent of all students in the class.

OTHER FORMS OF THE COMPARATIVE

The following chart outlines the other forms of comparative that you may encounter on the TOEFL test.

COMPARATIVE FORM EXAMPLE

EQUAL COMPARISONS My house is as high as his house.
An equal comparison indicates that the two things are My house is the same height as his house.
(or are not) exactly the same. The following rules My house is not as high as his house.
apply to this type of comparison. My house is not so high as his house.
His car can run as fast as his car.

DOUBLE COMPARATIVES The hotter it is, the more miserable I feel.

The double comparative is used to show parallel The higher we flew, the worse Edna felt.
increase or decrease.
The more you study, the smarter you will become.
The greater the experience, the higher the salary.

TOEFL® EXERCISE

Directions: Choose the letter of the word or group of words that best completes the sentence.

1. The speed of light is ______ the speed of sound.

(A) faster (C) the fastest

(B)much faster than (D) as fast

2. The foods that contain ______ are made of animal fat whereas vegetables have the least energy.

(A) as much energy as (C) the most energy

(B)the more energy (D) more energy than

3. Albert Einstein’s contributions t scientific theory were ______ those of Galileo and Newton.

(A) important than (C) the most important

(B)more important (D) as important as

4. For many children, nothings seems so exciting ______ their first airplane ride.

(A) so does (C) than

(B)as (D) on

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Directions: Identify the one underlined word or phrase (A), (B), (C), or (D), that must be changed for the
sentence to be correct.

5. During the 1700s, Philadelphia developed into the most wealthy city in the American colonies.
A B C D
6. Peanuts are closely related to peas than to nuts.
A B C D
7. Climate, soil type, and availability of water are the most critical factors than selecting the
A B C
best type of grass for lawn.
D
8. Certain types of snakes have been known to survive fasts more as a year long.
A B C D
9. Protein molecules are the most complex than the molecules of carbohydrates.
A B C D
10. The leek, a member of the lily family, has a mildest taste than the onion.
A B C D
11. Most evergreens have needle-like leaves that require least water than regular leaves.
A B C D
12. The Sahara Desert in Africa is by far the most large desert in the world, covering an area
A B
nearly as big as the United States.
C D

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 PARALLEL STRUCTURES
PARALLEL STRUCTURE

The parallel structure are required when two or more items are connected with coordinate conjunctions,
correlative conjunctions, or comparisons.

PARALLEL STRUCTURE IN SERIES

The following chart outlines the use of parallel structures with coordinate conjunctions.

and
(same structure) (same structure)
but

or
You can stay home or go to the movies with us.
The students are in the classrooms and in front of the building.
I am here because I have to be and because I want to be.
Class can be interesting or boring.
Mr. Brown likes to go home, but his wife prefers to stay late.
She likes jogging, swimming, and playing tennis.
She likes to swim, to jog, and to play tennis.

PARALLEL STRUCTURE WITH CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS

The following chart outlines the use of parallel structures with correlative conjunctions.

both and
either or
(same structure) neither (same structure) nor
not only but also

I know both where you went and what you did.

The tickets are neither in my pocket nor in my purse.
He is not only an excellent students but also an outstanding athlete.

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TOEFL® EXERCISE

Directions: Choose the letter of the word or group of words that best completes the sentence.

1. Vitamin C is necessary for the prevention and _____ of scurvy.

(A) it cures (C) cure

(B)cures (D) for curing

2. A baby’s development is influenced by both heredity and _____.

(A) by environmental factors (C) the influence of the environment

(B) environmentally (D) environment

3. To qualify as a language, a communication system must have the features of meaningfulness, ____, and
productivity.

(A) displacement (C) displacing

(B) to displace (D) to be displaced

4. Thomas Malthus claimed that disease, war, famine, and _____ act as checks on population growth.

(A) moral restraining (C) moral restraint

(B) morally restrain (D) by moral restraint

Directions: Identify the one underlined word or phrase (A), (B), (C), or (D), that must be changed for the
sentence to be correct.
5. Pipelines are continually inspected for leaks and for damage caused by such conditions
A
as freezing temperatures, heavy rain, and soil erode.
B C D
6. Plastics used to make textiles can be drawn into fine threads, then woven or knit into fabrics.
A B C D
7. Insufficient protein in the diet may cause a lack of energy, stunted growth, and
A B C
lowering resistance to disease.
D
8. In the human body, phosphorus compound are found chiefly in the bones, brain, and nervous.
A B C D
9. The Gadsden Purchase came about because of the boundary dispute and because
A B C
a railroad was proposed.
D
10. The liquid crystals in a liquid crystals display (LCD) affect the polarized light so that it is
A B C
either blocked and reflected by the segments of the display.
D

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