DEPARTMENT OF

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MATERIAL TESTING LAB MANUAL

(18MEL37A/47A)
As per VTU Syllabus CBCS scheme for III Semester

BAPUJI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DAVANGERE- 577 004
 DEPARTMENT OF
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MATERIAL TESTING LAB MANUAL

2018
(18MEL37A/47A)
As per VTU Syllabus CBCS scheme for III Semester

Name : ……………………………………………

USN : ……………………………………………

Semester: …………… Batch No.………………….

Vijay Kumar T N Suresh U M

Faculty Incharge Instructor

BAPUJI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DAVANGERE- 577 004
 VISION OF THE INSTITUTE
To be center of excellence recognized nationally and internationally, in
distinctive areas of engineering education and research, based on a culture of
innovation and invention.
MISSION OF THE INSTITUTE
BIET contributes to the growth and development of its students by imparting
a broad based engineering education and empowering them to be successful
in their chosen field by inculcating in them positive approach, leadership
qualities and ethical values.
VISION OF THE DEPARTMENT
The department endeavors to be a center of excellence, to provide quality
education leading the students to become professional mechanical engineers
with ethics, contributing to the society through research, innovation,
entrepreneurial and leadership qualities.
MISSION OF THE DEPARTMENT
l. To impart quality technical education through effective teaching-
learning process leading to development of professional skills and attitude
to excel in Mechanical Engineering.

2. To interact with institutes of repute, to enhance academic and research

activities.

3. To inculcate creative thinking abilities among students and develop

entrepreneurial skills.
4. To imbibe ethical, environmental friendly and moral values amongst students
through broad based education
 PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEO’S)

1. Enable to understand mechanical engineering systems those are technically

viable, economically feasible and socially acceptable to enhance quality of
life.
2. Apply modern tools and techniques to solve problems in mechanical and
allied engineering streams.
3. Communicate effectively using innovative tools, to demonstrate leadership
and entrepreneurial skills.
4. Be a professional having ethical attitude with multidisciplinary
approach to achieve self and organizational goals.
5. Utilize the best academic environment to create opportunity to cultivate
lifelong learning skills needed to succeed in profession.

PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSO’S)

PS01:-Apply the acquired knowledge in design, thermal, manufacturing
and interdisciplinary areas for solving industry and socially relevant
problems.

PS02:-To enhance the abilities of students by imparting knowledge in

emerging technologies to make them confident mechanical engineers.
 B. E. MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Choice Based Credit System (CBCS) and Outcome Based Education (OBE)
SEMESTER – III
MATERIAL TESTING LAB
Course Code 18MEL37A/47A CIE Marks 40
Teaching Hours/Week (L:T:P) 0:2:2 SEE Marks 60
Credits 02 Exam Hours 03
Course Learning Objectives:
 To learn the concept of the preparation of samples to perform characterization such as microstructure,
volume fraction of phases and grain size.
 To understand mechanical behavior of various engineering materials by conducting standard tests. To
learn material failure modes and the different loads causing failure.
 To learn the concepts of improving the mechanical properties of materials by different methods like
heat treatment, surface treatment etc.
Sl. Experiments
No.
PART A
1 Preparation of specimen for Metallographic examination of different engineering materials.
To report microstructures of plain carbon steel, tool steel, gray C.I, SG iron, Brass, Bronze &
Composites.
2 Heat treatment: Annealing, normalizing, hardening and tempering of steel. Metallographic specimens of
heat treated components to be supplied and students should report microstructures of furnace cooled,
water cooled, air cooled, tempered steel. Students should be able to distinguish the phase changes in a
heat treated specimen compared to Untreated specimen.
3 Brinell, Rockwell and Vickers’s Hardness tests on untreated and heat treated specimens.
4 To study the defects of Cast and Welded components using Non-destructive tests like:
a) Ultrasonic flaw detection
b) Magnetic crack detection
c) Dye penetration testing.
PART B
1 Tensile, shear and compression tests of steel, aluminum and cast iron specimens using Universal Testing
Machine
2 Torsion Test on steel bar.
3 Bending Test on steel and wood specimens.
4 Izod and Charpy Tests on Mild steel and C.I Specimen.
5 To study the wear characteristics of ferrous and non-ferrous materials under different parameters.
6 Fatigue Test (demonstration only).
Course Outcomes: At the end of the course, the student will be able to:
CO1.To learn the concept of the preparation of samples to perform characterization such as micro structure, volume
fraction of phases and grain size.
CO 2.To understand mechanical behavior of various engineering materials by conducting standard tests.
CO 3.To learn material failure modes and the different loads causing failure.
CO 4.To learn the concepts of improving the mechanical properties of materials by different methods like heat
treatment, and surface treatment
 DO’s

1. Students must always wear uniform and shoes before entering the lab.
2. Proper code of conduct and ethics must be followed in the lab.
3. Windows and doors to be kept open for proper ventilation and air circulation.
4. Note down the specifications of the experimental setup before performing the
experiment.
5. Check for the electrical connections and inform if any discrepancy found to the
attention of lecturer/lab instructor.
6. Perform the experiment under the supervision/guidance of a lecturer/lab instructor
only.
7. After the observations are noted down switch off the electrical connections.
8. In case of fire use fire extinguisher/throw the sand provided in the lab.
9. In case of any physical injuries or emergencies use first aid box provided.
10. Any unsafe conditions prevailing in the lab can be brought to the notice of the
lab in charge.

DONT’s
1. Do not operate any experimental setup to its maximum value.
2. Do not touch/ handle the experimental setups/Test Rigs without their prior
knowledge,
3. Never overcrowd the experimental setup/Test Rig, Leave sufficient space for
the person to operate the equipment’s.
4. Never rest your hands on the equipment or on the display board, because it has
fragile measurement devices like thermometers, manometers, etc.
 CONTENTS
Sl.
Title
No.
1.
PART-A
1-4
MICROSTRUCTURE
HEAT TREATMENTS
2.
(A) ANNEALING AND NORMALISING OF STEEL 5-8
(B) HARDENING OF STEEL 9-12
13-14
(C) TEMPERING OF STEEL
HARDNESS TESTS
3.
(A) BRINELL HARDNESS TEST 15-18
(B) ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST 19-20
(C) VICKER’S HARDNESS TEST 21-22

4. NON- DESTRUCTIVE TESTS

(A) ULTRASONIC FLAW DETECTION TEST 23-24
(B) MAGNETIC CRACK DETECTION TEST 25
26
(C) DYE PENTRANTION TEST
1. PART-B
(A) TENSION TEST 27-34
(B) COMPRESSION TEST 35-37
38-39
(C) SHEAR TEST
40-43
2. TORSION TEST
44-47
3. BENDING TEST
IMPACT TEST 48-51
4.
52-54
5. WEAR TEST
6. FATIGUE TEST (Demonstration) 55-58
 LAYOUT OF MATERIAL TESTING LABORATORY

2
1

3
7

INDEX
1) VICKERS AND BRINELL HARDNESS TESTING MACHINE
2) ROCKWELL CUM BRINELL HARDNESS TESTING MACHINE
3) TORSION TESTING MACHINE
4) UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE
5) ROTATING CANTILEVER FATIGUE MACHINE
6) PENDULUM IMPACT TESTING MACHINE
7) UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE
 MATERIAL TESTING LABORATORY

PART A
EXPERIMENT NO. 1

MICROSTRUCTURE

Object: To study the microstructure of the given specimen (micro-section) and to determine the
grain size.

Apparatus: Hand press, flat file, emery papers of various grades, rotary polishing machine, and
metallurgical microscope.

Theory: Micrograph is the study of the structures of metals and their alloys under a microscope at
magnification from x75 to x1500. The observed structure is called the microstructure. The
metallographic studies include;

1. Determination of size and shape of the crystallites which constitute an alloy.

2. Reveal the structure characteristic of certain type of mechanical working operations.
3. Detect the micro-defects such as nonmetallic inclusions, micro cracks, etc"
4. Determine the chemical content of alloys.
5. It indicates the quality of heat treatment.
Preparation of specimens for microscopical examination: The various steps involved in
preparing a Specimen for microscopic examinations is given below;

1. Selection of specimen: When investigating the properties of a metal, it is essential that the
specimen must be homogeneous in composition and crystal structure. A specimen of 10mm
diameter or 10mm square is cut from the metal with a saw or water-cooled slitting wheel. The
thickness of the specimen should not be more than 12mm. When a specimen is so small that it is
difficult to hold, the specimen may be mounted in a suitable compound like thermoplastic resin,
by using a hand press. In cases where neither pressure nor heating is desirable, a cold setting
thermoplastic resin can be cast round the specimen. A specimen whose surface has been prepared
for microanalysis is called micro-section.

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2. Grinding: It is first necessary to obtain a reasonably flat surface on the specimen. This can be
achieved either by using a fairly coarse file or by using motor-driven emery belt. Care must be
taken to avoid overheating of the specimen by rapid grinding methods; since this may lead to
alterations in the microstructure. When the original hacksaw marks have been ground out, the
specimen should be thoroughly washed.

3. Fine grinding: Fine grinding is carried out on waterproof emery papers of progressively finer
grades (220, 320, 400, and 600) that are attached to a plane glass plate. The specimen is drawn
back and forth along the entire length of No. 220 paper, so that scratches produced are roughly at
right angles to those produced by the preliminary grinding operation. Having removed the primary
grinding marks, the specimen is washed thoroughly. Grinding is then continued on No:320 paper,
and again turning the specimen through 90° until the previous scratch narks have been removed.
This process is repeated with No. 400, and No. 600 papers. Light pressure should be used at all
stages.

4. Polishing: The final polishing operation is to remove the fine scratches on the surface by using
a rotary polishing machine. The specimen is polished by rubbing it on a soft moist velvet cloth
mounted on a flat rotating disc, with the polishing paste. Suitable polishing pastes are fine alumina,
magnesia. Chromium oxide, or diamond dust. Polishing is continued until a mirror scratch free
finish is obtained. Nonferrous specimens are best finished by hand on a small piece of selvyt cloth
wetted with- silvo polishing. This should be accomplished with a circular sweep of the hand instead
of back and forth motion used in grinding. During polishing a constant trip of water is fed to the
rotating pad. After polishing, the specimen must be washed thoroughly. The grease films if any
can be removed by immersing the specimen in boiling ethanol.

5. Etching: To make its structure apparent under the microscope, it is necessary to impart unlike
appearances to the constituents. This is generally accomplished by selectively corroding or etching
the polished surface by applying a chemical etching reagent. Grain boundaries will etch at different
rates than the grains then leaving the grains standing out and they become visible with a reflected
light microscope. Various etching reagents for microscopic examination are given in table-1.

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 MATERIAL TESTING LABORATORY

Table : Details of different etchants, composition, and characteristics

Type of etchant Composition Characteristics and uses
Nital 2 c.c. Nitric acid and 98 c.c. Ethanol Iron and steel and ferrite
Grey cast iron. Etching
time 10-30 sec.

Picral 4 gm. Picric acid and 96 c.c. Ethanol Good for pearlite and
spherodised structure.
and cast iron (not for (
ferritic structure)

Acid ammonium 10 c.c. Hydrochloric acid, 10 gm Stainless steel.

peroxodisulphate Ammonium peroxodisulphate, 80
c.c. Water.

Dilute hydrofluoric 0.5 c.c. Hydrofluoric acid, 99.5 c.c Aluminum and its alloys
acid Water

Ethanoic acid and 3 c.c. Acetic acid, 4 c.c. Nitric acid. Lead and its alloys
nitric acid 16 c.c. Water.

Dilute hydrochloric 1 c.c. Hydrochloric acid, 99 c.c. Zinc and its alloys
acid in alcohol Alcohol.

Mixed nitric acid and 50 c.c. Nitric acid and 50 c.c. Nickel and monel metal.
Ethanoic acid Ethanoic acid

Ammonia hydrogen 50 c.c. Ammonium hydroxide, 20-50 Copper brass and bronze
peroxide c.c. Hydrogen peroxide, 50 c.c.
Water

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The specimen is immersed in or swabbed with suitable reagent until the polished surface becomes
very slightly discolored. The reagent is then thoroughly washed off first with water and then with
alcohol. The surface is then dried in warm air, the standard microstructures for various metals are
shown in fig.

Fig.Standard metallurgical microscope

Grain size: The grain size of a metal can be reported in several ways:

1. Number of grains in unit area of cross-section.

2. Mean diameter of grains.
3. ASTM grain size index N - where 2N-1 is the number of grains per square inch at a
magnification of x100.

Procedure:
1. Prepare the given specimen as explained above and etch it. .
2. Mount the specimen on the calibrated microscope slide such that the surface is normal to the
axis of the instrument.
3. Record the objective magnification and eyepiece magnification to determine the total
magnification.
4. Focus the surface of the specimen using coarse adjustment and then by fine adjustment.
5. Observe the microstructure and record it.
6. Identify the material by comparing the microstructure with the standard microstructure.
7. Repeat the same for the other specimens

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 MATERIAL TESTING LABORATORY

EXPERIMENT NO. 2

(A) ANNEALING AND NORMALISING OF STEEL

Object: To anneal or normalize the given steel specimen and determine the Rockwell hardness.

Apparatus: Austenitizing furnace (upto-1000°C), and Rockwell hardness testing machine.

Theory: The microstructure of steel part can be modified by heat treatment techniques, that is, by
controlled heating and cooling of the alloys at various rates. These treatments induce phase
transformations that greatly influence mechanical properties of steel. The various heat-treatment
process are annealing, normalizing, hardening and tempering.

Annealing of steel is the process of heating the steel specimen to its austenising temperature,
holding it there long enough to dissolve the cementite and disperse the carbon uniformly, and then
cool it very slowly to change the structure to the softest state. The low rate of cooling is achieved
by turning the furnace off and letting the closed furnace cool down to ambient temperature. The
annealing temperature of hypo-eutectoid steel is
tannel = Upper critical temperature + 30°C to 50°C

To avoid excessive softness in the annealing of steels, the cooling cycle may be done completely
in still air. This process is called normalizing. In normalizing, the part is heated to normalizing
temperature and is withdrawn from the furnace. It is then cooled in still air at the room temperature.
The more drastically cooled austenite decomposes into a more dispersed aggregate made up of
pearlite. After annealing and normalizing, a fine grain structure is obtained provided if there is no
super heating. The normalizing temperature is usually 30°C to 50°C more than that of annealing
temperature. The annealing and normalizing temperature for carbon steels are given in table-1.

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 MATERIAL TESTING LABORATORY

Table: Details of grade, annealing, and normalizing temperature

Grade of steel Annealing temperature (°C) Normalizing temperature (°C)

30C8 850-870 850-900

35C8 840-860 840-890

40C8 840-850 830-880

45C8 820-840 820-870

The purposes of annealing are:

1. To obtain softness.
2. To improve machinability.
3. To increase ductility and toughness.
4. To relieve internal stresses.
5. To refine the grain size.
6. To prepare steel for subsequent cold working.
The purposes of normalizing the steel are:

1. To eliminate coarse-grained structure obtained in previous working (rolling, forging, or

stamping).
2. To increase the strength of medium carbon steels.
3. To improve machinability of low carbon steel.
4. To reduce internal stresses.
The hardness of annealed and normalized carbon steels is given in table-2.

Table: Conditions of different types of steels

Condition Low carbon steel (RB) Medium High carbon steel (RB)
carbon steel
(RB)
Annealed 72 85 91
Normalized 92 99
78

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Heat treating furnace: A heat-treating furnace is a refractory lined chamber in which the metal
parts are heated to the required temperature. Usually the furnace consists of a box-like structure of
steel shell, door, refractory lining, heating source, temperature controls, and temperature
indicators. Heat-treating furnaces may be classified on the basis of the following:

1. According to use: Annealing furnace, Hardening furnace, Tempering furnace, etc.

2. According to the type of work: Batch type furnace, and continuous furnace.
3. According to the source of heat: Reverberatory furnace (coal, coke, oil or gas fired) and
Electric furnace.
4. According to working environment: The working media in which the heating of article may be
performed are air, protective gas atmosphere, and oil bath or salt bath.

Procedure for annealing:

1. Heat the given steel specimen in a box type furnace until the specimen reaches the annealing
temperature.
2. Keep the specimen in the furnace at the annealing temperature for some time.
3. Cool the specimen by switching off the furnace.
4. Remove the steel specimen from the furnace when the furnace is cooled down to atmospheric
temperature.
5. Determine the hardness of the annealed specimen using Rockwell hardness-testing machine.

Observations and result:

Annealing temperature (OC) =

Holding time (min.) =

Rockwell hardness (HRB) =

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 MATERIAL TESTING LABORATORY

Procedure for normalizing:

1. Heat the given steel specimen in a box type furnace until the specimen reaches normalizing
temperature.
2. Keep the specimen in the furnace at the normalizing temperature for some time.
3. Remove the specimen from the furnace and cool it in the still air at atmospheric temperature.
4. Determine the hardness of the normalized specimen using Rockwell hardness-testing machine.
Observations and result:

Normalizing temperature (OC) =

Holding time (min.) =

Rockwell hardness (HRB) =

Department of Mechanical Engineering, BIET, Davanagere 8

 MATERIAL TESTING LABORATORY

EXPERIMENT NO. 2

(B) HARDENING OF STEEL

Object: To harden the given steel specimen and to determine the Rockwell hardness of the
hardened specimen.

Apparatus: Hardening furnace, and Rockwell hardness testing machine.

Theory: Hardening is a heat treating process in which steel is heated to a temperature above the
critical point, held at this temperature, and then quenched in water, oil, or molten salt baths. The
optimum hardening temperature is;

For hypo-eutectoid steel, t hard = Upper critical temperature + 30°C to 50°C

For hyper-eutectoid steel, t hard = Lower critical temperature + 30°C to 50°C

The hardening temperature for carbon steels is given in table-l and the effect of hardening
temperature upon, hardness for tool steel is shown in table-2.

Table : The hardening temperature for carbon steels

Grade of steel Hardening temperature ( 0C )

25 C8 870 to 890

30 C8 850 to 870

35 C8 840 to 860

40 C8 830 to 850

45 C8 820 to 840

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 MATERIAL TESTING LABORATORY

Table : Effect of hardening temperature upon, hardness for tool steel

Hardness Temp. 740 760 780 800 820 840 860 880 900

( 0C )
Rockwell hardness 65 65 65 64 63 62 62 61 60
number (HRC)

In hardening, the steel specimen is heated to austenitizing temperature and is quenched in

water, or oil, or molten salt bath. Due to the higher rate of cooling, the face-centered cubic structure
is transformed into body Centered tetragonal structure. This microstructure is called martensite.
The main purpose of hardening is to increase the yield strength and tensile strength of the metal.
Hardening increases the surface hardness and thereby increases the wear resistance. Hardened steel
is in a stressed condition and is very brittle. After hardening, the steel must be tempered to reduce
the brittleness and relieve the internal stresses caused by hardening and to obtain the desired
mechanical properties. The heating time and holding time to harden carbon steels are shown in
table.
Table: The heating time and holding time to harden carbon steels
Thickness or 25 50 75 100 125 150 200
diameter of part
(mm)
Heating time (mm) 20 40 60 80 100 120 160
Heating time (mm) 5 10 15 20 25 30 40

When immersing the heated parts in a quenching liquid, the following principal regulations should
be adopted:

1. Articles composed of heavy and thin sections must be immersed in the quenching bath with
their heavy parts first.
2. Long, slender articles must be immersed vertically.
3. Thin flat parts must be immersed edgewise.

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 MATERIAL TESTING LABORATORY

4. Parts in the form of thin rings should be immersed with their axis perpendicular to the surface
of the quenching liquid.
Internal stresses setup in quenching: The stresses that develop in rapidly cooled article as a
result of an unequal cooling are so called thermal stresses. Apart from thermal stresses so called
structural stresses is setup in rapidly cooling parts. These structural stresses are caused by two
factors:

1. The unequal specific volumes of astatine and its decomposition products.

2. This structural transformations progressing at different time in the outer layers and the central
portion of the article.

Thus the internal stresses setup in rapidly quenched steel articles are a combinations of thermal
and structural stresses. When the internal stresses exceed the yield point, the part undergoes plastic
deformation. But if the internal stresses exceed the tensile strength of the metal, then cracks will
inevitably develop. When steel articles are hardened, many defects may occur in number of ways.
They are;

1. Oxidation and decarburisation,

2. Quenching cracks

3. Change in dimensions

4. Soft spots

5. Distortion and warpage.

Procedure:

1. Remove the oil or grease impurities by rinsing the steel specimen in hot water, preferably water
soda added.
2. Clean the surface of the steel specimen by wire brush or by sand blasting.
3. Heat the steel specimen in a box type furnace to hardening temperature.
4. Hold the steel specimen at the hardening temperature for some time.

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 MATERIAL TESTING LABORATORY

5. Remove the steel specimen from the furnace and immediately quench it in oil or water or salt
bath.
6. Find the hardness of the hardened steel part by using Rockwell hardness tester.

Observations and result:

1 Hardening temperature (OC) =

2 Holding time (min.) =

3 Rockwell hardness (HRC) =

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 MATERIAL TESTING LABORATORY

EXPERIMENT NO. 2

(C) TEMPERING OF STEEL

Object: To temper the given hardened steel specimen and to determine the Rockwell hardness
number.

Apparatus: Tempering furnace with oil or salt bath, and Rockwell hardness testing machine.

Theory: The structure of the hardened steel mainly consists of tetragonal martensite, the hardness
of which is very high. At the sometime, the hardened steel will have low ductile properties, very
poor impact strength, and brittle. Because of this hardened steel must be tempered. In tempering
the tetragonal martensite gradually changes to heterogeneous mixture consisting of alpha solution
being depleted of carbon and with a decreasing degree of tetragonality, and highly dispersed
carbides. As a result of this primary transformation, some decrease in hardness takes place, and on
the other hand there is a progressive increase in plasticity and impact strength.

The steel specimen must be tempered as soon as possible after quenching. The tempering
temperature of cutting tools of carbon steels is 160°C to 200°C and tools subjected to shock such
as dies; punches are 200°C to 300°C. Low tempering (up to 250°C) of tools is carried out either in
oil baths or in salt baths. Furnaces used for tempering are usually of batch type. Heating the steel
for tempering is carried out either in oil bath (for low tempering) or salt bath (for high tempering).
Liquid transfers heat more uniformly and have greater capacity. Temperature control in low
tempering is achieved by watching the So-called temper colors, which appear on the ground
surface of steel at temperatures from 200°C to 300°C. The temperature of tempering and duration
of tempering are the most important factors in tempering. The table-1 gives the holding time for
tempering.

Table : Gives the details of holding time for tempering.

Diameter or thickness of part 1 - 20 21 - 40 41 - 60 Over 60

(mm)
Holding time (hrs.) 1 1.5 2 2.5

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Depending upon the grade of steel, the steel part is then cooled either by slow cooling in the furnace
or rapid cooling. Self-tempering is the process of tempering the parts by using the heat left out
during quenching. Fig.5.1 shows the variation of Rockwell C hardness number with increase in
temperature.

Fig. shows the variation of Rockwell C hardness number with increase in temperature.

Procedure:

1. Heat the given hardened steel specimen in oil or salt bath using a tempering furnace until the
desired tempering temperature is reached.
2. Keep the specimen at tempering for some time.
3. Remove the specimen from the furnace and cool it in still air.
4. Find the hardness of the tempered steel specimen using Rockwell hardness tester.
Observations and result:

Tempering temperature, °C =

Holding time (hrs). =

Rockwell hardness (RC) =

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 MATERIAL TESTING LABORATORY

EXPERIMENT NO. 3

(A) BRINELL HARDNESS TEST

Object: To study the Brinell hardness tester and to determine the hardness number of the given
specimen.

Apparatus: Brinell hardness tester, and micrometer microscope.

Theory: Hardness is usually defined as the resistance to permanent indentation. Hardness tests
consist in measuring the resistance to plastic deformation of layers of metal near the surface of the
specimen. In the process of hardness determination when the metal is indented by a special tip
(steel ball), the tip first overcome the resistance metal to elastic deformation and then a small
amount of plastic deformation. Upon deeper indentation of the tip it overcomes large plastic
deformation. Therefore, hardness test determines the same properties as in other testing methods.
This fact enables a relation to be established between the hardness and ultimate tensile strength of
ductile metals.

Brinell hardness is one of the oldest and most used types. Brinell tests are static indentation test
using relatively large indenters. The principal features of a typical hydraulically operated Brinell
testing machine are shown in Fig.7.l. The specimen to be tested is placed on a hardened steel anvil.
The anvil is raised or lowered by a steel screw operated by a large hand wheel. Contact is made
between specimen and the ball indentor by turning the hand wheel. Load is applied by pumping
oil into the main cylinder, which forces the main piston or plunger downwards and presses the ball
into the specimen. When the desired load is applied, the balance weight on top of the machine is
lifted by action of the small piston, this ensure that an overload is not applied to the ball. After
applying the load on the ball for particular time, the load is removed and the diameter of the
indentation is measured with a micrometer microscope. The hardness number is defined as the
ratio of load in kilograms to the surface area of the indentation in square millimeters.

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Brinell hardness number HB (kgf/mm2) = 2F /(D (D- (D2-d2))) = F / (d t)

Where, F is the load in kgf, D is the diameter of the ball in mm, d is the diameter of the impression
in mm, and t is the depth of indentation in mm., as shown.
The ball diameter and applied load are constant and are selected from the table-l to suit the
composition of metal, its hardness of the test specimen. It is found that the Brinell number varies
with the diameter of the ball and the load employed. For strictly comparable results, fixed values
must be used for D and F.

Specimens: Specimens must be chosen with care in order to obtain good results. Brinell test is not
suitable for extremely hard materials, because the ball itself would deform too much, and is not
suitable for thin pieces, because the usual indentation may be greater than the thickness of the
piece. It is not adopted for use with case hardened surfaces, because the depth of indentation may
be greater than the thickness of the case and because of the yielding of the soft core invalidated
the results. The surface of the specimen should be flat and reasonably well polish

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Table : Brinell Test conditions

Material HB Thickness of test Ball Load Relation Time of
specimen diameter F between load
D (mm) application
(mm) (Kgf) F and D
(sec)
Steel, cast Up to Over 6 mm 10 3000 F = 30 D2 10 to 30*
iron 450
6 mm to 3 mm 5 750
less than 3 mm 2.5 187.5

Copper & its 31.8 - Over 6 mm 10 1000 F = 30 D2 30

alloys, 130
6 mm to 3 mm 5 250
magnesium
alloys less than 3 mm 2.5 62.5
Alluminium, 8 t0 35 Over 6 mm 10 250 F = 2.5 D2 60
babbits
6 mm to 3 mm 5 62.5
less than 3 mm 2.5 15.6

*For hardness up to HB 140, the time of load application is 30 sec., for harder materials 10 sec.

Procedure: The load F and the diameter of the ball D must be selected in accordance with the
expected hardness of the material, from the table-l and are noted. Place the specimen on the anvil
so that its surface will be normal to the direction of the applied load. Raise the anvil by means of
hand wheel until the specimen just makes contact with the ball. In some testing machine electrical
signals (light on-oft) will indicate its position. Apply the load by means of hand lever. Maintain
the full load for the prescribed time. Release the load and remove the specimen from the anvil.
Measure the diameter d of the impression left by the ball by means of micrometer microscope.
Make three independent hardness determinations on each specimen.

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Observations and tabulation:

Material Thickness of Ball Load F Time of load Diameter of HB
specimen h diameter D application T indentation
(Kgf)
(mm) (mm) (sec) d (mm)

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EXPERIMENT NO. 3

(B) ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST

Object: To study the Rockwell hardness tester and to determine the hardness number of the given
specimens.

Apparatus: Rockwell hardness tester.

Theory: In Rockwell hardness test, the depth of indentation of a diamond core or small steel ball
determines the hardness of the material. The Rockwell test differs from the Brinell test in that the
indenters and the loads are smaller and that the resulting indentation is smaller and shallower.

Rockwell hardness tester consists of an anvil, which can be moved up or down by turning the hand
wheel, which is situated, at the bottom of the spindle. The load can be applied by simply operating
a hand lever, which is just below the hand wheel. The indenter or penetrator in the Rockwell test
may be either a conical-shaped diamond called a brale with a 1200 apex angle or a hardened steel
ball 1.5875-mm (1/6-inch) in diameter. The brale is used for testing materials with a high hardness
and the steel ball for soft materials. Two consecutive loads intend the brale or the ball, a minor
load F1 (equal to 10 kgf.) which does not deform the metal and is used to seat the indenter, and an
additional major load F2 that equals 90 kgf. (total 100 kgf.) for the ball (scale B) and 140 kgf. (total
150 kgf.) for brale (scale C) is applied for indentation. The depth of penetration effected by the
additional load is the measure of Rockwell hardness. The Rockwell hardness is read directly on
the dial of the instrument that is graduated in the hardness units. The dial has two sets of figures,
one red (scale B) and the other black (scale C) which differ by 30 hardness number, (i.e., B-30 is
at C-0). It is made so, to avoid the negative hardness values on the B-scale, if used to test very soft
materials. This also facilitates in establishing that the highest hardness that can be measured with
a 1.5875-mm diameter ball indenter is only B-100 and for higher hardness the C-scale should be
employed.

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Fig. stages of Rockwell hardness tests.

Procedure: Place the specimen on the anvil so that its surface will be normal to the direction of
the applied load. Note the type and size of the indenter. Raise the anvil and the test specimen by
means of the elevating screw. The small pointer in the dial starts to move, once the specimen
touches the indenter. Continue to raise the work slowly until the small pointer comes to the red
dot. This indicates that the minor load of 10 kgf. is acting upon the indenter. Turn the dial until the
mark B-30 (i.e.,C-0), which is also designated by the red arrow and the word 'SET' is directly
behind the pointer. Release the operating handle so as to apply the major load, which is the
increment over the already applied minor load. The indenter starts to go down into the specimen.
This can be seen from the dial. The pointer starts to move during the period of loading.
Immediately after the major load has been fully applied gently bring back the operating handle to
its latched position. Read the position of the pointer on the selected scale, which gives the Rockwell
hardness number. Make three independent hardness determinations on each specimen.

Observations and tabulation:

Material Scale symbol Indenter Total load F (kgf) Rockwell hardness number
(HRB or HRC)

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EXPERIMENT NO. 3

(C) VICKER’S HARDNESS TEST

Object: To study the Vickers hardness tester and to determine the hardness number of the given
specimens.

Apparatus: Vickers hardness tester.

Theory: In Vickers hardness test, the hardness of the material is determined by indentation of a
square based diamond pyramid (with an angle of 136 degrees between opposite faces). Vickers
hardness testing is more versatile than Brinell hardness testing. Instead of changing the indenters
as well as the load, depending upon the nature of the material tested, only the load is changed in
the Vickers hardness test. The load may be varied from 1 kgf. to l20 kgf. The load is selected in
accordance with the size and hardness of the specimen. The size of the indentation obtained in this
test is small. The specimen is placed over the anvil and the load is slowly applied to the indenter
and then released by means of lever. After the anvil is lowered, a microscope is swung over the
specimen and the diagonal of the square indentation is measured. In some types of machines, the
indentation can be focused on to a graduated ground glass screen and measured. The hardness
number is given by equation,

HV= 2Fsin(/2) / d2 = 1.8544F / d2

Where F is load applied in kgf.,  is the angle between opposite faces of pyramid which is 136 0,
d is the average length of the two diagonals of the impression measured in the plane of the surface
of the metal in mm. Vickers and Brinell hardness are expressed in the same units ( kgf/mm2 ) and
coincide for hardness up to about 400. At the higher hardness the Vickers number is larger than
Brinell number.

Specimens: Vickers hardness testing is used for determining hardness of specimens of small cross-
section or of their external layers on case hardened, nitraded, etc., specimens having a high

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hardness. Owing to the fineness and the small size of the indentation obtained, the specimen needs
II glassy surface finish for testing.

Procedure: The load F must be selected in accordance with the expected hardness of the material
and is noted. Place the specimen on the anvil so that its surface will be normal to direction of the
applied load. Raise the anvil by means of a hand wheel until the specimen just makes contact with
the indenter. Apply the load by means of hand lever. Maintain the full load for the prescribed time.
Release the load and focus the indentation on to graduated ground glass screen. The magnified
diagonal length d1 and d2 of the indentation are measured by means of the venire mechanism
provided in the screen. Make three independent hardness determinations on each specimen.

Observations and tabulation:

Material Loah F Diagonal length of indenation HV=1.8544F / d2

(kgf/mm2)
(Kgf) (mm)
d1 D2 Mean
d = (d1 + d2 ) / 2

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EXPERIMENT NO. 4

NON- DESTRUCTIVE TESTS

(a) ULTRASONIC FLAW DETECTION TEST

Object: To study the ultrasonic flow detector and to determine the location of the interior crack or
cavity in the given specimen.

Apparatus: Ultrasonic flow detector.

Theory: Ultrasonic flaw detector is a device, which is used to detect internal discontinuities in the
material by nondestructive means. It makes use of phenomenon of back reflection (echo) of waves
by surfaces. When ultrasonic waves are made to pass through the test material, portion of the sound
is immediately reflected from the surface at which they enter as a very large echo. Part of the sound
will continue on into the test material, until it is partially reflected from the back surface as a
second echo. If there is a discontinuity in the material, a portion of the sound will be reflected from
the discontinuity and will return to the receiver as a separate echo between the echoes received
from the front and back surface. The signals received are shown on a cathode ray tube, which also
has a time base connected to it, so that the position of the signal on the screen gives an indication
of the distance between the crystal generator and the surface from which the echo originates.

Sound waves oscillating with a frequency greater than 20,000 cps are inaudible and are known as
ultrasound. High frequency sound is produced by a piezoelectric crystal, which is electrically
pulsed and then, vibrates at its own natural frequency. In order to transmit the sound waves from
the crystal to the metal, it is necessary to provide a liquid couplant. This is accomplished by using
a film of oil between the crystal and the test piece. After the crystal has given off its short burst of
sound waves, it stops vibrating arid listens for the returning echoes, i.e., one crystal probe is used
to send and receive the sound. This cycle of transmitting and then receiving is repeated at an
adjustable rate of from 100 to 1000 times per second.

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Returning echoes on the CRT causes short vertical spikes called pips. These are spaced along the
baseline & according to their time of receipt. Since the sound travels through the material at a
constant speed, the spacing of the pips can be considered as indicating thickness. Selecting and
expanding full screen size of the CRT can eliminate unwanted echoes caused by reverberations
with the test piece.

Let, A = Time elapsed between the pips of front surface echo and bottom surface echo (sec.)

B = Time elapsed between the pips of front surface echo and cavity surface echo (sec.)

h = Thickness of test specimen (mm)

Location of the crack from the front surface x =(B/A) h

Procedure:

1. Clean the surface of the test piece.

2. Place the probe against the surface of test piece using thin oil film.
3. Switch on the power supply of the ultrasonic wave generator.
4. Adjust the number of cycles of transmitting and receiving the signals to the desired value.
5. Select the segment of time, which contain the echo pips.
6. Observe the echo from the cavity if any on the CRT and measure the relative distances of pips
on the time axis.

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EXPERIMENT NO. 4

(B) MAGNETIC CRACK DETECTION TEST

Object: To detect the surface or subsurface crack of the given ferromagnetic material.

Apparatus: Magnetic field generator, and ferromagnetic powder.

Theory: The magnetic particle method of inspection is a procedure used to determine the presence
of the defects at or near the surface of the ferromagnetic objects. This method consists of placing
fine ferromagnetic particles on the surface. The particles can be applied either dry or in a liquid
carrier such as water or kerosene. When the part is magnetized with a magnetic field, a
discontinuity (defects) on the surface causes the particles to gather visibly around it. Thus, the
defects become a magnet due to the principle of flux leakage where magnetic field lines are
interrupted by the defect and collect the ferromagnetic particles. The collected particles generally
take the shape and size of the defects. Sub surface defects can also be detected by this method,
provided they are not deep. The ferromagnetic particles may be colored with pigments for better
visibility on the metal surfaces. The magnetic fields can be generated either with direct current or
alternating current, using yokes, bars, and coils. The equipment may be portable or stationary.

Procedure:

1. Clean the surface of the test specimen to remove scales, oils and grease.
3. Apply a thin layer of ferromagnetic particles over the surface to be tested.
2. Magnetize the test piece.
3. Observe the shape and size of the magnetic particles collected, which is the shape and size of
the defect.

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EXPERIMENT NO. 4

(D)DYE PENTRANTION TEST

Object: To detect the surface defects by penetrate test.

Apparatus: Penetrate, developer, and ultraviolet light source.

Theory: In the liquid penetrate test, liquids are applied to the surface of the part and allowed to
penetrate into surface openings, cracks, seams, and porosity. Two commonly known types of liquid
penetrates are: (a) Fluorescent penetrants which fluoresce under ultraviolet light, and (b) Visible
penetrant, using dyes, usually red in color, which appear as bright outlines on the surface.

The test piece is coated or socked in a1iquid penetrant and the surplus coating is wiped off. The
penetrant can seep into cracks as small as 0.1 m in width. After a short time, a developing agent
is added to allow the penetrant to seep back to the surface (due to capillary action) and spread to
the edges of openings. The surface is then inspected for defects, either visually in the case of dye-
penetrants or under ultraviolet light for fluorescent penetrant. The developer includes dry powders,
aqueous liquid, and non-aqueous liquid. This method is capable of detecting variety of surface
defects and is used extensively.

Procedure:

1. Clean the test piece surface to remove scales, oil, and grease.

2. Immerse the test piece in the selected penetrant and hold it for some time.
3. Remove the excess penetrant on the test piece surface.

4. Apply the developer on the surface of the test piece.

5. Examine the surface of the test piece under appropriate viewing conditions.

6. Clean the surface to prevent corrosion, etc.

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PART B
EXPERIMENT NO. 1

(A) TENSION TEST

Object: To determine the strength and several properties of the ductile steel to observe the
behavior of the Material under load, and to study the fracture and thus determine the followings.

1. Elastic strength in tension: a) Proportional limit, and b) Yield point

2. Modulus of elasticity

3. Modulus of resilience

4. Plastic strength: a) Ultimate strength, and b) Breaking or fracture stress

5. Ductility: a) Percentage elongation, and b) Percentage reduction in area

6. Modulus of toughness.

Apparatus: Universal testing machine, extensometer, micrometer caliper and scale.

Theory: In static tension test, the operation is accomplished by gripping opposite ends of the piece
of material and pulling it apart. In a tension test, the test specimen elongates in a direction parallel
to the applied load.

Engineering Stress-Strain Diagram: A stress-strain diagram is a graph plotted with values of

stress as ordinate and values of strain as abscissa. During extension of fracture, readings may be
taken at regular intervals of the load applied or regular intervals of strain meter. The stress plotted
are computed by dividing the instantaneous loads by the initial cross-sectional area of the specimen
i.e., stress  = F/A0, where F is the load, and A0 is the initial cross-sectional area of the specimen.
For each value of stress, the corresponding strain  is calculated from the change in gauge length
over the previously measured value. i,e., strain  = (Lf  L0 ) / L0 where L0 is the initial gauge length
and Lf is the extended length due to stress .

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The general form of engineering stress-strain diagram for a uniaxial tension test on mild steel is
shown in Fig.1.1, The initial portion of the curve is a straight line and represents the proportionality
of stress to strain. According to Hooke's law, stress  = E  , the factor of proportionality E is
Young's modulus or modulus of elasticity. The point at which this portion of the curve departs
from a straight line is the proportional elastic limit or the point beyond which the specimen will
not revert to its original length if the load is removed. The elastic limit is thus the maximum stress
that the material 'can withstand before undergoing permanent deformation. As the load is increased
beyond the elastic limit, a stress is reached at which the material continues to elongate without an
increase in load. This stress is called the yield stress. Most deformation beyond the elastic limit is
inelastic, or plastic for it will persist in the metal after the load is removed; it is sometimes called
permanent set. The peculiar behavior of mild steel during yielding has let to the term’s upper and
lower yield point. During the stress fluctuation in this region distinct bands appear on the surface
of tensile specimens of mild steel. These bands are inclined about 45° to the stress axis, and they
are known as Luder's lines. As the tensile specimen is strained beyond its yield point, the stress
increases towards a maximum, known as the ultimate tensile strength of the material. Brittle
materials fail at this point, and the specimen breaks, but ductile materials begin to decrease rapidly
in diameter at some localized area forming a well-defined neck, Since the engineering stress-strain
curve is based on a stress calculation using initial area rather than instantaneous area, the
engineering stress-strain diagram for ductile metals slopes downward from the maximum stress to
the stress at fracture. A typical engineering stress-strain diagram for cast iron is shown in Fig.1.2.

Definitions:

Proportional limit is defined as the stress value beyond which the stress is no longer proportional
to strain. i,e., p = Fp/Ao where Fp the load at the proportional limit, and Ao is the original area or
cross section.

Elastic limit is defined as the maximum stress that can be applied to a material without producing
a permanent plastic deformation when the load is removed. Often it is not possible to detect a

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difference between the proportional limit and elastic limit. In some cases, however, the elastic limit
may be on the curved portion of the stress-strain diagram slightly beyond the proportional limit.
i.e"p = Fp/Ao where Fp. is load at the elastic limit.

Fig. stress strain diagram for Mild steel Fig. graph of offset and proof stress

Hooke's law: Within the elastic limit of the material, strain is proportional to the stress producing
it. i.e., = E : where E is the constant of proportionality. The name given to the constant E when
we are dealing with tensile or compressive stress and strain is the modulus of elasticity or Young's
modulus. Modulus of elasticity is a measure of the resistance of a metal to elastic deformation.

Yield point is the maximum stress at which the specimen is deformed without a noticeable increase
in the load, y= Fy/Ao, where Fy is the load at the yield point.

Yield strength is the stress at which a material exhibits a specified limiting permanent set. For
brittle material where there is no well-defined yield point, the yield point is determined by offset
method. A line offset of an arbitrary amount of 0.2 or 0.1 percent of strain is drawn parallel to the
straight line portion of the original stress strain diagram as shown in fig. 1.2. The point of inter-
section of the line with the curve corresponds to the yield strength of the material. The offset yield
strength is also called as the proof stress

Ultimate tensile strength or tenacity is the maximum stress that a test specimen can bear before
fracture, based on original cross sectional area. u = Fmax / Ao where Fmax is the maximum load.

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Breaking stress is the stress at fracture, based on original area. b= Fb/Ao where, Fb is the breaking
load.

Ductility is the extend of plastic deformation that the material undergoes before fracture. There are
two common measure of ductility. 1. Percentage elongation, and 2. Percentage reduction in area.

Percentage elongation is the ratio of change in length at the time of fracture to the original length
times 100. % Elongation D,. = (Lf- Lo) x 100/Lo, where Lf the gauge length of the specimen at
fracture and Lo, is the original length.

Percentage reduction in area is the ratio of decrease in area of the necked-down section of the test
specimen to the original area times 100. % Reduction in area Da= (Ao – Af) x100/Ao.

Resilience: The amount of energy that a unit volume of materials can absorb within the elastic
range is called resilience, or in quantitative terms, the modulus of resilience. The area under the
load elongation curve up to the elastic limit is equal to the energy absorbed (resilience) by the
specimen and the area under the stress-strain curve up to the elastic limit is the energy per unit
volume or the modulus of resilience. This energy is the potential energy and is therefore released
whenever a member is unloaded.
Toughness of the material is its ability to absorb the energy in the plastic range. The area under
the stress-strain curve to the fracture point may be visualized as representing the energy to cause
failure per unit volume of the material, which is referred to as modulus of toughness of the material.
An approximate formula to measure modulus of toughness is To = u (Lf - Lo)/Lo.

True stress-strain diagram is the plot based on a more exact definition of stress and strain. The true
stress is force divided by instantaneous area and true strain is the sum of the strain increments of
all past deformations.

True stress  = F/A where A is the instantaneous cross sectional area.

True Strain  =ln(l/lo) where l is the instantaneous length.

For the material with non-linear stress-strain curves as in fig. 1.3, the slope of the stress-strain
curve varies and the modulus of elasticity can no longer be used as a measure of stiffness. Three

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different methods have been employed to define stiffness for materials with curved stress-strain
diagram. These stiffness values are:

1. The slope of the stress-strain curve at the origin is called initial tangent modulus i.e., E1 =
tan 1

2. The slope of the line joining the origin and a selected point A on the stress-strain curve is
called

a. the secant modulus i.e., E2= tan 2

3. The slope of the tangent to stress-strain curve at selected point B is called the tangent
modulus

Universal Testing Machine:

The essential parts of testing machine for evaluating the stress-strain properties

1. A means for holding the specimen in the testing machine.

2. A means for applying load to the specimen.
3. A means for measuring the load applied.
i.e., E3 = tan 3

Universal testing machines (UTM) are used for tension compression, bending, and transverse shear
tests. UTM are generally either of the screw-gear or hydraulic type. Fig. 1.4 shows the essential
features of the universal hydraulic machine. A motor driven pump is used to transmit oil to
cylinder, thereby producing pressure against a piston. The pressure transmits a force to the tensile
specimen by means of upper cross head. The adjustable lower cross head can be moved up or down

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by means of an electric motor within the range fixed by automatic cutouts. The force on the lower
crosshead, which is fixed during a test, is transmitted to a hydraulic weighing capsule. The
weighing capsule is connected to a Bourdon tube for measuring the load on the specimen. Most of
the hydraulic machines are provided with devices for applying loads at various rates. These
variable load rates -are made possible by setting the valve that controls the flow of oil from the
pump to the loading cylinder. For compression test the specimen is placed between the lower
crosshead (which is fixed during the test) and the moving table.
Specimen: Specimen must be selected and prepared so as to give a reliable indication of the
properties of the materials. Fig. 1.5 shows a standard specimen for tension test of ductile metal.
The gauge length is the marked length over which elongation is made and is less than the distance
between shoulders. The ends of the round specimen may be shouldered or threaded. The specimen
should be symmetrical with respect to the longitudinal axis throughout its length in order to avoid
bending during application of load.

Fracture appearance: The fracture of mild steel in the form of standard cylindrical specimen
usually has a cup-cone type of silky texture as shown in fig. 1.6(a). The typical fracture of cast
iron is gray, flat and granular as shown in fig. 1.6(b).

Procedure: Measure the diameter do of the specimen at several sections with a micrometer to
obtain a mean value. The gauge length Lo is marked off by means of center punch and is measured.
Firmly grip one end of the specimen in the fixed head of the testing machine, such that the punch
marks face the front of the machine. Mount thc extensometer centrally on the specimen, the fixing

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screws being located in the punch marks. Remove the locking bar of the extensometer. Set the load
dial of the machine to a suitable range and adjust the testing machine and extensometer to read
zero. Grip the other end of the specimen. Apply load at slow speed, and make simultaneous
observations of load F and extensometer readings L When an increment of load leads to
disproportionate extension (indicating the yield point) replace the locking bars and remove the
extensometer continue to load the specimen taking the extension by means graduated scale. Record
the yield point Fy , maximum load Fmax and load at fracture Fb. Remove the broken specimen from
the machine. Observe the location and character of the fracture and measure the diameter at the
neck df. Place the two parts together and measure the final gauge length L f. Plot a stress-strain
diagram for the test in accordance with the general instruction and compute all properties called
for.

Repeat the above test on brittle specimen (Cast Iron) and compute the following properties

1. Proportional limit 2. Modulus of elasticity 3. Modulus of resilience, 4. Yield strength for 0.2%
offset, 5. Breaking stress, 6. Percentage elongation, 7. Percentage of reduction in area. 8 modulus
of toughness.

Observation and tabulation:

Material:

Initial gauge length Lo (mm) =

Initial diameter do (mm) =

Original area Ao (mm2) = ( do2) /4

Load at Yield point Fy (N) =

Maximum load Fmax(N) =

Load at fracture Fb (N) =

Final gauge length Lf, (mm) =

Final diameter df (mm) =

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Final area Af (mm2) = ( df2) /4

Yield stres y (N/ mm2) = Fy / Ao =

Ultimate Tensile strength u (N/ mm2) = Fmax / Ao =

Slope of straight line portion of the graph E (N / mm2) =

Breaking stress b (N / mm2) = Fb / Ao =

% Elongation De = (Lf – Lo) / Lo X 100 =

% Reduction in area Da = (Af – Ao) / Ao X 100 =

Modulus of resilience U (N mm / mm3) = e2 / 2E =

Modulus of toughness To (N mm / mm3) = u (Lf – Lo) / Lo =

Sl. Load F Deformation Stress Strain Youngs modulus

L (mm)
No. (N)  = F / Ao =L / L E = / 
(N/ mm2) (mm/ mm ) (N/ mm2)

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EXPERIMENT NO. 1

(B) COMPRESSION TEST

Object: To study the behavior of the given materials under compressive loading and to determine
the following properties.
1. Proportional limit,
2. Modulus of elasticity
3. Compressive strength

4. Percentage contraction
5. Percentage increase in area
6. Initial tangent modulus of elasticity.
Apparatus: Universal testing machine, micrometer caliper, scale and compress meter.
Theory: In compression test the operation is accomplished by subjecting a piece of material to
end loading which produces crushing action. In a compression test, the piece shortens. Although
compressive mechanical properties in the plastic range cannot be determined for ductile materials
because the ultimate and breaking loads cannot be determined, the elastic properties of strength,
stiffness, and resilience can be determined as for tension. The moduli of elasticity and yield
strengths for many metals rind alloys are approximately equal in tension and compression. The
determination of accurate stress-strain diagram in compression is considerably more difficult than
for tension. Difficulties arise because of; 1. Irregularities of alignment, which are accentuated with
increase in loading and result in lateral deflection and bending stresses, 2. The introduction of
lateral restraining forces at the ends of the specimen owing to the friction forces between the
specimen ends and bearing plates, and 3. The possibility of failure produced by lateral buckling if

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the specimen is too long. The engineering stress-strain curve for brittle and ductile material in
compression test are shown in fig.2.1

Specimen: For uniform stressing of compression, a circular section is to be preferred over other
shapes. A ratio of length to diameter of 2 is commonly employed in order to prevent the specimen
failing by bending, although the height -to-diameter used varies for different materials

Fracture appearance: In compression of ductile materials, as the load increase in the plastic
range, the cross-section increases. This increase in cross sectional area tends to decrease the true
stress and thereby increase the load resistance. For this reason it becomes difficult to fracture the
ductile specimen, and continued applications of load increases the lateral deformation until a flat
disc is produced as shown in fig.2.2a. Large lateral deformations are not produced in the brittle
material but failure results by shear and sliding along an inclined plane as shown in fig.2.2b. Brittle
materials commonly rupture either along a diagonal plane (cast iron) or with a cone (concrete) or
a pyramidal (stone cube) shaped fracture, sometime called an hourglass. Various types of failure
of wood loaded parallel with grains are shown in fig.2.3.

Procedure: The average diameter dm and the length of the specimen Lo are measured. Place thew
specimen between the table and the lower cross head of the universal testing machine. Set the load
dial of the machine to suitable range and adjust the testing machine and compressometer to read
zero. Apply load at slow speed, and make simultaneous observations of the load F and
compressometer reading L. Record the yield point and the maximum load in the case of ductile
material or the breaking load in the case of brittle material. Remove the broken specimen (if it is
brittle) from the machine. Observe the location and character of the fracture and measure the final
diameter df and length Lf. Plot a stress-strain diagram for the test in accordance with the general

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instructions and compute all properties called for. Repeat the above test on the other given
specimens.

Observations and tabulation:

Material =
Initial gauge length Lo (mm) =
Initial diameter do (mm) =
Original area Ao (mm2) = (do2) /4
Load at proportional limit Fp (N) =
Maximum load Fmax(N) =
Final gauge length Lf, (mm) =
Final diameter df (mm) =
Final area Af (mm2) = ( df2) /4

Proportional limit p (N / mm2) = Fp / Ao =

Compressive strength (N / mm2) = Fmax / Ao =
% contraction at fracture Dc = (Lo – Lf) / Lo X 100 =
% Increase in area Da = (Af – Ao) / Ao X 100 =
Slope of straight line portion of the graph E (N / mm2) =
From the graph initial tangent modulus (N / mm2) =

Sl. Load F Deformation Stress Strain Youngs modulus

No L (mm)
(N)  = F / Ao =L / Lo E = / 
(N/ mm2) (mm/ mm ) (N/ mm2)

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EXPERIMENT NO. 1

(C) SHEAR TEST

Object: To determine the ultimate shear stress of the given specimen in single and in double shear.

Apparatus: Universal testing machine, and micrometer caliper.

Theory: A shearing stress acts parallel to a plane whereas tensile and compressive stresses acts
normal to a plane. There are two main types of shear stresses used in laboratory tests. One is called
direct or transverse shear stress and corresponds to the type of stress encountered in rivets, bolts,
and beams. The other type of shear stress is called pure or torsional shear and represents the kind
of shear stress encountered in a shaft subjected to pure torsion. Direct shear tests are usually
conducted to obtain a measure of shear strength and the torsion tests are usually employed to
evaluate the basic shear properties of a material.

For direct shear test of metal, a bar is usually sheared in some device that clamps a portion of the
specimen while the remaining portion is subjected to a load by means of suitable dies. One method
of applying shear load to the specimen is shown in fig.4.l. As in fig.4.1 (a), a cylindrical specimen
A is placed in the center hole of the fixed block Band the load is applied to the block C there by
producing single shear. If the specimen is extended to D and the gap between the two fixed blocks
is bridged as shown in fig.4.l (b), the specimen will fail in double shear since two shear surfaces
resist the load. It should be noted that the unit single shear strength of steel is usually greater than
that double shear strength.

Ultimate shear strength  = F / A for single shear

and  = F / (2A) for double shear.

Where F is the fracture load and A is the cross sectional area. In this experiment the failure of the
material is not due to entirely by shear, but partially by bending and crushing as well.

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Procedure: The average diameter d of the specimen with a micrometer caliper is measured. For
single shear test, fix the specimen as shown in fig.4.1 (a) and apply the load slowly at right angles
to the axis of the piece through the central block. Note the fracture load. Report the shape and
texture of the fractured surface. Repeat the above test by fixing the specimen as in fig.4.1 (b) for
double shear.

Observations and tabulation:

Material Type of shear Diameter Fracture Area A=d2/ Ultimate shear

d (mm) load F (N) 4 (mm2) strength 
(N/mm2)

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EXPERIMENT NO. 2

TORSION TEST

Object: To determine the behavior of ductile steel when subjected to torsion, and obtain the
following torsional properties: 1.Modoulus of rigidity. 2. Elastic shear strength. 3. Modulus of
resilience, 4.Ultimate shear strength, 5.Modulus of toughness, and, 6.Ductility.

Apparatus: Torsion testing machine, micrometer caliper and scale.

Theory: A method of finding the shear properties of a material is by the use of torsion test.
Torsional shearing stress on circular cross section varies from zero at the axis of twist to a
maximum at the extreme fibers. Within elastic range, the general equation of torsion is
(Mt / J) = (G / L) = ( / r)

In which M t is the torsional moment in N-mm. J is the polar moment of inertia in mm4
(J=  d4/32 for solid rod), G is the modulus of rigidity in N/mm2,  is the angular distortion in
radians, L is the gauge length in mm.  is the shear-stress in N/mm2 and r is the radius of the rod
in mm. From the above equations, for the solid rod, torque Mt = ( d3/ 16)

When testing to destruction, the material ultimately becomes perfectly plastic. In such a case the
intensity of the shear stress, instead of being proportional to the distance from the axis of the bar,
is practically uniform over the L whole section. Therefore in the plastic range, M t = ( d3/ 12)

Definitions: Within the elastic range, the shear stress is proportional to the shear strain. The
constant of proportionality G is the modulus of elasticity in shear or the modulus of rigidity,
G =(Mt L) /( J)

Elastic shear strength is the stress at the yield point. y= (Mry r) / J. where Mry is the yield torque.

Modulus of resilience is the average work per unit volume required to stress a material in torsion
to the Proportional limit. U= y 2/ (4G)

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Plastic shear strength in torsion is the maximum stress on the outer fiber corresponding to
maximum torque. Mtu i.e., u= (Mtu r) / J.

Modulus of toughness is the average work done per unit volume required to fracture a specimen.
Since the total work is the area under the torque-twist diagram, for ductile materials an approximate
measure of this area is Mtu f where f is the fracture angle of twist. Toughness To = Mtu f / (AL)
where A is the cross sectional area.

Ductility in torsion is determined by comparing the final finer length ljat rapture with the original
fiber or gauge length L.

Ductility D = (Lf -L) /( L) x l 00 where the final fiber length L f =  ( L2 + (rf ) 2)

r is the radius of the specimen in mm, and f is the angle of twist at fracture in radians.

Torsion testing machine: A sketch of screw type torsion machine is shown in fig.5.l. Torque is
applied by hand through the crank and then through the worm and worm gear (not shown) to turn
the chuck. The specimen is placed in two similar chucks one at each end of the specimen, by means
of centering jaws. As the specimen is twisted, it swings the heavy pendulum, and the amount of
twisting moment exerted by and transmitted through the specimen is equal to Wa, where W is the
weight of the pendulum and a is the horizontal motion of its center of gravity. The movement of
the pendulum is translated to a calibrated scale that directly measures the twisting moment.

Specimens: Torsion testing specimens are generally circular in cross section, either solid or
hollow. For solid rod, the length of the specimen is recommended to be 10 times the diameter. The
ends are such that they can securely gripped without developing stresses sufficiently localized to
cause failure in the grips. In order to obtain an approximately uniform stress and strain distribution
along the cross section, this test is usually performed on a thin tubular specimen.

Fracture appearance: Torsion fracture is the shear fracture and is quite distinct from either the
tension or compression fracture, there is no localized reduction of area or elongation. When a
ductile material is subjected to a twisting moment, the fracture is generally plane and perpendicular

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to the axis as shown in fig.5.2 (a). One end of the specimen usually makes several complete
revolutions relative to the other before fracture takes place. For brittle material the angle to twist
is much less, and the failure is spiral in form known as the helicoidal surface as shown in fig.5.2
(b). This type of fracture may easily be obtained by twisting a piece of chalk in torsion with fingers.

Procedure: Measure the diameter d of the specimen at several sections with the micrometer to
obtain a mean value. Measure the gauge length L. Adjust the torsion machine to read zero and then
insert the specimen into the two chucks. Apply the load at slow speed. Take reading of torque Mt,
and angle of twist  simultaneously until failure occurs. Note the torque at yield Mty and at fracture
Mtu. Note the character of the fracture. Plot a graph between torque M t as ordinate against angle
of twist  as abscissa. Compute the required quantities.

Observations and tabulation:

Diameter of specimen d (mm) =

Length of specimen L (mm) =

Yield torque Mty (N-mm) =

Angle of twist at fracture f 0 =

Area of specimen A (mm2) =d4 /4 =

Polar moment of inertia J (mm4) =d4 / 32 =

Yield shear strength y (N/mm2) = (Mty d ) / 2J

Final fiber length L f (mm) =  ( L2 + (rf ) 2)

Ductility D = (L f – L) / (L) X 100 =

Modulus of resilience U (N-mm/mm3) = y 2 / (4G)

Plastic shear strength u (N/mm2) = Mtu d / (2J) =

Modulus of toughness To (N-mm/mm3) = (Mtu f  ) / (180 A L ) =

Modulus of rigidity G (N/mm2) = (L / J ) x slope of the straight line portion of the graph =

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Angle of Torque Mt Shear stress Shear strain Modulus of

twist o rigidity
(N/mm)  = (Mtu d) /  =(d /2L)  / 180
(2J ) G=/
(N/mm2) (N/mm2)

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EXPERIMENT NO. 3

BENDING TEST

Object: To study the behavior of the given specimens under bending and to determine the
following properties. 1. Elastic strength, 2. Modulus of elasticity, 3. Modulus of resilience, 4.
Modulus of rupture, and 5. Toughness.

Apparatus: Universal testing machine, scale, and deflectometer.

Theory: If forces act on a piece of material in such a way that they tend to introduce compressive
stresses over one part of a cross section of the piece and tensile stresses over the remaining part,
the piece is said to be bending. In a cross section of a beam the line along which the bending
stresses are zero is called the neutral axis. In simple bending, the neutral axis passes through the
centroid. In bending, stresses are proportional to the distance from the neutral axis, within the
proportional limit. Above the proportional limit, bending stresses do not vary linearly across a
section. Most members subjected to bending are beams, and for this reason the usual laboratory
tests to determine flexure or bending stress-strain properties are made on beams subjected to
simple bending. In these tests, specimens are subjected to either center loading or point loading as
shown in Fig.5.l

Two-point loading: By applying two loads F/2 at equal distance from the supports (Fig.5.1a), the
recommended distance from a support is equal to 1/3 of the specimen gauge length. Maximum
bending moment is Mb = F b / 2

Fig.5.l specimens subjected to load Fig.5.2load v/s deflection Fig.5.32load v/s deflection

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Center loading: By applying a concentrated load F at the span center as shown in Fig 5.lb, the
maximum bending moment Mb = FL / 4

A load deflection diagram is first obtained by using the above loading arrangement. The load is
applied by universal testing machine. To determine the deflection, a deflectometer is placed on the
specimen, usually at the center. Loads and deflections are measured to failure at predetermined
increments of load or deflection. With these data load-deflection diagram is plotted as shown in
Fig.5.2. For most ductile materials, specimens continue to deform without failure and fracture does
not occur. For this reason, plastic properties cannot be determined for such materials. In the case
of brittle materials including cast iron, wood and various plastics, the deflection diagram can be
determined to fracture so that plastic properties can be evaluated. For some brittle material a linear
stress-strain relation in the elastic range exists, and both elastic and plastic properties can be
defined. Load-deflection diagrams for all three types of materials are shown in Fig. 5.3. These
diagrams are used in evaluating the following stress-strain properties in bending.

The bending equation is (Mb / I) = ( /c) = (E/R)

Where Mb is the bending moment (N-mm), I is the moment of inertia of the cross section (mm4),
 is the bending stress (N/mm2), R is the radius of curvature (mm), E is the modulus of elasticity
(N/mm2), and c is the distance from the neutral axis to the outermost fiber (mm).

Elastic strength is defined as the maximum bending stress in the specimen corresponding to either
the proportional limit load Fp or yield load Fy. Based on Fy, the elastic strength in bending is y
=Mby C / I, where Mby is bending moment corresponding to the load Fy, c is the distance in mm.
from the neutral axis to the outermost fiber and I is the moment of inertia of the cross section in
mm4. For rectangular cross section, 1 = (BH.3) / 12 and c = H /2 in which B is the breadth and H
is the depth. L is the length of the span.

The resistance to deformation in bending in the elastic range is called stiffness in bending. A
measure of this properly is modulus of elasticity in bending. E =(FL3) / (48yI) for center loading.
y is the deflection in mm.

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Resilience is the average work done in stressing a specimen in bending to the proportional limit
load Fp. For center loading the modulus of resilience U = ( Fpyp ) / (2 AL), where A is the cross-
sectional area.

The stress at fracture in bending is known as the modulus of rupture or transverse rupture strength.
The modulus of rupture u =Mbu C / I, where Mbu is the bending moment at fracture.

Toughness is measured by the average work done per unit volume to fracture the specimen. For
specimen with center load and assuming the deflection curve is parabola, the modulus of toughness

To = 2FfYf /(3AL). where Ff is the fracture load and Yf is the maximum deflection.

The failure of beams of brittle material such as cast iron and concrete always occurs by sudden
rupture.
Specimens: Specimens for bending tests may be either circular or rectangular cross section. In
order to avoid the specimen by shear, the span L must not be too short with respect to the depth H.
The value of L = 6H to 12H is common. A value of L < 15B usually safeguards against lateral
buckling.

Procedure: Measure the cross-sectional dimensions. Mark the span length L symmetrical with
length of the specimen. Firmly place the specimen over the supports. Attach the deflectometer at
the center of the span and adjust to zero. Apply the 19ad at the center of the span and at slow speed.
Make simultaneous observations of load F and deflection y. Record the breaking load F f- Observe
the location and character of the fracture. Plot a load-deflection diagram for the test in accordance
with general instruction and compute all properties called for. Repeat the above test on the other
specimens.

Observations and tabulation:

Material:
Span length L (mm) =

Breadth B (mm) =

Depth H (mm) =

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Distance c (mm) = H /2

Load at yield point Fy (N) =

Deflection at yield point yy (mm) =

Maximum load Ff (N) =

Maximum deflection Yf(mm) =

Area A (mm2) = BH=

Moment of inertia I (mm4) = (BH.3) / 12

B.M at yield point Mby (N-mm) = FyL / 4 =

Elastic strength y (N / mm2) =My C / I) =

Modulus of resilience U (N-mm/mm3) =FyAy / (2AL) =

Maximum B.M. Mbu (N-mm) = Ff L / 4 =

Modulus of rupture u (N / mm2) =Mbu C / I ) =

Modulus of toughness To (N-mm/mm3) = 2 Ff Af / (3AL)

Modulus of elasticity E (N/ mm2) = (FL3) / (48yI) = (L3) / (48I) x slope of the load deflection graph

Load F Deflection Y Modulus of elasticity

(N) (mm) E = (FL3) / (48yI),
(N/ mm2)

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EXPERIMENT NO. 4
IMPACT TEST

Object: To study an impact machine of the pendulum type and to determine the relative impact
resistance of the given machine in the form of notched bar Charpy or Izod specimen.

Apparatus: Pendulum impact machine.

Theory: Impact test is used to measure material's ability to withstand shock loading. Notched-bar
impact test is used to determine the tendency of a material to behave in a brittle manner. This type
of test will detect difference between materials, which are not observable in a tension test The
impact test is carried .out on a pendulum type machine. The principal features of pendulum type
impact machines are: I. A moving mass whose kinetic energy is greater enough to cause rupture
of the test specimen placed in its path, 2. An anvil and a support on which the specimen is placed
to receive the blow, and 3. A means for measuring the residual energy of the moving mass after
the specimen has been broken.

The specimen is placed on its anvil and the pendulum, of weight W is raised to a height a as shown
in fig.6.1. It can be seen from the figure that pendulum's energy before release (point A) is Wa.
After release, the pendulum's potential energy decreases and the kinetic energy increases until just
before impact (point B) the former is zero and the later is maximum. At B, the amount of energy
necessary to fracture the specimen is dissipated. As the pendulum continues to swing, the
remaining kinetic energy is again converted to potential energy, the process being complete when
the pendulum reaches the point C, where the potential energy is Wb. Neglecting friction in
bearings and air resistance of the pendulum, the fracture energy U is equal to W (a - b). The energy
value is sometime called the impact toughness. This is the value indicated by the friction pointer
on the graduated scale in most testing machine. If the scale is graduated in degrees, then
U= Wr ( cos  - cos ) ,where  and . ' are angle of fall and angle of raise respectively and , r is
the length of pendulum. The impact strength of the specimen K=U/(AL) where A is the cross
sectional area at fracture and L is the length of the specimen.

The impact velocity v = 2ga = 2gr(l - cos)

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Since the initial angle through which the pendulum is raised is constant, the upward swing after
fracturing the specimen can be used to measure energy dissipated in breaking the specimen. This
upward swing of the pendulum after fracturing the specimen moves a pointer over a circular scale
to read the fracture energy.

Two types of specimen have been standardized for notched impact testing, They are Charpy and
Jzod specimens. The difference in loading between Charpy and Izod tests is shown in fig.6.2.
Although the Izod impact test has long been established as the standard form of test for checking
the brittleness of metallic materials, the need has arises for tests at elevated and sub-zero
temperatures. For this purpose the Charpy test is more convenient as the specimen does not have
to be clamped and can be quickly positioned without significant change in temperature. The
notched-bar impact test is most meaningful when conducted over a range of temperature so that
the temperature at which the ductile to brittle transition takes place can be determined. It is
generally accepted that the Charpy and Izod values are practically the same for metals, which fail
with an energy absorption value less than 100 J. Above this value Charpy values are higher than
the Izod values. The chief use of impact test is not to compare different materials with one another,
but to compare the same material after being subjected to different heat treatments. It is important
to note that fracture energy measured by impact test is only a relative energy and cannot be used
directly in design equations

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Specimens: The standard metal specimen for Charpy test is square prism notched as shown in
Fig.6.3. For this test, the specimen is arranged as a simple beam with the notch being on the tension
side as shown in Fig.6.2 (a) For Izod test, prismatic or cylindrical specimen notched as shown in
Fig.6.3 is clamped to act as vertical cantilever, with the notch on the tension side as in Fig 6.2(b).
The purpose of the notch in the bar is to increase the severity of the test. Notch sets up stress
concentration, which ensure that fracture does occur.

Fracture appearance: Two distinct zones can often be observed, one bright and granular, the
other dull and similar to the cup and cone fracture of a tensile test. The former is due to cleavage
of the metal grains and is the true brittle fracture. The latter is due to shear fracture of the metal
grains and is accompanied by plastic deformation. The larger the area of brittle fracture, the smaller
the amount of energy needed.

Procedure: With no specimen in the anvil, swings the pendulum to ensure freedom of movement
and to check the scale. Note the weight W of the pendulum and the radius r of its center of mass
(these values may be stamped on the pendulum). Lift the pendulum to its upper position, and adjust
the friction pointer to make contact with the pendulum. Note the initial reading on the scale if the
graduation is in degrees (angle of fall 0). If the scale is graduated in energy units, adjust the
pointer to read the striking energy. The striking energy for Charpy machine is 280 and the striking
energy for Izod machine is

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163 J. Measure the lateral dimensions of the specimen at the notch. Using the positioning gauge
place the specimen on the anvil. For Charpy test, the specimen is arranged with the notch on the
side away from striking edge of the pendulum and directly in line with it as shown in Fig. 6.2(a);
An Izod specimen is arranged with the notch towards the striking edge as in Fig.6.2 (b). Release
the pendulum to rupture the specimen. Record the angle of raise of the pendulum ° or the energy
to rupture from the scale. Stop the pendulum to swing by means of the band brake lever. Repeat
the above procedure with other specimens.

Observations and tabulation:

Length of specimen L (mm) =

Area of specimen at notch A (mm2) =

Weight of pendulum W (N) =

Length of pendulum r (mm) =

Angle of fall (0) =

Impact velocity v (m/sec.) =2gr(l - cos) =

Material Angle of Fracture energy Fracture energy Impact

raise ° from Fracture strength
energy U U =Wr ( cos  - cos )
K = U /(AL)
J (N mm)
J (N mm)
J / mm2 (N
mm/mm2

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EXPERIMENT NO. 5

WEAR TEST

Object: To study the wear properties of the given specimen and to determine the wear factor.

Apparatus: Wear testing machine, tachometer, scale and digital stop watch.

Theory: Wear is defined as the progressive loss or removal of material from a surface. Usually
parts damaged by wear can be repaired or replaced before disastrous failure takes place. Wear is
usually classified as adhesive, abrasive, corrosive, fatigue, fretting, and impact wear.

Adhesive wear: If a tangential force is applied between the two sliding blocks, shearing can take
place either at the original interface or along a path below or above it, causing adhesive wear. The
fracture path depends on whether or not the strength of the adhesive bond of the asperities is greater
than the cohesive strength of either of the two sliding bodies. Thus during sliding, fracture at the
asperity usually follows a path in the weaker or softer component. A wear fragment is then
generated. Although this fragment is attached to the harder component, it eventually becomes
detached during further rubbing at the interface and develops into a loose wear particle. This
process is known as adhesive wear or sliding wear. Adhesive wear can be reduced by:

1. Selecting materials that do not form strong adhesive bonds.

2. Using a harder material as one of the pair.

3. Using materials that oxidize more easily.

Abrasive wear: Abrasive wear is caused by a hard and rough surface sliding across a surface. This
type of wears removes particles by forming microchips, thereby producing grooves or scratches
on the softer surface. The abrasive wear resistance of metals is directly proportional to their
hardness. Abrasive wear can thus be reduced by increasing the hardness of materials or by reducing
the normal load.

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Several methods can be used to observe and measure wear. In general, a wear testing machine
consists of a means for applying load to a specimen of material which is rubbed at a given speed,-
over another piece of material or over an abrasive surface. The amount of wear after a given
amount of rubbing is measured either by loss of weight of the specimen or by dimensional changes.

Fig.6.1 pin-on-disc type wear-testing machine

Let V = Wear volume (mm3).

F = Load on the specimen (N)

v = Rubbing velocity (m/sec.) = 2rn / (60 x 1000)

r = Radius of track (mm)

n = Speed in rpm.

t = Test time (sec.)

Wear factor K (mm3 / N-m) = V / (Fvt)

Fig.6.1 shows a pin-on-disc type wear-testing machine. It consists of a hardened steel disc mounted
on a vertical shaft, which is driven by an electric motor through a V-belt drive. The specimen in
the form of a pin is mounted on the horizontal arm which intern is mounted on a sliding block to

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facilitate changing of the track radius. A displacement sensor is used to measure the reduction in
length of the pin and a load cell is used to measure the tangential force on the pin.
Procedure:

1. Clean the surface of the disc and the specimen by alcohol and acetone.
2. Fix the specimen (pin) on the horizontal arm and measure the track radius by a scale.
3. Switch on the motor and measure the speed of the disc n (rpm) by a tachometer.
4. Load the specimen and record the force from the load cell indicator.
5. Adjust the displacement sensor to read zero. .
6. Record the reduction in length L at regular interval.
7. Repeat the above procedure on the other specimens for a given period of time at constant
rubbing velocity and with increasing increments of load.
8. Repeat the above procedure on the other specimens for a given period of time at constant load
and with increasing the increments of surface velocity (by varying the speed n or by varying
the track radius r).

Observations and tabulation:

Load Track radius Speed Time Reduction Velocity Wear factor

F (N) r (mm) n (rpm) t (sec) in length of v =2rn / (60 x K = V / Fvt
pin L 1000) (mm3 / N-m)
(mm) (m/sec.)

Graph: Draw the following graphs :( 1).L Vs t., (2). L Vs v, and (3). L Vs F.

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EXPERIMENT NO. 6

FATIGUE TEST (Demonstration)

Object: To study the fatigue-testing machine and to determine the fatigue limit and the fatigue
strength.

Apparatus: Fatigue testing machine, and micrometer caliper.

Theory: Failure due to repeatedly applied load is known as fatigue. The physical effect of a
repeated load on a material is different from the static load, failure always being brittle fracture
regardless of whether the material is brittle or ductile. Mostly fatigue failure occur at stress well
below the static elastic strength of the material. Possible forms of loading curves are shown in
Fig.10.1. If the applied load changes from any magnitude in one direction to the same magnitude
in the opposite direction, the loading is termed completely reversed, where as if the load changes
from one magnitude to another (the direction does not necessarily change), the load is said to be
fluctuating load.

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Fatigue testing machine: In the simplest type of machine for fatigue testing, the load applied is
of bending type. The test specimen may be of simply supported beam or a cantilever. R.R.Moore
rotating beam type machine for a simply supported beam is shown in fig, 10.2. A specimen of
circular cross-section is held at its ends in special holders and loaded through two bearings
equidistant from the center of the span.. Equal loads on these bearings are applied by means of
weights that produce a uniform bending moment in the specimen between the loaded bearings. A
motor rotates the specimen. Since the upper fibers of the rotating beam are always in compression
while the lower fibers are in tension, it is apparent that a complete cycle of reversed stress in all
fibers of the beam is produced during each revolution. A revolution counter is used to find the
number of cycles the specimen is repeatedly subjected to the load. For simply supported beam,
maximum bending moment is at the center.

Bending moment Mb = FL / 4 and bending stress S = Mb / Z

Where L is the length of the specimen and z is the sectional modulus. In rotating cantilever beam
type, the specimen is rotated while a gravity load is applied to the free end by means of a bearing.
For cantilever specimen the maximum bending moment is at the fixed end.

Therefore Mb = FL and S = Mb / Z

The testing technique is subjected to a series of identical specimens to loads of different

magnitudes and note the number of cycles of stress (or load) N necessary to fracture the specimen.
The data are plotted on a semi- logarithmic paper, the stress S being plotted to a linear scale and a
number of cycles N to a logarithmic scale as shown in Fig.10.3. This is known as stress-cycle (S-
N) diagram and the fatigue limit can be determined from the diagram. Fatigue limit or endurance
limit is the stress below which a material can be stressed cyclically an indefinitely large number
of times without failure. The fatigue strength is the stress at which a metal fails by fatigue after a
certain number of cycles. .

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Specimens: All specimens should be taken from the same rod, each specimen should receive same
kind of machining and heat treatment. The specimens for tests of the metal have no sharp stress
raisers. The surface of the specimen is polished. The standard specimen for rotating beam test is
shown in Fig. 10.4.

Fracture appearance: Under repeated loading, a small crack forms in a region of high-localized
stress, and a very high stress concentration accompanies the crack. As the load fluctuates, the crack
opens and closes and progresses across the section. Frequently this crack propagation continues
until there is insufficient cross section left to carry the load and the member ruptures, the failure
being fatigue failure. Therefore fractured surface shows two surfaces of distinctly different
appearance.

1. A smooth surface where the crack has spread slowly and the walls of the crack are polished by
repeated opening and closing. This surface usually shows characteristic beach or clam shell
markings.
2. A crystalline or fibrous surface where sudden failure occurred.

Procedure: Measure the diameter d and the length L of the specimen. Securely fasten the specimen
in the chucks of the testing machine. Set the maximum load. Set the counter to zero, and start the
machine. Note the number of cycles N the specimen experiences before fracture. Repeat the above
test on the other specimens with gradually reduced loads. Draw the S-N diagram and obtain the
endurance limit.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, BIET, Davanagere 57

 MATERIAL TESTING LABORATORY

Observations and tabulation:

Material =

Length of specimen L (mm) =

Diameter of the specimen d (mm) =

Sectional modulus z (mm3) = d3 / 32

Load F (N) No. of cycles N Bending moment Mb = FL / 4 stress S = Mb / Z

(N-mm) (N-mm2)

Department of Mechanical Engineering, BIET, Davanagere 58