1.

1 Hardware and Software

Hardware

 Hardware refers to the physical components of a computer system

 These components can be internal or external

Internal Components

 Central Processing Unit (CPU): the computer's "brain" that performs calculations,
processes instructions, and controls other components
 Processor: a chip inside the CPU that carries out instructions from a program
 Motherboard: the main circuit board that connects all internal components

Internal Memory

 Random Access Memory (RAM): temporary storage for running programs and data; it is
volatile, meaning data is lost when the computer is turned off
 Read-Only Memory (ROM): permanent storage for essential data, like the
computer's BIOS; it is non-volatile, meaning data is retained even when the computer is
turned off

Hardware Components

 Graphics card: processes images and videos for display on a monitor

 Sound card: processes audio for output through speakers or headphones
 Network Interface Card (NIC): enables connection to a network, such as the internet
 Camera: captures images or video for input into the computer
 Internal/external storage devices: stores data permanently, such as hard drives or USB
flash drives
 Input devices: allow users to enter data, like keyboards and mice
 Output devices: display or produce results, like monitors and printers

Worked example

A computer contains internal hardware. Write down the most appropriate item of internal hardware
to match the descriptions.

a. This handles all the system instructions [1]

Processor / CPU [1]

b. A printed circuit board that contains the main components of the computer [1]

Motherboard [1]

c. This generates output for the speaker [1]

Sound card [1]

d. A type of memory where data is lost when the computer is switched off [1]

RAM / Random Access Memory [1]

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Software

 Software refers to programs that control the operation of a computer or the processing of
electronic data

Application Software

 Application software provides the services that users require to solve a task
 E.g.:
o Word processing: creating and editing text documents
o Spreadsheet: organising and analysing data in a grid format
o Database management systems: storing, retrieving and managing data in
databases
o Control/measurement: uses sensors to measure and control a system
o Applets and apps: specialised software for specific tasks
o Video editing: creating and modifying video files
o Graphics editing: creating and modifying images
o Audio editing: creating and modifying sound files
o Computer Aided Design (CAD): designing and modelling objects in 2D or 3D

System Software

 System software provides the services that the computer requires to operate e.g.
o Compilers: translating high-level programming languages into machine code
o Linkers: combining object files into a single executable program
o Device drivers: controlling hardware components and peripherals
o Operating systems: managing the computer's resources and providing a user
interface
o Utilities: tools for maintaining and optimising the computer's performance

Worked example

Tick whether the following are examples of applications software or system software

[2]

Applications software Systems software

Control software
Compiler
Word processor
Device driver
Applications System
Software Software
(✓) (✓)
Control software ✓
Compiler ✓
Word processing ✓
Device drivers ✓
2 marks for 4 correct ticks
1 mark for 2 or 3 correct ticks
0 marks for 0 or 1 tick

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Exam Tip

 A common misconception is that control software is system software - it's aA common

misconception is that control software is system software - it's actually application

software

Analogue & Digital Data

 Analogue data is continuous and varies smoothly over time

 Digital data is discrete and represented in binary form (0s and 1s)

Differences between Analogue & Digital Data

 Analogue data can have any value within a range, while digital data has a limited set of
values
 Digital data is less prone to noise and distortion compared to analogue data
 Digital data can be easily manipulated, stored, and transmitted by computers

Converting Analogue to Digital Data

 Analogue data must be converted to digital data so it can be processed by a computer

 This process is called analogue-to-digital conversion (ADC) and is performed by
an analogue-to-digital converter

Converting Digital to Analogue Data

 Digital data must be converted to analogue data so it can be used to control devices
 This process is called digital-to-analogue conversion (DAC) and is performed by a digital-
to-analogue converter

Worked example

A greenhouse is used to grow plants and is computer controlled. Give two reasons why data from
the sensors need to be converted for use by a computer.

[2]

Two of:

So that the data from the sensor can be understood by the computer [1]

The output from a sensor is analogue [1]

The input to the computer is digital [1]

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1.2 Components of Computer System

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

 The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the computer's "brain" responsible for processing
instructions entered into the computer
 The CPU processes instructions and performs calculations in order to produce an output

CPU Functions

 Fetches instructions from memory

 Decodes the instructions to determine the required operation
 Executes the operation
 Stores the result back in memory or sends it to an output device

CPU Components

 The CPU is made up of 3 main components:

o Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
o Control Unit (CU)
o Registers

Memory

Memory is used to store data and instructions temporarily for the computer to process

Characteristics of ROM and RAM

ROM RAM

Non-volatile (retains data when powered

Volatility Volatile (loses data when powered off)
off)

Access Read-only (data cannot be modified) Read-write (data can be modified)

Stores data and instructions in use by

Main Purpose Stores essential instructions (e.g. BIOS)
CPU

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Differences between ROM and RAM

 ROM is non-volatile, while RAM is volatile

 ROM is read-only, while RAM is read-write
 ROM stores essential instructions, while RAM stores data and instructions currently in use

Worked example

State two characteristics of RAM

[2]

Two of:

RAM can be read from and written to [1]

RAM is volatile memory [1]

RAM is temporary storage [1]

Exam Tip

 Make sure you know the difference between RAM & ROM - it's easy to get them mixed up

Input Devices

Characteristics of Input Devices

 Input devices: allow users to enter data or instructions into a computer system e.g.:
o Keyboard
o Mouse
o Scanner
o Microphone
o Touch screen

Differences between Input & Output Devices

 Input devices send data or instructions to the computer, while output devices receive data from the
computer
 Input devices are used for user interaction and data entry, while output devices display or produce the
results of data processing

Input Device Use Advantages Disadvantages

Keyboard & Fast and accurate input The steeper learning curve,
Entering text and numbers
Numeric Keypad for experienced users repetitive strain injury
Pointing Devices Navigate and interact with Intuitive and precise Requires flat surface, the
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 computer interfaces control strain on the wrist
Convenient, no direct
Control devices from a distance, Limited range, may require
Remote Control physical contact is
e.g., TVs and media players line-of-sight
needed
Enhances gameplay
Joystick/Driving Expensive, limited use
Simulation and driving games experience, realistic
Wheel outside of gaming, bulky
control
Direct interaction with the screen Intuitive, no need for a The screen may get dirty,
Touch Screen
using fingers or a stylus separate pointing device less precise than a mouse
Quality depends on
Scanners and Capture images and convert them Accurate reproduction,
resolution, which can be
Cameras into digital format easy to share and store
expensive
Hands-free input can be
Capture a sound for recording or May pick up background
Microphone used for voice
communication purposes noise, the quality varies
recognition
Sensors detect changes in the Can automate tasks, May require calibration,
Sensors and Light
environment; light pen interacts provides real-time affected by the
Pen
with screens information environment

Exam Tip

 Note that a mouse isn't built into a laptop - instead, it would be another pointing device e.g. trackpad
 All the devices listed here are input devices. Some people think microphones and webcams are output
devices

Direct Data Entry

Direct Data Entry

Use Advantages Disadvantages
Device

Reading information stored on

Magnetic Stripe Data can be easily erased,
magnetic stripes, e.g., credit Fast, simple to use, reliable
Reader and limited storage capacity
cards, ID cards

Chip and PIN Processing debit and credit card Secure, quick transaction, Requires PIN input, potential
Reader transactions in stores reduced fraud risk for skimming

Reading information from RFID No line-of-sight is needed,

The expensive system, and
RFID Reader tags, e.g., inventory tracking, multiple tags are read
potential privacy concerns
access control simultaneously

OMR (Optical Reading marked areas on forms, Fast processing, reduced Limited to specific forms,
Mark Recognition) e.g., multiple-choice exams human error cannot read handwriting

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 OCR (Optical
Converting printed text into The fast and accurate, Can struggle with complex
Character
digital text, e.g., digitising books searchable digital text layouts, font dependent
Recognition)

Scanning barcodes to retrieve Requires line-of-sight,

Barcode Reader Fast and accurate, low cost
product information and prices limited data storage

Scanning QR codes for Requires a smartphone or

Can store more data,
QR Scanner information retrieval or linking specific scanner, quality
versatile uses
to websites dependent
Worked example

For each of the following uses of data capture, name one appropriate direct data entry device. The devices
must be different in each case

a. Contactless credit cards [1]

Radio Frequency Identification/RFID reader [1]

b. Multiple choice answers in an examination paper [1]

Optical Mark Reader/OMR [1]

c. To scan items at a computerised till [1]

Bar Code reader/scanner [1]

Output Devices

Characteristics of Output Devices

 Output devices: display or produce the results of data processing from a computer system
e.g.:
o Monitor
o Printer
o Speakers
o Projector

Differences between Input & Output Devices

 Input devices send data or instructions to the computer, while output devices receive data
from the computer
 Input devices are used for user interaction and data entry, while output devices display or
produce the results of data processing

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 Output
Use Advantages Disadvantages
Device

Displaying computer-generated visual Real-time display, Power consumption,

Monitor
information on a screen adjustable settings potential glare
Touch Screen Displaying visual information and Susceptible to smudges,
Intuitive, space-saving
(Output) allowing user interaction with the screen potential calibration issues
Multimedia Projecting computer-generated images Large display, good for Requires darkened room,
Projector and videos onto a larger surface presentations expensive bulbs
Printing high-quality text and graphics Fast, high-quality prints, Expensive initial cost,
Laser Printer
quickly lower cost per page limited to flat surfaces
Printing text and graphics using liquid Lower initial cost, high- Slower, higher cost per
Inkjet Printer
ink quality prints page, ink may smudge
Printing text and simple graphics using a
Dot Matrix Low cost, can print multi-
print head that strikes an ink-soaked Noisy, low print quality
Printer part forms
ribbon
Creating large-format graphics, such as
High accuracy, can print
Plotter architectural plans and engineering Slow, expensive, large size
on various materials
designs
Creating three-dimensional objects by Customisable designs, Limited materials, slow
3D Printer
adding material layer by layer rapid prototyping process
Converting digital audio signals into Range of sizes and power Can be power-hungry, the
Speaker
sound outputs, immersive audio sound quality varies
Converting electrical signals into
Precise movement, Requires power, potential
Actuator physical movement, e.g., motors and
programmable mechanical wear
valves in robotics

Holographic imaging

 Holographic imaging is a technique that creates three-dimensional images by recording

and reconstructing light waves
 These images provide a realistic and immersive visual experience
 This could be used in medicine to create:
o MRI scan images

o Ultrasound images
o 3D views of our internal organs

Worked example

Complete the following sentences using the most appropriate items from the list below.

A 3D printer An ADC A compiler An interpreter A microphone

A monitor A numeric keypad A speaker A switch A USB
a. ________ is a device used to input a pin

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 [1]

A numeric keypad [1]

b. ________ analyses and executes a program line by line [1]

An interpreter [1]

c. ________ produces output in the form of solid objects [1]

A 3D printer [1]

d. ________ produces output in the form of sound [1]

A speaker [1]
Exam Tip

 Make sure you know which printer is which. Some people get mixed up between dot matrix
and laser
 Detail is needed in the description in order to achieve full marks. Relating the answer back to
the scenario is important as some printers would not work in the given scenario

Storage

Characteristics of Backing Storage

 Backing storage: long-term storage used to store data, files, and programs when not in use
e.g.:
o hard disk drives (HDD)
o solid-state drives (SSD)
o USB flash drives
o optical discs (CDs, DVDs)
 Backing storage is typically slower than internal memory but has a larger capacity
 It is non-volatile, meaning it retains data when the computer is powered off

Differences between Backing Storage & Internal Memory

Backing Storage
Internal Memory

Long-term storage of files, Temporary storage of data and essential instructions while
Function
programs, and data the computer is running

HDD, SSD, USB flash drives,

Examples RAM, ROM
optical discs (CDs, DVDs)

Access Speed Slower Faster

Capacity Larger Smaller

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 Non-volatile (retains data when
Volatility RAM: volatile, ROM: non-volatile
powered off)

Storage Media

Storage
Examples Use Advantages Disadvantages
Media

Hard disks,
Magnetic Long-term data storage, High capacity, low Slower access time, moving
Drives backup, and archiving cost per GB parts, susceptible to magnets
Magnetic tape

Optical Data storage, audio, video, Portable, durable, Limited capacity, susceptible to
CD, DVD, Blu-ray
Discs and software distribution low cost scratches

Memory cards (SD,

xD,
Fast data storage for
Solid-State Fast access time, More expensive, limited write
portable devices and modern
Media CFast), USB no moving parts cycles
computers
Drives, Solid State
Drives

Worked example

Give two error messages that may appear when trying to save to a CFast solid-state memory card.

[2]

Two of:

Medium is full [1]

Corrupt card [1]

Write error [1]

Card error [1]

Card not initialised [1]

Virus found on the card [1]

Device not recognised [1]

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Storage Devices

Storage Devices Use Media Advantages Disadvantages

Long-term data storage, backup, High capacity (10TB), Slower access time, moving parts,
Magnetic Drive Magnetic
and archiving low cost per GB susceptible to magnets

Fixed Magnetic General-purpose storage in Magnetic Large storage capacity Moving parts, vulnerable to physical
Hard Drive computers and servers Hard Disk (5TB), relatively fast damage

Portable
External storage for data transfer Magnetic Portable (5TB), large Slower than SSDs, vulnerable to
Magnetic Hard
and backup Hard Disk storage capacity physical damage
Drive

Backup and archiving,

Magnetic Tape Magnetic High storage capacity
especially for large volumes of Slow access time, sequential access
Drives Tape (10TB), low cost
data

Audio and data storage, software Affordable, widely Low capacity (700MB), susceptible
CD CD
distribution compatible to scratches

Higher capacity storage for data, Higher capacity than CD Susceptible to scratches, lower
DVD DVD
video, and software distribution (8.5GB), affordable capacity than Blu-ray

High capacity (50GB),

High-definition video and high More expensive, and requires
Blu-ray Blu-ray high-resolution video
capacity data storage specific hardware
storage

Fast access time, no

Fixed Solid-State Fast internal storage for modern
Solid-State moving parts, high More expensive, limited write cycles
Drive (SSD) computers
capacity (30TB)
Fast access time,
External storage for fast data portable, no moving
Portable SSD Solid-State More expensive, limited write cycles
transfer and backup parts, high capacity
(2TB)
Small size, fast
Portable data storage and Limited capacity compared to other
Pen Drive Solid-State read/write speeds, high
transfer for various devices storage devices
capacity (1TB)

Worked example

A program collects a large amount of data and this could be stored using either a fixed solid-state
drive (SSD) or cloud storage.

a. Describe four advantages to the school of using cloud storage rather than using the SSD [4]

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Four of:

The cloud has greater storage capacity [1]

The data could be sent directly to/from the cloud from any computer/device [1]

Storage capacity can be increased without adding additional physical devices [1]

Many people can share the data [1]

The school would only pay for the storage used [1]

There is an automatic backup of data [1]

b. Describe three disadvantages to the school of using cloud storage rather than using the SSD
[3]

Three of:

More security issues as multiple copies of the data are stored [1]

The school loses control over the storage of the data [1]

Cloud storage has an ongoing cost [1]

Users must have a reliable internet connection to store data [1]

Users must have an internet connection to access data [1]

1.3 Types of Computer

Desktop Computers

Characteristics of a Desktop Computer

 Designed to be used on a desk or table

 Comprised of separate components (monitor, keyboard, mouse, tower)
 More powerful than laptops and tablets
 Easier to upgrade and customise
 Typically less portable than other computer types

Uses of a Desktop Computer

 Office and business management:

o Word processing
o Spreadsheet creation and management
o Email communication
o Data storage and backup
 Education:
o Access to educational resources
o Creating and editing multimedia content
o Conducting research
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 o Distance learning and virtual classrooms
 Gaming and entertainment:
o High-performance gaming
o Streaming movies and TV shows
o Social media browsing
o Creating and editing video and audio content

Mobile Computers

Portable computing devices, such as laptops, smartphones, tablets, and phablets, that allow users
to access and use computer applications and resources on the go

Characteristics of Mobile Computers

 Laptop Computers:
o Portable with integrated display, keyboard, and touchpad
o Battery powered
o Less powerful and less expandable than desktops
 Smartphones:
o Portable and lightweight
o Touchscreen interface
o Multifunctional (phone, internet access, camera)
o Anti-glare screen
o Front and rear facing camera
o Battery powered
o Uses Bluetooth, WiFi, 3G, 4G, 5G
o Has an on screen keyboard
 Tablet Computers:
o Larger touchscreen than smartphones
o Ideal for media consumption and web browsing
o Limited expandability
o Anti-glare screen
o Front and rear facing camera
o Battery powered
o Portable and lightweight
o Uses Bluetooth, WiFi, 3G, 4G, 5G
o Has an on screen keyboard
 Phablet Computers:
o Combine features of smartphones and tablets
o Larger screen than smartphones
o Can be used for phone calls

Uses of Mobile Computers

 Office and business management:

o Remote access to office applications
o Email and communication on the go
o Mobile payment processing
o Calendar
 Education:

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 o E-books and digital textbooks
o Educational apps and tools
o Note-taking and research
 Gaming and entertainment:
o Mobile gaming apps
o Streaming movies and music
o Social media
 Remotely controlled devices:
o Controlling smart home devices
o Remote access to surveillance systems
o Controlling drones and other devices
 Communication:
o Video calling
o Text messaging
 Other:
o Sat Nav
o Online banking
o Searching the Internet
o Taking photos
o Language translation

Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages Disadvantages

Easy to carry and use on the go (Portability) Limited expandability (Difficult to upgrade hardware)
Access to internet and resources from anywhere Less powerful (Lower performance compared to desktop
(Flexibility) computers)
Can be used for various tasks and activities (Multi-
Shorter battery life (Needs frequent charging)
functionality)

Worked example

Circle two input devices that could be used in a smartphone.

HDD magnetic stripe reader microphone mouse

remote control speaker touchpad touch screen
[2]

Microphone [1]
Touch screen [1]

AI

 This is the development of computer systems that can perform tasks usually requiring
human intelligence, such as visual perception, speech recognition, and decision-making

Impact of Artificial Intelligence (AI)

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  Enhances productivity by automating repetitive tasks
 Improves decision-making through data analysis and pattern recognition
 Can be used in various industries, such as healthcare, finance, and transportation
 Raises ethical concerns, including job displacement and privacy issues

VR & AR

 Virtual Reality (VR):

o A computer-generated simulation of a three-dimensional replicated environment
o It can be interacted with in a seemingly real or physical way
o Can manipulate objects or perform a series of actions
o Makes use of the sensory experience
o Uses a virtual reality headset with built in speakers
o Can be used with gloves / controllers / driving wheel
 Augmented Reality (AR): A technology that superimposes a computer-generated image or
information onto a user's view of the real world, providing a composite view

Impact of Extended Reality (VR and AR)

 Virtual Reality (VR) immerses users in a simulated environment, while Augmented Reality
(AR) overlays digital information onto the real world
 Used in gaming, education, and training for a more engaging experience
 Can be applied in fields like architecture, medicine, and retail for improved visualisation and
interaction
 Potential issues with addiction and excessive screen time

Worked example

Some smartphones connected to the internet can allow the user to point their phone’s camera at an
object or image to display information about it on the phone’s screen. The object acts like an item in
a search engine. This is called augmented reality.
One example of its use is in mobile games, where the user tries to catch characters from the game
as the characters appear to walk in the streets. Explain, using examples, other ways in which
augmented reality could be used in everyday life.

[4]

Max three of:

Gather information [1]

Can be used as a direction finder [1]
Visualise what something will look like in real life [1]
Could be used for facial recognition [1]

Max three of:

Examples of gathering information about a building/painting / product [1]

Giving information about the area you are moving in / finding your way in an airport/railway station / shopping mall etc. [1]
Used by archaeologists / architects / interior designers / try on clothes / trying makeup/colour of clothing / placing
furniture [1]

point it at a word to link to the thesaurus / get it's meaning / translation / modern landscape [1]
Used by the police to recognise suspects [1]
Exam Tip

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  Don't get mixed up between augmented reality and virtual reality - augmented reality
changes the real world in front of you (e.g. Pokemon Go) whereas virtual reality puts you in a
new world entirely and you can't see the real world around you

2.Networks
2.1 Networks
Common Network Devices
Network Interface Cards (NICs)

 Network Interface Cards (NIC) allow an electronic device to be connected to a network

 Network Interface Cards are connected to the motherboard but in most modern systems
are usually integrated
 Each network interface card has a unique identifier which is known as a media access
control address or MAC address which is created during the manufacturing process
 Wireless Network Interface Cards (WNIC) are the same as a NIC but use wireless
connectivity to connect devices to networks

 A MAC address is a 48 bit hexadecimal code where 12 hexadecimal characters are

grouped in pairs

 The general format for a MAC address is that each pair of hexadecimal digits are
separated by a “-”
 An example of a MAC address:
o Microsoft has an OUI of 00-15-5D,
o a new laptop straight out of a Microsoft production line could have a MAC address of
“00-15-5D-45-1B-3F”

Exam Tip

 Two completely different products can contain the same Network Interface Identifier but
they must use their own Organisational Unique Identifier
o Microsoft can have the MAC Address 00-15-5D-45-1B-3F
o Amazon can have the Mac Address0C-5B-8F-45-1B-3F

Hubs

 Hubs are devices that allow several other devices to be connected to them

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  Hubs are generally much cheaper than switches but:
o When a hub receives a data packet it will broadcast it to every device on the
network
 This creates two potential issues:
o As the information is being broadcast to every device it will make unnecessary traffic
especially if there are a large number of devices
o As every device will receive the data packet, security may be a concern

Switches

 Switches are also used to connect several devices together just like a hub; however, rather
than sending data packets to all devices on the network, the switch will only send the data
to its intended device

 This is done by each switch having a lookup table

Port Mac address

1 DF-42-B2-11-4D-E3
2 11-14-F2-1D-C3-C6
3 00-4B-17-7C-A2-C9

 When a switch receives a data packet, it examines the destination MAC address of the
box and looks up that address in its lookup table

 Once it has found the matching MAC address it will then forward the data packet to the
corresponding port

Worked example

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Explain the difference between a switch and a hub regarding data forwarding capabilities. [2]

A switch forwards data packets based on the destination MAC address and only sends data to the
intended device [1]

A hub broadcasts incoming data packets to all connected devices [1]

Bridges

 Bridges are used to connect two networks or network segments to create a single larger
network
 An important note is that a bridge cannot communicate with external networks such as the
internet like a router can

Wi-Fi & Bluetooth

 Bluetooth is a wireless communication technology that allows devices to be connected within

a maximum range of about 30 meters
 Before communication can happen, two devices connect using a process called “pairing” to
establish a secure connection
 When two devices pair, they both exchange a cryptographic key. Both these keys are
used to generate a secret shared key which is used to encrypt the data between the two
devices and create a Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN)
 Bluetooth operates using a frequency range of around 2.4Ghz
 Connected devices continuously change their transmitting frequency between 79 different
channels to avoid interference and improve the reliability of the connection. This is known
as the frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)
 Bluetooth may be preferred over Wi-Fi when:
o File transfer required between two close-range devices such as a laptop and
smartphone without the need for internet connectivity
o Streaming audio from a smartphone to another wireless device such as a speaker or
headphones
o Connecting to a car system allows for music streaming and hands-free calling
o When low power communication is required
 Wi-Fi is also a wireless communication technology that allows devices to be connected up to
a range of about 100 meters depending on the standard that is being used
 Wi-Fi operates across the 2.4Ghz and 5Ghz frequency ranges and although 5Ghz is faster,
the 2.4 GHz range is preferred as the lower frequencies often travel further and penetrate
obstacles more easily
 Similar to Bluetooth bands are split into channels
 Wi-Fi-enabled devices connect to a network by connecting to a hotspot or wireless access
point (WAP) also referred to as an access point (AP)
 Wi-Fi may be preferred over Bluetooth when:
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 o High speed data transfer is required
o Long range communication is required
o Many devices are needed to be connected at the same time

Similarities between Bluetooth and Wi-FI

 Use radio waves for wireless technologies

 Can connect multiple devices
 Support encryption for secure connections
 Based on industry standards that are universally accepted
 It can be used to connect Internet of Things (IoT) devices and applications

Differences between Bluetooth and -Wi-Fi

Bluetooth Wi-Fi

Maximum number of 30 (based on a standard consumer grade router with high end
7
connections options providing substantially more)
Transmission frequency 2.4Ghz 2.4Ghz, 5Ghz
Maximum range (meters) 30 meters 100 meters (depending on obstructions)
Maximum transfer speed
3 Mbytes /
75 Mbytes / Sec
(Depending on the standard Sec
being used)
Worked example

A school IT team is trying to determine what technology they should use to connect students' tablets
around the school for data transfer and are unsure whether to choose Wi-Fi or Bluetooth
technology. Consider the advantages and limitations of both and justify your answer [7]

WiFi offers significantly faster transfer rates compared to Bluetooth [1]

so students will be able to upload and download files faster [1]

WiFi coverage can be over a much larger area compared to Bluetooth [1]

so that students will be able to access resources wherever they are in the school [1]

Bluetooth however, is easy to set up [1]

students can transfer data without the school having to invest in expensive infrastructure [1]

Given the current situation, the school is in, the preferred choice for connecting student's tablets would be Wi-Fi [1]

Cloud Computing

 Cloud computing is a method where data is stored on remote servers and accessed
through the internet

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  Local storage refers to a storage device that is connected to the computer

 The three types of cloud storage are:

o Public Cloud - The customer and the cloud storage provider are different companies
o Private Cloud - The customer and the cloud storage provider are a single
organisation
o Hybrid Cloud - Combines both public and private cloud options and allows for
sensitive data to remain private whilst providing public cloud services for less
sensitive information
 Cloud data is duplicated and stored on other servers to ensure data availability during
system failures, upgrades and maintenance periods

Advantages of Cloud storage

 Scalability
o As the business requirements change the customer can scale services up or down to
meet their needs
 Cost saving
o Cloud storage eliminates the need for a business to purchase expensive equipment
for infrastructure and maintenance which can result in significant cost savings
 Accessibility
o Cloud services are available globally and allow both remote working and data sharing
 Reliability
o Cloud computing providers offer high levels of uptime ensuring that services are
always available for its users
 Storage Space
o Cloud services can offer an almost unlimited amount of storage
 Backup and recovery
o If a customers machine or storage device fails, a backup of the data from the cloud
will allow for recovery
 File Synchronisation
o Files can be synced across multiple devices
 Convenience
o A user does not need to carry storage devices around with them as all data is stored
on the cloud

Disadvantages of Cloud Storage

 Internet Connection
o A stable internet connection is required to use cloud storage
 Security
o Storing data in the cloud may be vulnerable to security breaches
 Dependency
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 o The user is dependent on the storage provider for the availability and reliability of its
services
 Ceases to trade/dissolve
o Should the company dissolve or cease to change, all cloud data may be lost
 Cost
o As the amount of storage or bandwidth required increases, the service may become
expensive over time

Worked example

Explain the difference between cloud storage and local storage [2]

Cloud storage involves storing data on remote servers accessed via the internet [1]

While local storage refers to storing data on physical devices like hard drives or flash drives [1]

Internet

 The Internet is a very large global network that consists of many other interconnected networks
 The world wide web is the vast collection of web pages that can be accessed using a web browser
 The world wide web allows you to access information by using the internet

Exam Tip

 You must be very clear about the difference between the World Wide Web and the Internet

Characteristics of the Internet

 Open
o The Internet is an open network meaning anyone with access can access the same resources
and information as everybody else
 Decentralisation
o The Internet is a decentralised network with no owner, controller or governing body. Instead,
it is made up of vast numbers of interconnecting networks that operate independently but
work together to provide communication
 Global Reach
o The internet is a global network meaning that people from all over the world can
communicate with each other in real-time
 Accessibility

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 o The Internet is available to anyone who has a suitable device and access to any one of the
interconnected networks

The Internet has many uses and plays a critical role in our lives. This can include;

 Education and training

 Social Networking
 Online shopping
 Entertainment

Intranet

 Intranets operate in a similar way to the Internet and although they are still networks, they are
usually private and are used to send information securely and safely
 Unlike the Internet which is a global network accessible by all, access to an
organisation’s Intranet is restricted and only accessible to authorised users such as employees

 Intranets have many advantages over the internet such as:

o Better bandwidth than the internet
o Data is kept within the organisation
o Less chance of hacking and attacks
o Administrators can manage access to external sites and links

Characteristics of an Intranet

 Private
o An intranet is a private network that is accessible to employees within a company or
organisation
 Security
o An intranet is usually behind a firewall to ensure security and that only authorised users can
access it
 Sharing and Communication
o An Intranet allows for document sharing and the use of collaboration tools between users. It
can also allow the use of email and video calling to enable efficient communication within the
organisation

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  Customisation
o An intranet can be customised to meet the specific requirements of the business such as
navigation and subject content as well as the service being able to be scaled up as the business
grows
 Users will require a username and password to access the Intranet

Extranet

 An extranet is a private Intranet that also allows access by selected parties that reside outside of the
organisation. These parties, for example, maybe customers, key stakeholders or clients
 External users will have an authorisation level once they have successfully logged in which will
determine which resources they may access

 Similarities between the Internet, Intranet and extranet are as follows:

o They are all web based technologies
o They allow users to access information remotely
o They all use client server architecture
o They all use security measures such as authentication and encryption
o They all promote and facilitate information and resource sharing
 Differences between the internet, intranet and extranet are as follows:
o The internet is a global network whereas an intranet/extranet is a private network contained
within an organisation
o The use of the internet covers a wide range of purposes whereas an intranet/extranet is
designed for specific users and purposes
o Much of the information is publicly available whereas an intranet/extranet is not
o The internet is not owned solely by one person or organisation whereas intranets/extranets are
owned usually by the organisation

Worked example

A company uses an Intranet. Explain what is meant by an Intranet [2]

An Intranet is a private network that is accessible to employees of the organisation and not to members of the public [1]

It provides employees access to company information and to share resources internally [1]

LAN

 Local Area Networks (LANs) are networks that are usually contained within a single building or
small geographical location
 A LAN is made up using hubs and/or switches which will connect several devices together
 It is common for one hub or switch to be connected to a router which will allow
the LAN connectivity to other outside networks such as the internet

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  A LAN can offer many advantages such as:
o Centralised management - A LAN allows centralised management of updates, backups and
software installations.
o Security - A LAN can secure its devices with the use of firewalls, antivirus software and
other security features to prevent unauthorised access
o File Sharing and Collaboration - A LAN allows users on the network to share resources such
as printers and other peripherals. This also allows the users of the network to collaborate and
share files and folders

 Disadvantages of a LAN include:

o If hardware fails, the network may not function properly or even at all
o Networks are more prone to attacks than standalone computers
o Access to data and peripherals can be slow depending on network traffic
o Maintenance - LAN networks require maintenance to ensure that software is up to date,
upgrades and backups which can be costly

WAN

 Wireless LANs (WLANs) are Local Area Networks that allow devices to connect wirelessly rather
than using physical cables
 Wireless Access Points (WAPs) are connected to an existing wired network which provides a means
to connect wirelessly
 Wireless Access Points use spread spectrum technology that has a range of around 30 to 50 metres
compared to Infrared which has a range of around 3 metres
 WLANs are often used when it is not practical to use cable or devices that will access the network do
not have Ethernet ports
 WLANs support a vast range of devices such as smartphones and laptops and are very popular in
public areas such as shopping malls

 Advantages of a WLAN include:

o Mobility - WLAN allows users to connect anywhere that is in the range of a Wireless Access
Point (WAP) without the need for additional hardware or wiring.
o Flexibility - WLANS can be used in a variety of environments both indoors and out making
them highly flexible
o Scalability - As the requirements change, additional Wireless Access Points can be added
relatively easily resulting in additional users being able to use the network or increased
network coverage
o Wireless devices have access to peripherals such as printers

 Disadvantages of a WLAN include:

o Coverage - WLANS are limited in their coverage and can be further affected by walls and
other structures
o Bandwidth - Bandwidth speeds can become an issue in high traffic areas
o Interference - WLANs can sustain interference from other devices which can affect
performance and connectivity
o Security - WLANs can be vulnerable to security threats due to wireless signals being
intercepted

Worked example

Give 2 reasons why a fitness centre may want to install a WLAN [4]
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The fitness centre may wish to install a WLAN for several reasons such as :

Customers can connect to their Wi-Fi and search for information such as class times etc [1]

will improve customer services [1]

Staff at the fitness centre will be able to access resources wirelessly such as printers [1]

allowing them to move freely around the centre [1]

2.2 Network Issues

Security Issues

 When moving electronic data from one place to another, there are different types of security
concerns to consider:
o Data interception can occur when an unauthorised user intercepts data being
transferred.
 Two common methods are:

 Packet sniffing

 Man in the middle attack

 Encryption can be broken if it is not strong

 Using HTTP instead of HTTPS protocols when dealing with sensitive information
 Depending on whether the data being sent is sensitive will depend on the level of security
needed to ensure it stays safe
 All types of information will need to be transferred from one place to another at some point
but typical examples may include:
o User credentials when logging into online banking
o Medical records being passed from a hospital to a GP
o Student details from one school to another
o Criminal records and details

 When dealing with personal or sensitive data it is essential that not only is it protected from
hackers but also that it is protected from accidental disclosures such as:
o Sending an email with sensitive information to the wrong person
o Losing a device that has sensitive data stored
o Shared access misconfigurations allow unauthorised users access to sensitive data

Passwords

 Passwords are a common form of security and are often accompanied by a username or email address
 This type of security is often seen when accessing online banking, virtual learning environments,
email accounts and many more
 There are many ways to enhance the security of your password such as the following:
o Ensure that the password is changed regularly in case it has been obtained illegally or
accidentally
o Ensure that the password uses a combination of uppercase, lowercase, numbers and symbols
to make the password more difficult to guess
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 o iloveict is a weak password
o 1lov3ICT# is a strong password
 Passwords should not contain personal information related to you such as your date of birth, your
name or the name of your pet
 Anti spyware software can be run regularly to ensure that your information including your password
is not being passed to an unauthorised third party user

Authentication

 There are also other forms of authentication aside from passwords that utilise what is known as
“zero login”
 This aims at removing or reducing the need for the user to manually input their details and instead
rely on the system to verify the users credentials automatically
 One such type is known as biometrics where the user's fingerprints or facial features are scanned to
provide unique biometric information to authenticate the user's details.
 Newer methods of zero login types of authentication include the use of networks, location, device
data and human behavioural patterns to recognise users automatically.
 Although these methods offer many advantages there are some concerns that need to be taken into
consideration. They include:
o What personal data is being collected?
o Is the collected data being kept securely?
o Will it log in and out at the correct times?

Magnetic Stripe Cards

 Magnetic stripe cards are a form of card that stores the user’s data on a magnetic strip usually on the
reverse side
 The user scans the card through a reader where the details stored on the card are compared to the
details stored within the system. It the data from the card matches the data that is store on the system
the user is authenticated and granted access
 The advantages to use magnetic stripe cards include:
o Widely used and accepted
o Cheap
o Simple to use
o A single card can serve multiple purposes within an organisation such as doors, purchasing
food from canteens and accessing IT equipment

 Disadvantages to magnetic stripe cards include:

o Some cards use a holographic or photographic ID to detect forged or stolen copies
o The card can may need to be scanned multiple times before the user is accepted and
authenticated
o Cards can become damaged or wear out over time (especially with constant use)
o Cards can be easily cloned

Smart Cards

 Smart Cards are cards that contain a chip and can be used as contactless
 The card does not need to be inserted or swiped through a machine and can be detected from a short
distance away
 Personal identification information can be stored on the card such as name, address, date of birth
and/or banking information
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  The information on the card is encrypted which means it can only be read by authorised devices
 Often the card will require a personal identification number (PIN) which is needed to access the
information, providing an additional layer of security
 Advantages of smart cards include:
o Durable
o Use for a wide range of applications (Payments, Access Control, Storing personal data
o Enhanced security (Compared to standard cards)
 Disadvantages of smart cards include:
o Risk of loss
o Initial Infrastructure requirements
o More expensive compared to traditional cards

Physical Tokens

 A Physical Token enables authentication with the use of a small physical device
 To access a system that uses a physical token, a user will enter their username and password into the
system, and then enter the security code generated by the token
 The physical token can be directly connected to the device that the user is trying to access or the
physical token will generate one time password (OTP) which is then entered into the system
manually
 To obtain a one time password (OTP) the user will enter their personal identification number
(PIN) and any other authentication requirements into the physical token device. If all requirements are
satisfied then an internal clock will be used to generate the one time password (OTP) which is
displayed on its screen
 To enhance security, the one time password (OTP) changes frequently and each code will only be
valid for a short period of time (usually within 1 minute)
 Advantages of physical tokens include:
o Offline authentication
o Portable

 Disadvantages of physical tokens include:

o Cost
o Loss or theft of the physical token
o Physical dependance

There are two typical of physical token:

 Disconnected physical token

o When using a disconnected physical token, a separate device is used to generate the one time
password (OTP) which the user will then enter into the system manually

 Connected physical token


o When using a connected physical token, the one time password (OTP) is generated and
passed to the system automatically though a physical connection and does not require to user
to enter the password manually

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Electronic tokens

 Electronic Tokens are a form ofapplication software that is installed on a user's device (usually
smartphone) to allow them to authenticate their details and allow them to access a secure website
 A user must download and register the electronic token software app prior to accessing the secure
website
 As the website prompts for authentication, the user will open the app that will provide a one time
passcode (OTP) which will be entered into an entry box on the website along with other forms of
authentication such as a username and personal identification number (PIN)
 Both the web server and the smartphone application have synchronised clocks which will generate
identical numbers and should the authentication details match, the user will be granted access to the
website
 The above explanation is just one method of authentication when using electronic tokens. Another
method is as follows:
o The website will prompt the user for their username and password
o Upon successful credentials the website will generate a code
o The code is then entered into the application software on the users phone which will generate
another code
o The generated code from the application software is then entered into an entry box on the
website
o Should all authentication methods pass successfully, the user is granted access to the website

Anti-malware

 Anti-Malware (also known as Anti Virus software) is designed to protect devices against
viruses and malicious software

 Anti-malware has 3 mains purposes, detect, prevent and remove malicious software

 Anti-Malware is installed onto a computer system and will operate in the background

 Common features of Anti-Malware software include the following:

o Comparing the scanned files against a large database of known threats
o Real-time scanning
o Regular updates to gather an up to date list of known threats
o Quarantine of infected files
 Quarantining files allows threats to be automatically deleted
 Allows the user to determine if the file is a legitimate threat and not a false
positive
o Scanning external storage media such as USB flash drives to prevent viruses from
being loaded onto the computer system
 The scanning of downloaded software to ensure that it is free from any
threats


o Heuristic checking
 This is the identification of potential threats within a file from behavioural
patterns and characteristics rather than just relying on a database of known
viruses

Worked example

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Give two examples of how Anti-Malware protects devices against malicious software

[4]

Regular updates by the Anti-Malware software will keep an up to date list of threats [1]

If any of the threats are detected on the device, the Anti-Malware software will quarantine the files [1]

Anti-Malware software will scan external storage media when they are connected to the device [1]

Preventing viruses from being transferred from storage media onto the device [1]

3.1 The Effects of Using IT

Microprocessor Controlled Devices

A microprocessor is a small computer chip that can be used to control devices. It is made up of a
central processing unit (CPU), memory, and input/output (I/O) devices. The CPU is responsible for
carrying out instructions, the memory stores data, and the I/O devices allow the microprocessor to
communicate with the outside world.

Microprocessor controlled devices are used in a wide variety of applications, including:

 Household appliances, such as washing machines, refrigerators, and ovens

 Office equipment, such as printers, scanners, and photocopiers
 Industrial machineries, such as robots and assembly lines
 Transportation, such as cars, aeroplanes, and trains
 Medical devices, such as pacemakers and insulin pumps

Impact of Microprocessors on Home Life

 Positive effects on lifestyle, leisure, physical fitness, and data security include:
o Convenience
 Devices such as smart thermostats, lights, and appliances can be controlled
remotely, saving time and effort
 People have more time to spend on the things they want
 Smart fridges automatically order fresh food and therefore reduce food waste
o Fitness tracking
 Devices like smart watches monitor physical activity and health data,
encouraging healthier lifestyles
o Security
 Smart security systems provide real-time surveillance, adding an extra layer
of protection to homes
 Negative effects include:
o Privacy risks
 These devices can be vulnerable to hacking, risking the security of personal
data
o Social interaction
 Over-reliance on these devices can decrease face-to-face interaction,
impacting social skills
o Physical fitness
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  Despite fitness tracking, sedentary behaviour may increase due to the
convenience of smart devices

Impact of Microprocessors on Transport

 Positive effects on data security, autonomous vehicles, and transport safety include:
o Efficiency
 Autonomous vehicles optimise routes, reducing travel time and fuel
consumption
o Safety
 Advanced safety features, like automatic braking and lane assist, can reduce
accidents
o Data security
 Real-time tracking and encryption help protect against theft or loss
 Negative effects include:
o Privacy issues
 Data collected by these vehicles could be misused or hacked
o Job losses
 Autonomous vehicles could replace jobs in transport industries, leading to
unemployment
o Safety risks
 Malfunctions in autonomous vehicle systems could lead to accidents

Worked example

Microprocessor-controlled devices in the home have had positive effects on people’s lifestyles. One
of the positive effects of using these devices is that we can now set a cooker to switch on whilst we
are out so that we arrive home to a cooked meal. Describe the positive effects of using other
microprocessor-controlled devices in the home.

[4]

Four of:

Microprocessor-controlled devices reduce the need for people to do manual tasks at home [1]
People can use microprocessor-controlled devices for physical fitness tracking in the home [1]
People have more time to spend on leisure activities/shopping/socialising [1]
Increased sense of security as homes are protected with burglar alarms/ smoke alarms/fire alarms [1]
Smart fridges can be used to improve healthy lifestyle//Smart fridges automatically order fresh food//Smart fridges reduce
food waste [1]
Microprocessor-controlled devices can be set remotely using a smartphone [1]
Saves fuel as the heating/air conditioning is not on all day [1]
Reduces injuries by using microprocessor-controlled lights outside [1]

Health Issues When Using Computers

Common health issues related to extensive ICT use include:

 Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI)

o A condition affecting muscles and nerves, often caused by repetitive movements and
overuse
 Back problems

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 o Poor posture while using devices can lead to back pain and other related issues
 Eye problems
o Strain and fatigue from staring at screens for long periods can harm vision
 Headaches
o Overuse of ICT devices can cause headaches, usually due to eye strain or poor
posture

Health Issue Causes Prevention Strategies

Repetitive Repeated physical movements do damage to

Regular breaks, ergonomic equipment, and
Strain Injury tendons, nerves, muscles, and other soft
correct typing techniques.
(RSI) body tissues.

Poor posture, particularly when using Correct posture, ergonomic furniture, and regular
Back problems
devices for long periods. movement.

Prolonged screen time leads to digital eye Regular breaks from the screen, appropriate
Eye problems strain, characterised by dryness, irritation, screen brightness, and maintaining an
and blurred vision. appropriate distance from the screen.

Factors such as poor posture, eye strain, or Regular breaks, maintaining good posture, and
Headaches
stress from overuse of devices. ensuring proper screen brightness.

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4 ICT Application
4.1 Communication
Communication Media

Communication media is the various methods and channels used to convey information and
messages between people, organisations, and devices.

 Newsletters: Periodic publications, often used to inform, educate, or entertain subscribers

about specific topics
o Usually distributed through email or as printed copies
o Suitable for organisations, schools, and clubs to keep members up-to-date
 Posters: Visual presentations that convey information or promote events or products
o Combine text, images, and graphics to grab the attention
o Used for advertising, public service announcements, and event promotion
 Websites: Online platforms that provide information or services
o Accessible through the internet using a web browser
o Useful for businesses, educational institutions, and individuals to share information,
sell products, or offer services
 Multimedia presentations: Digital presentations that combine various forms of media, such
as text, images, audio, and video
o Used in education, business, and entertainment to present information in a visually
engaging way
 Audio: Sound recordings, such as podcasts, music, and radio shows
o It can be streamed or downloaded for offline listening
o Suitable for providing information, entertainment, or educational content
 Video: Moving images with or without sound, used for entertainment, education, or
promotional purposes
o Can be streamed or downloaded for offline viewing
o Typical platforms include YouTube, Vimeo, and social media websites
 Media streaming: Real-time transmission of audio and video files over the internet
o Allows users to access content without downloading it to their devices
o Popular services include Spotify, Netflix, and YouTube
 ePublications: Digital versions of printed materials, such as eBooks, eMagazines, and
eNewspapers
o It can be read on electronic devices, such as eReaders, tablets, and smartphones
o Offer benefits like portability, searchability, and adjustable text size

Mobile Communication

There are various ways mobile devices are used for communication:

 SMS messaging: Short Message Service allows sending and receiving text messages up to
160 characters long
o Uses cellular networks
o Can be sent to multiple recipients at once

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  Phone calls: Traditional voice calls made and received through mobile devices
o Uses cellular networks or Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) services
o Provides real-time communication
 VoIP: Voice over Internet Protocol enables voice calls over the Internet instead of traditional
phone lines
o E.g. Skype, WhatsApp
o Can provide better call quality and lower costs compared to traditional calls
 Video calls: Real-time video conversations between two or more users with a camera-
enabled device
o Uses internet connection or cellular data
o E.g. FaceTime, Skype, and Zoom
 Accessing the Internet: Mobile devices can connect to the Internet using Wi-Fi or cellular
data
o Allows users to browse websites, send and receive emails, and use social media

Electronic Conferencing
Video Conferencing

 Hardware required
o Tv Screens/Monitors
o Speakers
o Microphone
o Webcam
o Video Conferencing System
 Characteristics
o Video conferencing is an alternative for face to face meetings between two or more
people
o Allows both sound and video
o Participants of the video conference can be many miles apart or even in a different
country
o Audio and video are real-time allowing users to interact with each other
 Uses
o Remote employee meetings
o Staff interviews
o Multi-person discussion
o Remote training
o Video conferencing has many uses that include:
 Advantages
o Convenience
o Cost saving
o Better for the environment
o Attendees do not have to travel to the event

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 o Anyone within the company can attend regardless of location
o Events can be held at short notice as travel is not required
o Allows other members outside of the organisation to attend easily without having to
visit on premises
o Some video conferencing software allows record and playback to allow members to
review the meeting

 Disadvantages
o The initial purchase of equipment can be costly
o This can cause issues amongst employees when working across different time zones
o Those using the system may need to be trained to use it effectively which can:
 Take time
 Be costly
o Video conferencing systems require a strong and stable network connection
o There can often be a delay in response times
 The time lag is caused by the image not being synchronised with the sound

o Poor picture/sound quality caused by the speed of connection/quality of the hardware

Worked example

A motor car company has some designers based in London and some in Beijing. The cost of travel
between the two cities is very high, so when they wish to meet to discuss new products they use
video-conferencing.
The designers all have PCs with a keyboard and a mouse in order to take part in video-
conferencing.
a. Name three other devices used to input or output data which would be needed to take part in the
video-conference. [3]

Three of:

Webcam / video camera [1]

Speakers / headset / headphones [1]
Large monitor / television / data projector [1]
Microphone [1]

b. Describe three potential problems of the designers using video-conferencing systems rather than
meeting in either London or Beijing. [3]

Three from:

Time lag / lip sync caused by the image not being synchronised with the sound [1]
Poor picture quality caused by the speed of connection / quality of the hardware [1]
More likely to have poorer sound quality caused by the quality of the hardware / connection [1]
Confidential material about the new cars may have to be signed / viewed in person [1]
The new car may have to be viewed in person [1]
Hardware breakdown stops the conference taking place [1]
Communication breakdown stops the conference taking place [1]
Different time zones will mean the conference has to take place at inconvenient times [1]

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Audio Conferencing

 Hardware required
o A landline phone
o Internet Phone
o Computer (requires a microphone and speakers)
 Characteristics
o Voice communication only (no video)
o Audio is in real time
o Call management options (mute etc)
o Participants of the audio conference can be many miles apart or even in a different
country
 Uses
o On the go business meetings
o Allows a hybrid collection of devices such as landline telephones, smartphones and
laptops (providing it is a VoIP call)
 Advantages
o Attendees do not have to travel to the event
 Convenience
 Cost saving
 Better for the environment
o Anyone within the company can attend regardless of location
o Events can be held at short notice as travel is not required
o Allows other members outside of the organisation to attend easily without having to
visit on premises
o Audio conferencing is more cost effective as it requires less bandwidth and less
expensive equipment
o Audio conferencing can integrate with many other devices and tools for
communication
o Audio conferencing provides a higher level of security as users are not sharing a
screen

Disadvantages

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 o Can be difficult to determine who is the speaker
o Limited interaction
o Lack of visuals:
 Body language
 Users sharing visual content
o This can cause issues amongst employees when working across different time zones

Web Conferencing (Webinar /Webcast)

 Hardware Required
o Computer (requires webcam, microphone and speakers)

 Characteristics
o Allows both sound and video
o Participants of the web conference can be many miles apart or even in a different
country
o Audio and video are real time allowing users to interact with each other
o Allows virtual breakout rooms for teams of participants
o Screen and slide presentations
o Instant messaging
o Document sharing

 Uses
o Distance learning and education
o Online presentations
o Online team collaboration
o Interviews
o Customer support
o Virtual events

 Advantages
o Attendees do not have to travel to the event
 Convenience
 Cost saving
 Better for the environment
o Anyone within the company can attend regardless of location
o Events can be held at short notice as travel is not required
o Allows other members outside of the organisation to attend easily without having to
visit on premises
o Web conferencing software often allows recording and playback features to allow
members to review the event
o Enhanced visual presentations compared to video conferencing

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 o Real time collaboration

 Disadvantages
o Requires a strong and stable network connection
o Security and privacy concerns
o Distractions from other activities on the device
o Those using the system may need to be trained to use it effectively which can:
 Take time
 Be costly
o Dependent on users being technically savvy and having suitable devices/network
connections

Differences of Online Conferencing Types

Audio Conferencing Video/Web Conferencing

Requires less bandwidth Requires more bandwidth

Less Social More Social
No Visual Engagement Visual Engagement
No option of non verbal cues Use of nonverbal cues
Fewer resources needed More Resources needed

Exam Tip

 Both web conferencing and video conferencing are very similar however, the key differences
are:
o Video conferencing has a focus on face to face communication
o Web conferencing has a focus on interaction and collaboration such as document
sharing, whiteboards etc

Computer Modelling

Computer modelling is the use of computer programs and algorithms to simulate and analyse
complex systems or processes. The accuracy and reliability of computer models depend on the
quality of input data and algorithms used.

 Personal finance: Budgeting, investment planning, and financial forecasting

o Helps individuals and families manage their finances effectively
 Bridge and building design: Structural analysis and simulations to test designs
o Ensures the safety and stability of structures before construction
 Flood water management: Predicting and analysing flood risks and mitigation strategies
o Supports planning and decision-making for disaster management
 Traffic management: Analysing traffic patterns and optimising transportation systems
o Aids in reducing congestion and improving traffic flow
 Weather forecasting: Using complex algorithms and historical data to predict weather
conditions

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 o Helps people plan and prepare for upcoming weather events

Advantages Disadvantages

Faster calculations and processing Dependence on accurate input data and assumptions
Limited by the quality and complexity of the algorithms
Reduced human error and bias
used
Ability to simulate multiple scenarios and test May overlook unique or unpredictable situations not
different variables covered by the model
Can be expensive and time-consuming to develop,
Better visualisation of complex data and systems
maintain, and update models

Computer Controlled Systems

Computer controlled systems use computers and software to control, monitor, and manage
processes, machines, or devices. The effectiveness of computer controlled systems depends on the
quality of software, hardware, and input data.

 Robotics in manufacture: Automation of production processes using robots

o Improves efficiency, precision, and productivity
 Production line control: Supervising and managing assembly lines with computer systems
o Ensures quality control and reduces human error
 Autonomous vehicles: Self-driving cars and drones guided by computer algorithms
o Enhances safety, reduces traffic congestion, and increases fuel efficiency

Advantages and Disadvantages of Computer Controlled Systems

Advantages Disadvantages

Increased efficiency and productivity (due to

High initial investment and maintenance costs
working 24/7)
Greater precision and accuracy Job displacement for human workers

Ability to operate in hazardous environments Dependency on reliable software and hardware

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 Lack of flexibility and adaptability to unexpected
Reduced human error and fatigue
situations

Can work with large or delicate items Requires costly backup systems

Worked example

The European Space Agency (ESA) is building a new space telescope to orbit the Earth and search
for distant galaxies. The ESA is using computer controlled robots to build the lens of the telescope.
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using computer controlled robots rather than humans
to build the lens.[6]

Max 4 of:
Advantages

Robots can work in sterile areas where humans would need protective clothing [1]
Robots can easily be used for transferring large delicate items [1]
Robots can work 24/7 / continuously [1]
Cheaper in the long run/robots not paid [1]
More accurate as the lens needs to be precise / higher quality of lens [1]
More frequent checking of the equipment/lens [1]
They do boring/laborious work [1]
Issues can be found more quicker [1]
Task/job can be carried out far quicker [1]

Max 4 of:
Disadvantages

Very expensive to buy / higher in the short term [1]

Maintenance is very expensive [1]
Difficult to re-program when changes are made [1]
Requires expensive backup systems [1]
They replace skilled workers, leading to de-skilling [1]
They need constant observation which increases the cost of maintenance crews [1]
If something goes wrong, it may be difficult to find the error [1]

Exam Tip

 Some of the advantages/disadvantages listed above don't always apply depending on the
scenario. Choose the ones appropriate for the scenario in the question
 You can't get full marks by only focusing on advantages or disadvantages - make sure you
know both
 Don't use short answers like 'it's expensive' - explain your answer

School Management Systems

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School management systems are software applications designed to manage various aspects of
educational institutions, such as student registration, attendance, performance tracking, and online
learning.

 There are various ways school management systems are used in educational institutions:
o Learner registration and attendance: Recording and tracking student enrolment
and daily attendance
 Simplifies the registration process and ensures accurate record-keeping
o Recording learner performance: Monitoring and analysing student grades, test
scores, and overall performance
 Helps teachers identify areas for improvement and track progress
o Computer aided learning: Facilitating online learning resources and activities for
students
 Enhances the learning experience and promotes self-paced learning

 Advantages of using school management systems:

o Streamlined administration and record-keeping
o Improved communication between teachers, students, and parents - this can be
automated
o Centralised access to information and resources
o Data-driven decision-making and insights for teachers and administrators
o Information is more up to date
o Information can be obtained quickly in an emergency
o Patterns of absence can be found quickly which helps to tackle truancy/lateness

Worked example

A school is setting up a new computerised system to manage many aspects of the school
administration.
a. Describe how this system can be used to manage student registration and attendance.[3]

3 of:

Student scans a card // teacher records the student as present on the computer system [1]
The system records the time of arrival [1]
The system sends the data to the school administration database [1]
The data is searched in the database [1]
If a student arrives after a certain time the student’s attendance record is flagged as late/absent [1]
Attendance/lateness records are automatically printed/sent to parents [1]
Letters/texts are automatically sent to parents to show the absenteeism/lateness of students [1]
Parents can log in into the system to check student’s attendance/lateness records [1]

b. Describe the benefits of using this system.[2]

2 of:

The information is more up to date [1]

Information about the student can be obtained quickly after a fire/emergency [1]
Information regarding patterns of absence can be found quickly [1]
Helps to tackle truancy/lateness [1]
Parents can be informed automatically about patterns of lateness/attendance [1]
Lateness is entered consistently in the school [1]
Automatic lateness reports for the form tutor can be generated [1]
Accurate/up to date records if there is a fire [1]
Speeds up the process as attendance is not marked manually [1]
Exam Tip

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  Relate your answer to the scenario given in the question

Online Booking Systems

Online booking systems are web-based platforms and applications that allow users to reserve and
purchase tickets or services for various events and industries.

 Travel industry: Booking flights, hotels, and holiday packages

o Provides a convenient platform for travellers to plan and book their trips
 Concerts: Reserving tickets for live music events
o Allows music fans to secure their spot at popular concerts
 Cinemas: Booking movie tickets in advance
o Enables cinema-goers to reserve seats and avoid queues
 Sporting events: Purchasing tickets for sports matches and competitions
o Offers sports enthusiasts an easy way to attend their favourite events

Advantages and Disadvantages of Online Booking Systems

Advantages Disadvantages

Convenience and accessibility (24/7

Potential for technical issues and downtime
booking)
Instant confirmation and ticketing Possible security and privacy concerns

Ability to compare prices and options Transaction and booking fees

Promotions and personalised offers Impersonal and less tailored customer service

Faster to change/cancel Internet connected devices required

Automated reminders via email/text Staff may lose their job
Repeated bookings can easily be made
Staff are freed up to do other things

Worked example

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RockIT Airlines representatives use a computer booking system to book flights for customers. A
representative from the airline types in the customer reference number, the number of passengers,
departure time, departure date, departure airport and the destination airport. Describe the
processing and outputs involved in making the booking.

[6]

6 of:

Display flights available [1]

The booking database is searched for the customer reference number [1]
A matching record is retrieved [1]
Details of the customer are displayed on the screen [1]
The booking database is searched for matching departure airports [1]
The booking database is searched for matching destination airports [1]
If the flight correct, the date/time found [1]
Search if seats/tickets/flights available [1]
If unavailable error message output [1]
Outputs the price [1]
If seats are available, flags seat as booked [1]
If not booked then the flag removed [1]
Reduces the number of seats/tickets available by the number booked [1]
E-ticket/ticket details are output [1]
E-ticket/ticket details sent to customer [1]
A receipt is printed//Verification email sent [1]

Banking Applications
Automatic Teller Machines (ATM)

Automatic Teller Machines (ATM) is an electronic banking terminal that provides customers with
access to financial transactions

 Characteristics and uses of ATMs:

o Withdrawing cash: Obtain money from a bank account
o Depositing cash or cheques: Add funds to a bank account
o Checking account balance: View the current balance of a bank account
o Mini statements: Obtain a summary of recent transactions
o Bill paying: Settle utility bills and other payments
o Money transfers: Send funds to another bank account

Advantages and disadvantages of ATMs

Advantages Disadvantages

Convenient access to banking services Risk of theft or fraud

Available 24/7 Limited services compared to bank branches

Reduced waiting time Technical issues and machine downtime

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 Global access to funds Fees for transactions at non-network ATMs

Electronic Funds Transfer (EFT)

 Characteristics and uses of EFT:

o Transfer of funds between bank accounts electronically
o Utilised for bill payments, salary deposits, and online purchases
o Utilises NFC in contactless payments
 The process of EFT:
o The data is read from the chip (using RFID / NFC if it's a contactless payment)

o The business bank's computer contacts the customer’s bank's computer

o The card is checked if it is valid

o If the card is valid the transaction continues

o If it is not valid the transaction is terminated

o An authorisation code is sent to the business

o The price of the item is deducted from the customer’s account

o This money is added to the business' account

Advantages and disadvantages of EFT

Advantages Disadvantages

Fast and efficient Risk of online fraud

Reduces paperwork Technical issues
Lower transaction costs Requires internet connection

Worked example

Adam is paying his bill in a restaurant using a contactless debit card.

Describe the computer processing involved in Electronic Funds Transfer (EFT) using contactless
cards.
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 [4]

4 of:

The reader checks the amount to pay is less than the contactless limit [1]
The data is read from the chip using RFID / NFC [1]
The restaurant’s bank's computer contacts the customer’s bank's computer [1]
The card is checked if it is valid [1]
If valid the transaction continues [1]
If not valid the transaction is terminated [1]
An authorisation code is sent to the restaurant [1]
The price of the meal is deducted from the customer’s account [1]
Added to the restaurant’s account [1]
Exam Tip

 Make sure you read the question to see if it's a contactless payment or involves Chip & PIN
and reference this in your answer
 Don't forget that money isn't stored on the card, and that it provides a link to the bank
account it's linked to

Credit/Debit Card Transactions

 Characteristics and uses of credit/debit card transactions:

o Payment or withdrawal using a bank card
o Accepted by most merchants and service providers

Advantages and disadvantages of credit/debit card transactions

Advantages
Disadvantages

Convenient and easy to use Risk of theft or loss

Widely accepted Potential for overspending

Secure with fraud protection Transaction fees

Cheques

 Characteristics and uses of cheques:

o A written order to a bank to pay a specified amount to a designated person or entity
o Can be used for various payments, including bills, services, and personal
transactions

How do you deposit a cheque at an ATM?

 Customer is asked to enter their debit card in the ATM

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  Customer’s bank computer is contacted

 The card details are searched in the bank database

 The card is checked to see if valid, in date or if it has been stolen

 The customer is asked to enter their PIN

 The PIN is compared to the PIN stored on the chip

 The customer is asked to deposit a cheque

 The system checks whether the cheque is valid

 The cheque is scanned by the ATM

 Amount is scanned

 The Bank account is checked for sufficient funds

 The image of the scan is saved

 The customer is asked to select the account to deposit money

 Money is deducted from the bank of the cheque

 Money is added to the account of the payee

 A receipt is sent to the printer at the ATM

Advantages and disadvantages of cheques

Advantages Disadvantages

Secure and traceable Slow processing time

No need for physical cash Not widely accepted

Useful for large transactions Risk of cheque bouncing

Online Banking

 Characteristics and uses of Internet banking:

o Online access to banking services via a secure website or app
o Allows for transfers, bill payments, account management, and more

Advantages and disadvantages of Internet banking

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 Advantages Disadvantages

Convenience and 24/7 access Security of transactions

Requires a reliable internet
Easy account management
connection
Reduced need for branch visits (saving time
More risk of fraud
and money)
Easier to make errors (typing in the
Interest rates may be better
wrong information)
Physical cash can't be
Easier to shop around for the best account
deposited/withdrawn

Exam Tip

 Sometimes the question will be about advantages and disadvantages of going to the bank
rather than using online banking. Read the question carefully (you can reverse the
statements in the table above)

Computers in Medicine
Information Systems in Medicine

 Characteristics and uses of patient records:

o Digital records of a patient's medical history
o Contains personal information, diagnoses, treatments, and test results
o Used by healthcare professionals for making informed decisions about patient care
 Characteristics and uses of pharmacy records:
o Records of medication dispensed by a pharmacy
o Contains patient information, medication details, dosages, and the prescribing doctor
o Used by pharmacists to track medication history and ensure safe dispensing

Healthcare settings may also use online booking systems for appointments

Healthcare professionals may also utilise expert systems to assist with a diagnosis

3D Printers in Medicine

There are various ways 3D printers can be used:

 Printing of prosthetics:
o Custom-made prosthetic limbs or body parts
o Can be tailored to a patient's specific needs
o Faster and more affordable than traditional methods
 Tissue engineering:
o 3D printing of living cells to create functional tissues
o Can be used to repair or replace damaged organs

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 o Potential to reduce the need for organ donations
 Artificial blood vessels:
o 3D printed blood vessels made of biodegradable materials
o Can be used in surgeries to replace damaged vessels
o Allows for improved blood flow and faster healing
 Customised medicines:
o 3D printed pills with precise doses and drug combinations
o Tailored to a patient's specific needs and conditions
o Potential to improve medication adherence and effectiveness

Computers in Retail
Point Of Sale (POS)

 Point of Sale (POS) terminalsare a computerised system used at checkout counters to

process transactions and manage inventory
o Essential part of retail checkout counters
o Process transactions and calculate total amounts due
o Utilise barcode scanners, touch screens, and receipt printers
 Functions of POS terminals:
o Update stock files automatically
 Track inventory levels in real-time
 Prevent stock discrepancies and ensure accurate records
o Order new stock automatically
 Monitor inventory levels and reorder when stock is low
 Streamline supply chain management and minimise stockouts

 Electronic Funds Transfer at Point of Sale (EFTPOS) terminals:

o Enable customers to make payments using credit/debit cards
o Part of a secure transaction system
 Functions of EFTPOS terminals:
o Check the validity of cards
 Ensure cards are active and not expired
 Reduce the risk of fraud
o Use of chip and PIN
 Enhance security with two-factor authentication
 Require customers to enter a personal identification number (PIN)
o Use of contactless cards
 Allow for faster transactions
 Enable customers to tap their card on the terminal
o Use of Near Field Communication (NFC) payment
 Facilitate payments through smartphones and other devices
 Increase convenience for customers
o Communication between supermarket computer and bank computer
 Share transaction details securely
 Enable instant payment processing and verification

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Worked example

Modern supermarkets have automated stock control systems, which use data from the checkouts.
Describe how food items can be ordered by an automated stock control system so they are
delivered before the stock in the supermarket runs out.[4]

4 of:

Each item is scanned/bar code is read at the POS terminal [1]

Bar code is searched in the database [1]
The quantity of products is reduced [1]
The stock database is updated [1]
When the minimum stock number/level/reorder level is reached [1]
Reads re-order quantity [1]
Goods flagged as ordered [1]
The automated stock system sends a signal to the warehouse computer to order new items [1]
The warehouse sends the items to the supermarket [1]
Re-order quantity is found in the database [1]
Flags removed [1]
The stock control system updates the stock levels in the stock control database with the new stock [1]

Internet shopping

Internet shopping is the act of purchasing goods or services online through websites or mobile
applications

Characteristics of Internet Shopping

 Online stores accessible through web browsers

 Wide variety of products and services are available
 Convenient and often open 24/7

Advantages of Internet Shopping to the Customer

 Time-saving and convenient

o Shop from home or on the go
o Avoid queues and busy stores
 Greater product variety
o Access to the global market
o Compare products and prices easily
 Customisation options
o Personalise items or services
o Tailor purchases to individual preferences
 Potential cost savings
o Competitive pricing due to lower overheads
o Take advantage of online sales and promotions

Disadvantages of Internet Shopping to the Customer

 Security concerns
o Risk of fraud or identity theft
o Need to provide personal and financial information
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  Limited physical interaction
o Can't touch or try products before purchasing
o This may lead to dissatisfaction or returns
 Delivery delays and fees
o Wait for items to be shipped and delivered
o Additional costs for shipping and handling
 Impersonal customer service
o Difficulty resolving issues or returning items
o Lack of face-to-face interaction with staff

Advantages of Internet Shopping to the Business

 Can target prices, products and services at specific groups based on buying data

 Can update stock availability and prices more quickly than a physical store through their
website

 Cheaper to publicise special offers rather than mail shots

 International customer base

 Increased profits due to lower overheads (e.g. fewer staff)

Disadvantages of Internet Shopping to the Business

 Increased Competition
o Online shopping means businesses have to compete with a global market, which can
be more challenging than competing with local businesses
 Digital Fraud and Security Concerns
o Online transactions expose businesses to potential cyber threats such as hacking
and fraud. Data breaches can result in financial loss and damage to brand reputation
 Technical Issues and Downtime
o Website outages or technical glitches can prevent customers from making purchases
and negatively affect the user experience
 Costs of Delivery and Returns
o Online businesses often shoulder the cost of shipping products to customers and
also have to manage returns and refunds, which can be costly
 Customer Trust
o Customers can't physically touch, feel, or try products before buying, which can lead
to uncertainty and a lack of trust
 Inventory Management
o Keeping accurate track of inventory can be complex, especially if a company sells
through multiple online channels
 Depersonalisation
o It can be harder to build relationships with customers and provide personalised
service when all interactions happen online
 Online Reviews
o Negative customer reviews can greatly impact the image of the business, as they are
visible to all potential customers
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  Dependency on Internet Infrastructure
o Businesses need a stable and reliable internet connection to manage their operations
smoothly
 Logistical Challenges
o Managing and operating warehouses, packaging, and shipping can be difficult and
costly for smaller businesses
 Legal and Regulatory Compliance
o Companies selling online may have to comply with a multitude of laws and
regulations, which can vary by country
 Increased Customer Expectations
o The convenience of online shopping has led to increased customer expectations for
fast, free delivery, and excellent customer service

Expert Systems

An Expert system is a computer program that uses artificial intelligence to replicate the decision-making
abilities of a human expert in a specific field.

Purpose of an Expert System

 Solve complex problems

o Expert systems are designed to handle complex problems that usually require human
expertise
 Enhance decision-making
o They assist in making informed decisions by providing accurate and reliable
recommendations based on the available data
 Save time and resources
o Expert systems can process vast amounts of data quickly, reducing the time and effort
required by human experts
 Consistency and accuracy
o They ensure consistent and accurate results by eliminating human error and bias
 Knowledge preservation
o Expert systems store and preserve the knowledge of experts, ensuring it is not lost when the
expert retires or is unavailable

Uses of Expert Systems

 Mineral prospecting
o Analyse geological data
o Identify potential locations for mineral deposits
 Car engine fault diagnosis
o Determine issues within engine components
o Suggest repair options and maintenance schedules
 Medical diagnosis
o Analyse patient symptoms and medical history
o Suggest possible diagnoses and treatment plans
 Chess games
o Evaluate possible moves based on the game state
o Plan strategic moves to increase chances of winning
 Financial planning
o Evaluate investment options and risks

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 o Provide personalised financial advice
 Route scheduling for delivery vehicles
o Calculate optimal routes based on factors like distance, traffic, and time constraints
o Reduce fuel consumption and improve efficiency
 Plant and animal identification
o Analyse physical characteristics and habitat data
o Identify species and provide relevant information
 Career recommendations
o Ask the user a series of questions / analyse existing qualifications
o Make recommendations on career choices

Worked example

Expert systems are used by doctors.

a. Describe how an expert system can be used to diagnose illnesses.[5]

5 of:

An Interactive user interface appears [1]

Questions are asked about the illness [1]
Yes and No type answers to the questions [1]
Answers lead to other questions [1]
The inference engine searches the knowledge base [2]
Using the rules base [1]
Probabilities/possibilities of diagnoses and treatments are displayed [1]
Displays the ways it achieved the solutions/conclusions / explanation [1]

b. Name two other applications of expert systems.[2]

2 of:

Mineral prospecting [1]

Car engine fault diagnosis [1]
Chess games [1]
Tax queries [1]
Careers recommendations [1]

Components of an Expert System

Components of an Expert System

 User Interface:
o Allows users to interact with the expert system
o Provides a platform for inputting data and receiving recommendations or solutions
o Designed for ease of use and accessibility
 Inference Engine:
o A core component of the expert system that performs logical reasoning
o Applies rules from the rules base to the data from the knowledge base
o Mimics human decision-making processes to generate conclusions
 Knowledge Base:
o Repository for domain-specific information, facts, and data
o Contains expertise gathered from human experts or other reliable sources
o Essential for the inference engine to make accurate recommendations
 Rules Base:
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 o Stores logical rules and relationships governing the domain
o Guides the inference engine in applying reasoning to the data
o Rules can be modified or updated as new information becomes available
 Explanation System:
o Provides transparency in the decision-making process
o Offers detailed explanations of the expert system's reasoning and conclusions
o Enhances user trust and understanding of the system's recommendations

How an Expert System is Used to Produce Possible Solutions

 Expert systems use the knowledge base and rules base to analyse input data
 The inference engine applies rules and logic to the input data
 The system generates potential solutions or recommendations based on the applied rules
 The explanation system communicates the reasoning behind the suggested solutions

Exam Tip

 This topic comes up frequently. Make sure you understand the operation of an expert system. You
need to be able to not only name the components but explain how they interact or operate

Recognition Systems

Recognition
Characteristics Uses Advantages Disadvantages
System

Limited to
School registers, Fast and efficient
Detects marks on predetermined
Optical Mark multiple-choice data collection,
paper, such as filled-in responses, sensitive to
Recognition (OMR) examination papers, reduces manual
circles or checkboxes poor marking or
barcodes, QR codes entry errors
smudging
Can struggle with
Converts printed or Automated Number Speeds up data different fonts or
Optical Character
handwritten text into Plate Recognition processing reduce handwriting styles,
Recognition (OCR)
machine-readable text (ANPR) systems human error sensitive to image
quality

Uses radio frequency Tracking stock, Fast and efficient

Radio Frequency Limited read range, can
signals to transmit passports, data transfer, can be
Identification be susceptible to
data stored on a automobiles, read without a direct
Device (RFID) interference or hacking
microchip contactless payment line of sight

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 Enables short-range Convenient and
Near Field Limited range,
wireless Payment using a secure, allows for
Communication compatibility issues
communication smartphone contactless
(NFC) with some devices
between devices transactions

Expensive technology,
Identifies individuals Face, iris, retina, Highly secure,
Biometric privacy concerns,
based on unique finger, thumb, hand, difficult to forge or
Recognition potential false positives
biological traits voice recognition replicate
or negatives

Worked example

As banks reduce the number of branches due to the increased use of online banking systems,
improved security of customer data is needed. Many banks are introducing biometric systems to
secure customer data.
Explain, using examples, why biometric systems are more effective than other methods of security.

[3]

Max 2 of:

The biometric data is unique to the person [1]

The biometrics cannot be forgotten/stolen/shared like passwords [1]
The person needs to be present to enter the data [1]
Difficult to replicate/forge / fake/duplicate [1]

Award 1 mark for any 2 examples:

Examples: fingerprint/palm print / facial recognition/hand geometry/iris / retina scan/voice [1]

How does RFID work?

 RFID Tags
o RFID stands for Radio Frequency Identification. It refers to a technology that uses
radio waves to identify and track objects. This system includes RFID tags, which can
be attached to objects and contains information about them
 Components of RFID Tags
o RFID tags consist of an integrated circuit (IC) and an antenna. The IC is responsible
for storing and processing information, while the antenna receives and transmits the
signal
 Passive RFID Tags
o Passive RFID tags do not have a power supply. They get their power from the
electromagnetic energy transmitted by the RFID reader
o When the RFID reader emits radio waves, these waves are picked up by the passive
tag's antenna
o The energy from the waves is converted into electrical energy, which powers the IC

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 o The IC then transmits the stored information back to the reader via the antenna,
again using radio waves
 Active RFID Tags
o Unlike passive tags, active RFID tags have their power source, which is usually a
battery. This allows them to broadcast a signal to the reader actively, making them
more powerful and capable of being read from a greater distance
o Active tags emit a signal which is picked up by the RFID reader. They don't require
the reader's signal to activate them, unlike passive tags
 Radio Waves
o Both passive and active RFID systems operate by utilising radio waves for
communication
o The RFID reader transmits radio waves, which are captured by the RFID tag's
antenna in the case of passive tags, or directly interact with the active tags' signal
o The frequency of these radio waves can vary and is generally divided into low-
frequency (LF), high-frequency (HF), and ultra-high-frequency (UHF) RFID systems.
The choice of frequency impacts the reading distance, speed of data transfer, and
ability to penetrate different materials
 Antennas
o The antennas in the RFID system are crucial for the communication between the tag
and the reader
o In passive RFID tags, the antenna receives the signal from the reader, powers the
IC, and then transmits the tag's information back to the reader
o In active RFID tags, the antenna is responsible for emitting the signal that carries the
tag's information to the reader
 Communication with RFID Reader
o The RFID reader emits radio waves, which are either captured by the passive tag or
interact with the active tag's signal. The reader then receives the information
transmitted by the tag's IC through the tag's antenna. This information can be used to
identify and track the tagged object

Worked example

A farmer has purchased a computerised feeding system for her goats. A goat has an RFID tag
attached to its ear, which is recognised by the computer. The system uses a passive RFID tag.
a. Describe how the RFID tag can be activated.[3]

3 of:

The RFID reader sends radio waves / signals to the RFID antenna in the tag [1]
The tag sends radio wave/signal back to the reader [1]
The radio waves move from the tag’s antenna to the microchip [1]
A signal is generated and sent back to the RF system [1]
The RF wave is detected by the reader which interprets the data [1]

The system recognises the goat and therefore gives the correct feed to the animal.
b. Describe how RFID technology will be used to give the correct feed to the animal.[3]

3 of:

The goat passes the RFID reader [1]

The RFID reader extracts data from the tag [1]
The ID is compared with data stored in the database [1]
The feed for the goat is then selected/identified / read from the database [1]
Exam Tip

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  When talking about where data is stored, be specific and don't just say 'in the
computer/system'. The example above the data is stored in a database

What is Near Field Communication (NFC)?

It's a technology that allows two devices to communicate when they're very close together, typically
within a few centimetres. This is the same tech that allows you to make payments by tapping your
phone or card on a payment terminal.

 Two Modes of Operation

o NFC works in two modes - reader/writer mode (for reading tags in NFC posters, for
example) and peer-to-peer mode (for exchanging data between two NFC devices)
 Power Source
o NFC devices can be either passive or active. Active devices, like smartphones, can
both send and receive data. Passive devices, like NFC tags, don't have their own
power source and can only send data when they come close to an active device
 Communication
o Communication between NFC devices happens through radio waves. When two NFC
devices get close, one sends radio waves that the other can pick up, allowing them to
exchange information

 Usage
o NFC enables payment for things at the shop by tapping a phone on the terminal,
share files by bringing two phones close together, and use a phone as a bus or train
ticket
 Security
o Because NFC only works over a short range, it's generally secure. But it's always
good to be aware that any wireless communication could potentially be intercepted,
so it's important to only use NFC for secure transactions with trusted devices

Satellite Systems

 Characteristics
o Orbiting objects that receive, amplify and transmit signals
o Use radio frequencies to communicate with ground stations
o Require line of sight between satellite and receiver
 Uses
o Determine location, speed and time using satellite signals
o Provides turn-by-turn directions for travel
o Collect, analyse and display spatial data
o Satellite television
 Broadcast TV signals via satellite
o Satellite phone
 Provide communication in remote areas
o Global Positioning Systems (GPS)
o Satellite navigation
o Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
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 o Media communication systems

How does sat nav work?

 The position/location of the car is calculated using GPS software

 Data is transmitted every few seconds
 An algorithm calculates the speed/location of the car
 The map is updated every few seconds

Advantages Disadvantages

Wide coverage area Expensive setup and maintenance

Signal interference due to weather or

Real-time data transmission
obstacles

Improved communication in remote

Limited bandwidth and capacity
locations

Privacy Concerns and potential for

Accurate location tracking
Surveillance

Worked example

Modern-day drivers rely less on paper maps and more on satellite navigation systems (satnav).
Describe the inputs, outputs and processing of a satnav when used by a driver to reach a
destination.[4]

4 of:

Destination is input by driver [1]

Exact position of motor vehicle is continually calculated using GPS [1]
Using data transmitted from 3 / 4 satellites [1]
The on board computer contains pre-stored road maps [1]
The car’s position is displayed on the map/route displayed [1]
The algorithm calculates the route from the current car’s position to the destination [1]
Makes allowances for traffic jams/roadworks [1]
The car system receives regular updates on traffic conditions [1]
Outputs the journey time/ETA of journey/voice output [1]
Calculates the journey time / ETA of journey time [1]
Outputs speed limits/cameras / warning speed limit [1]

Exam Tip

 Some people think the satnav sends signals to the satellite and the satellite did the
calculations and sends the results back to the satnav - this is not how it works
 A satnav will calculate your current position using GPS - the user doesn't need to input this

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5 System Life Cycle
5.1 Systems Life Cycle: Analysis
The first stage is finding out about the current system. There are many ways to do this and usually
more than one method is used:

 Observation
o Characteristics: watching users interact with the system
o Uses: understanding how users interact with the current system
o Advantages: provides first-hand, unbiased information
o Disadvantages: can be time-consuming, may not reveal all issues
 Interviews
o Characteristics: structured or unstructured conversations with users
o Uses: gathering detailed information about user experiences
o Advantages: allows for in-depth exploration of issues
o Disadvantages: may be influenced by interviewee bias, time-consuming
 Questionnaires
o Characteristics: structured surveys with predetermined questions
o Uses: collecting data from a large number of users
o Advantages: allows for quantitative analysis, efficient data collection
o Disadvantages: limited by predetermined questions, may suffer from low response
rates
 Examination of existing documents
o Characteristics: reviewing system documentation, user guides, or reports
o Uses: understanding the current system's design and any known issues

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 o Advantages: provides insights into the system's history, can reveal previously
unknown issues
o Disadvantages: may be outdated or incomplete, time-consuming

Identifying Key Aspects of the Current System

 Inputs: data or information entered into the system

 Outputs: data or information generated by the system
 Processing: tasks performed by the system on the inputs to produce the outputs
 Problems: issues that users face with the current system
 User requirements: what users need from the new system
 Information requirements: data or information the new system must process

Hardware and Software Selection

 Identify suitable hardware

o Consider system requirements, compatibility, and cost
o Justify choices based on user needs and system performance
 Identify suitable software
o Consider functionality, compatibility, and ease of use
o Justify choices based on user requirements and system efficiency

Exam Tip

 When justifying hardware and software choices, make sure to link your decisions to the user
and information requirements for the new system. This demonstrates your understanding of
the analysis stage of the Systems Life Cycle

Worked example

A small company makes toys and then delivers them to shops.

Throughout the day orders are received by the company from its customers. The office workers in
the finance department create and store an invoice for each order. They are too busy to be
disturbed by their work.
Delivery drivers receive copies of the invoices which they will pass on to their customers. The
drivers make a large number of deliveries per day and do not return to the office.
A systems analyst will research the current system and suggest improvements to be made.
For each type of employee identified above, describe the most suitable method of collecting
information from them, giving a reason for your choice.[4]

Office workers:

Observation of the processes taking place [1]

Looking at existing paperwork [1]

Reason:

1 of:

Enables the systems analyst to see the whole system [1]

There are too many workers to interview them all [1]
Questionnaires/interviews would stop them from working on their tasks [1]

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Can see how the files are stored/processes undertaken [1]
It allows information to be obtained that cannot be obtained in other ways [1]
enables necessary storage, and computer equipment to be identified [1]
If they are observed, then they may change the way they work [1]
They are too busy to be interviewed [1]

Delivery drivers:

Questionnaires could be handed out [1]

Reason:

1 of:

They can complete them in their own time/at their leisure [1]
Questionnaires tend to be more accurate [1]
The data can be collated more quickly as everyone can complete at the [1]
same time rather than interviewing which is one after the other [1]
Individuals remain anonymous therefore they will be more truthful/reliable [1]
Easier to analyse [1]

5.2 Systems Life Cycle: Design

File/Data Structures

 Field length: number of characters allowed in a field

 Field name: an identifier for the field in the data structure
 Data type: specifies the kind of data that can be stored in a field, e.g. text, numbers, dates
 Coding of data: using codes to represent data, e.g. M for male, F for female

Input Formats

 Data capture forms: designed to collect data from users in a structured format
 Consider a user-friendly layout, clear instructions, and appropriate data fields

Output Formats

 Screen layouts: how information is presented to users on a screen

 Report layouts: how information is organised in a printed or digital report
 Consider readability, visual appeal, and efficient use of space

Validation Routines

 Range check: ensures data is within a specified range of values

 Character check: ensures data contains only allowed characters
 Length check: ensures data is of a specified length
 Type check: ensures data is of the correct data type
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  Format check: ensures data conforms to a specific format
 Presence check: ensures data is present and not left blank
 Check digit: a digit added to a number to verify its accuracy

Exam Tip

 In the design stage of the Systems Life Cycle, focus on creating clear, user-friendly input
formats and output formats. Additionally, make sure to implement appropriate validation
routines to ensure data accuracy and completeness.

Worked example

Carlos is designing a new computer system to replace an existing system. Tick four items which will
need to be designed.

[4]

Tick
Inputs to the current system.
Data capture forms.
Report layouts.
Limitations of the system.
Observation methods.
Improvements to the system.
User and information requirements.
Validation routines.
Problems with the current system.
File structure.

Tick

Inputs to the current system.

Data capture forms. χ

Report layouts. χ

Limitations of the system.

Observation methods.

Improvements to the system.

User and information requirements.

Validation routines. χ

Problems with the current system.

File structure. χ

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5.3 Systems Life Cycle: Testing
Why do we test?

 Ensures the system works as intended before implementation

 Identifies and fixes errors, improving system reliability and performance

Test Designs

 Test data structures, file structures, input formats, output formats, and validation routines
 Ensure all components function correctly and interact seamlessly

Test Strategies

 Test each module: verify individual components function as intended

 Test each function: ensure all features work correctly
 Test the whole system: confirm overall system performance and integration

Test Plan

 Test data: specific data used for testing purposes

 Expected outcomes: predicted results based on test data
 Actual outcomes: results obtained from testing
 Remedial action: steps taken to fix identified issues

Test Data Types

 Normal data: valid and expected data values within the range of acceptability
 Abnormal data: invalid or unexpected data values. This can either be:
o Data outside the range of acceptability or
o Data that is the wrong data type
 Extreme data: values at the limits of acceptability

What is live data?

 Data that has been used with the current system

 Therefore the results are known

Worked example

The European Space Agency (ESA) is building a new space telescope to orbit the Earth and search
for distant galaxies. The ESA is using computer controlled robots to build the lens of the telescope.
A new computer system will operate the space telescope; the new computer system is made up of
several modules.
Describe how the new computer system is to be tested before it is fully operational.[4]

4 of:

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 Each module has to be tested independently to ensure it functions correctly [1]
Modules need to be tested together [1]
Data needs to be transferred from module to module to check for data clashes [1]
Errors need to be noted and corrections made [1]
Then tested again [1]
The system as a whole needs to be fully tested under controlled conditions [1]

5.4 Systems Life Cycle: Implementation

Methods of Implementation
Direct changeover

 The old system is replaced by the new system immediately

 Used when quick implementation is necessary

Parallel running

 Both old and new systems run simultaneously for a period before the old system is phased
out
 Used when a smooth transition with minimal risk is required

Pilot running

 The new system is implemented in a small, controlled environment before full-scale

implementation
 Used when testing the new system in a real-world setting

Phased implementation

 The new system is implemented in stages, with each stage replacing a part of the old
system
 Used when a gradual transition is preferred to minimise disruption

IMPLEMENTATION
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
METHOD
High risk of failure, no fallback, users
Fast implementation, cost-effective as
Direct changeover can't be trained on the new system, and
only one system is in operation
no backup of the system

Parallel running Lower risk, easy comparison of systems Time-consuming, resource-intensive

Low risk as only trialled in one Slower implementation, potential

department/centre/branch, allows for inconsistencies, confusion as there are 2
Pilot running fine-tuning, staff have time to train with systems in use, no backup for the
the new system, few errors as it's fully department/centre/branch using the new
tested system
Takes longer, and potential compatibility
Phased implementation Reduced risk, easier to manage
issues

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Exam Tip

 When discussing implementation methods in the Systems Life Cycle, make sure to consider
the specific context of the system being implemented. Choose the method that best fits the
organisation's needs, weighing up factors such as risk, time, and resources
 Don't mix up pilot implementation with prototyping or direct implementation
 These are different ways in which one new system could be implemented using two
different methods
 You may get a question which asks you to compare 2 methods - only write about these 2 in
the question and compare them, don't just describe them

Worked example

Tick (✓) the most appropriate method of implementation to match the statements below.

Direct Parallel Pilot

All of the benefits are immediate.
If the new system fails the whole of the old system is still operational.
This is the cheapest implementation method.
The system is implemented in one branch of the company.
[4]

Direct Parallel Pilot

All of the benefits are immediate. χ

If the new system fails the whole of the old system is still operational. χ

This is the cheapest implementation method. χ

The system is implemented in one branch of the company. χ

5.5 Systems Life Cycle: Documentation

Technical Documentation
 Characteristics: Detailed information on the system's inner workings and programming for
developers and IT staff
 Uses & Purpose: To maintain, repair, and update the system with improvements
 Components:
o Purpose of the system/program: Explanation of the system's intended function and
goals
o Limitations: Known constraints or issues with the system
o Program listing: The code or scripts used in the system
o Program language: The programming language used to develop the system
o Program flowcharts/algorithms: Visual representations or descriptions of the system's
logic and processes
o System flowcharts: Visual representations of the interactions between system
components
o Hardware & software requirements: Necessary equipment and software to run the
system
o File structures: Organisation and layout of the system's files and data
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 o List of variables: Collection of variables used within the system, including their names
and purposes
o Input format: Structure and format for entering data into the system
o Output format: Structure and format for presenting data generated by the system
o Sample runs/test runs: Examples of system operation, including input and expected
output
o Validation routines: Techniques used to check and confirm the accuracy of data
entered into the system

Worked example

Following the implementation of the system, technical documentation needs to be written.

Identify three components of technical documentation which are not found in the user
documentation.[3]

3 of:

program listing [1]

program language [1]
program flowcharts/algorithms [1]
system flowcharts [1]
file structures [1]
list of variables [1]
test runs [1]
validation routines [1]

User Documentation

 Characteristics: Instructions and guidance for end-users on how to operate the system
 Uses & Purpose: To help users effectively use the system and overcome problems
 Components:
o Purpose of the system: Explanation of the system's intended function and goals
o Limitations: Known constraints or issues with the system
o Hardware & software requirements: Necessary equipment and software to run the
system
o Loading/running/installing software: Instructions for setting up the system on user
devices
o Saving files: Procedures for storing data within the system
o Printing data: Steps to produce hard copies of system data
o Adding records: Instructions for creating new entries in the system
o Deleting/editing records: Guidelines for modifying or removing existing entries in the
system
o Input format: Structure and format for entering data into the system
o Output format: Structure and format for presenting data generated by the system
o Sample runs: Examples of system operation, including input and expected output
o Error messages: Explanations of system warnings and error notifications
o Error handling: Steps to resolve issues and errors within the system
o Troubleshooting guide/helpline: Assistance for diagnosing and addressing common
problems
o Frequently asked questions: Answers to common user inquiries
o Glossary of terms: Definitions of key terms and concepts related to the system

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Exam Tip

 Remember that technical and user documentation serve different purposes and audiences
 Technical documentation is meant for developers and IT staff who maintain and update the
system, while user documentation is for end-users who need guidance on using the system
effectively
 Ensure you understand the different components of each type and their purposes

5.6 Systems Life Cycle: Evaluation

Assess the efficiency of the solution:

 Evaluate the system's performance in terms of resource usage, time, and cost. Consider
whether the system is operating optimally or if improvements could be made to its efficiency
o Provide examples of specific aspects that contribute to the system's efficiency
o Identify areas that may be consuming excessive resources or time, and suggest
ways to optimise them
 Questions to ask:
o Does it operate quicker than the previous system?

o Does it operate by reducing staff time in making bookings?

o Does it operate by reducing staff costs?

Evaluate the ease of use

 Examine how user-friendly and accessible the solution is for its intended audience. Assess
whether the system is easy to learn and use, and if users can accomplish their tasks without
difficulty
o Describe the user interface and how it facilitates interaction with the system
o Mention any feedback from users regarding their experience with the system, and
address any issues they encountered
 Questions to ask:
o Are all the users able to use the system and make bookings easily?

o Are all the users able to change and cancel bookings easily?

o Can all staff understand how to use the system with minimal training?

Determine the appropriateness of the solution:

 Compare the implemented solution with the original task requirements and evaluate how
well it meets the intended purpose
o Outline the initial objectives of the system and discuss how the solution addresses
each one
o Highlight any requirements that may not have been fully met and discuss possible
reasons for this
 Questions to ask:
o Is the system suitable for each of the departments?

o Does it meet the needs of the customers?

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 o Does it meet the needs of the staff?

o Does the solution match the original requirements?

Gather and analyse user feedback:

 Collect users' responses to the results of testing the system. Their feedback can provide
insights into potential issues and improvements, and help determine overall user satisfaction
o Summarise the testing process, including test data, expected outcomes, and actual
outcomes
o Discuss users' reactions to the system, addressing any concerns or suggestions they
may have

Identify limitations and propose improvements:

 Based on the analysis of efficiency, ease of use, appropriateness, and user feedback,
identify any limitations in the system and suggest necessary improvements
o List the limitations and provide explanations for each one
o Recommend specific changes or enhancements that could address these limitations
and improve the system

Worked example

Tick three evaluation strategies that need to be carried out following the implementation of the new
system.

[3]

Tick
Observe users operating the old system.
Compare the final solution with the original requirements.
Design the report layout.
Check user documentation to see if it is correct.
Interview users to gather responses about how well the new
system works.
Test the system works correctly.
Identify any necessary improvements that need to be made.
Design error handling.
Tick

Observe users operating the old system.

Compare the final solution with the original requirements. χ

Design the report layout.

Check user documentation to see if it is correct.

Interview users to gather responses about how well the new system works. χ

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Test the system works correctly.

Identify any necessary improvements that need to be made. χ

Design error handling.

6. Safety
6.1 Safety Issues
Electrocution

 ICT devices require electrical power to charge or run

 The electrical device can cause electrocution
 Electrocution is caused by the electric current moving through your body, it can cause
severe injury or death

Electrocution causes and prevention strategies

CAUSES PREVENTION STRATEGIES

Spilling drinks near electrical

Keep liquids away from electrical equipment
equipment
Ensure that cables are properly insulated and protected

Use non-conductive materials where possible

Touching live cables
Ensure that electrical equipment is turned off and unplugged before
cleaning or maintenance

Use circuit breakers or fuses to prevent electrical overload

Fire:

 ICT devices require electricity to charge or run

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  Too many devices using a single socket can cause the plug socket to overload
 Heat is generated by too much electricity, causing the wiring to degrade and ignite a fire

Fire causes and prevention strategies

CAUSES PREVENTION STRATEGIES

Use surge protectors to prevent electrical overload

Ensure enough plug sockets in the room

Sockets
being overloaded
Don’t plug too many devices into the same plug socket

Don’t leave devices plugged in and unattended

Ensure that equipment is properly ventilated and
not obstructed

Keep flammable materials away from heat sources

Regularly check equipment for signs of wear or damage

Equipment overheating
Use fire extinguishers in case of emergencies

Turn off or unplug devices when away from the location

Do not cover any air vents on devices

Tripping over trailing cables:

 Devices can be plugged in using cables, cables that are protruding can cause an accident
 You can trip over a cable left out in a location
 Body damage can occur during a fall, for example, breaking bones, ligament damage,
bruising, sprains etc depending on the area fell on

Tripping over trailing cables causes and prevention strategies

CAUSES PREVENTION STRATEGIES

Cables not Use cable ties or clips to secure cables

properly secured or organised
Keep cables away from areas where people are walking

Secure cables where you can, like under desks to stop protruding
into open areas

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 Use cable covers to protect cables and prevent tripping hazards

Regularly inspect cables for signs of wear or damage

Where possible use wireless devices to reduce cables

Heavy equipment falling and injuring people:

 Devices have varying levels of weight and if a device falls on you it could cause injury
 Any device should be placed in a secure location, like a PC on a strong desk and not near
the edge

Heavy equipment falling and injuring people causes and prevention strategies

CAUSES PREVENTION STRATEGIES

Ensure that equipment is properly secured and stable

Improperly secured equipment
Regularly check the stability of locations containing devices
Keep equipment away from edges and other potential hazards
Equipment not placed on stable
surfaces Regularly inspect equipment and locations containing devices for signs of
wear or damage

Worked example

Using computers can lead to several physical safety issues.

Describe four of these types of issues.[4]

Electrocution, caused by touching bare wires / allowing food and drink to spill liquids onto computers [1]

Falling objects can cause injury [1]

Tripping over loose cables can cause injury [1]

The fire is caused by overloading power sockets / overheating computers [1]

Data Protection
The Data Protection Act (DPA) controls the collection, storage and processing of personal data.

 In the UK, European Union’s General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR)

 Protects personal data whether stored on paper or a computer system

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Principles of the Data Protection Act

 Data must be processed lawfully, fairly, and transparently, with clear consent from the
individual
 Data should only be collected for specific, explicit, and legitimate purposes
 Organisations should only collect and retain the minimum amount of personal data
necessary for their stated purpose.
 Data should be accurate and kept up-to-date, and reasonable steps must be taken
to rectify or erase inaccurate information
 Personal data should not be kept for longer than necessary, and it should be securely
deleted when no longer needed
 Organisations must protect personal data against unauthorised or unlawful
processing, accidental loss, destruction, or damage

Why is Data Protection Legislation Required?

 Protecting Individual Rights: Data protection legislation safeguards individuals' right to

privacy and control over their personal information
 Preventing Misuse of Personal Data: It helps prevent unauthorised access, identity theft,
fraud, and other forms of data misuse
 Promoting Trust: Data protection laws build trust between individuals and organisations by
ensuring their personal information is handled responsibly
 Encouraging Responsible Data Handling: Legislation promotes responsible data
collection, storage, and processing practices among organisations
 Enabling Data Subject Rights: Legislation grants individuals rights such as access to their
data, right to rectification, erasure, and objection to processing

Personal Data
Personal and sensitive data refers to information that can be used to identify an individual, such
as their personal name, address, date of birth, personal images, and medical history.

Personal data:

 Personal name: Refers to the full name of an individual, including their first name and last
name.
 Address: The physical location where an individual lives, including their house number,
street name, city, and postal code.
 Date of birth: The specific day, month, and year when an individual was born.
 Gender: the individual's identity relating to male, female, don’t know, prefer not to say
 Personal images like a photograph in school uniform: An image of an individual wearing
their school uniform, which can be used to identify and locate them.
 Payment details: bank card details used for purchasing items or bank details to access
online banking
 Passwords: the combination of letters, numbers and symbols used to access accounts
that are held by the individual

Sensitive data:

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  Medical record/history: Information related to an individual's health, including any past
illnesses, medical conditions, or treatments they have received. This can include any
genetic or DNA information about genetic characteristics
 Political views: the individual's opinions on political matters/issues and how they are
being handled by the current government. This can include memberships in political
parties
 Ethnic/racial origin: the ethnic or cultural origins of the individual's ancestors
 Criminal activities: any past or current criminal offences

 Religion/philosophical beliefs

 Membership of a trade union: made up of workers to protect and advance the interests
of all workers in the workplace

 Sexual orientation: defining who you are attracted to, the opposite gender, the same
gender, or to both or more than one gender

 Biometric data: body measurements used to identify us uniquely

like fingerprints or facial features

Why should personal data be protected?

 Inappropriate disclosure of personal data can lead to privacy breaches, identity

theft, or misuse of the information
 Personal data could be sold to third party companies
 Individuals could be held to ransom over personal data gathered

 Information gathered could be used to commit a physical crime

How to avoid data being inappropriately disclosed:

 Personal data must be kept confidential and protected through privacy settings on
websites such as social media or strong passwords on websites where personal data is
held or used
 Access to personal data should be limited to authorised individuals
 Think before you post - consider what information could be gathered from your image or
content
 Check website details about the collection, storage, and use of personal data
 Only access websites where personal data is used or viewed when on
a secure, encryptedconnection

Worked example

Some confidential personal data can be classified as sensitive data.

Name three items of personal data that could also be sensitive.

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 [3]

3 of:

Ethnic/racial origin [1]

Religion/philosophical beliefs [1]

Political views/opinions [1]

Membership of a political party [1]

Membership of a trade union [1]

Sexual orientation [1]

Criminal record [1]

Health/medical record [1]

Genetic data/DNA [1]

Biometric data [1]

E-safety
 E-safety is about knowing about and using the internet safely and responsibly
 It refers to when an individual is using the internet, email, social media, online gaming
 E-safety refers to the individual knowing how to protect themselves from potential
dangers and threats

The need for e-safety

 Protects personal information
o awareness that personal information should not be shared freely

 Prevents cyberbullying
o awareness of how to act online and how to avoid falling victim, creating a safe and
respectful online environment.

 Guards against online scams

o identify and avoid online scams, phishing attempts, and fraudulent websites that may
try to trick them into sharing personal or financial information.

 Ensures digital reputation

o mindful of online behaviour and interactions, protecting your digital reputation, which
can have long-term consequences in personal and professional lives.

 Promotes privacy and control

o have control over privacy settings on social media platforms, allowing a limit to who
can access/view personal information and posts.

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  Prevents exposure to inappropriate content
o avoid encountering explicit or harmful content online, reducing the risk of exposure to
inappropriate material or online predators.

 Secures online gaming experiences

o engage in online gaming responsibly, avoiding sharing personal details and
maintaining respectful behaviour towards other players.

 Guards against malware and viruses

o protecting devices from malware, viruses, and other online threats, preventing data
loss, privacy breaches, or device damage.

 Promotes responsible digital citizenship

o develop responsible online behaviours, promoting respectful conduct while
interacting with others on the internet.

 Supports overall well-being

o maintain a healthy balance between online and offline lives, reducing the risk of
addiction, mental health issues, or negative impacts on relationships and self-
esteem.

Advice
The Internet:

 Use trusted websites recommended by teachers or reputable sources

 Utilise search engines that only allow access to age-appropriate websites and
use filters to ensure inappropriate content is not seen
 Never reveal personal information

Email:

 Be aware of the potential

dangers of opening or replying to emails from unknown people,
including attachments, potential dangers include phishing, spam
 Ensure you know who the email is for when considering sending personal
data or images via email, only with people you know and not with identifiable
content like school photos

Social media:

 Know how to block and report people who send content or messages that are unwanted
 Know where the privacy settings are to reduce the number of people who can see your
posts or images
 Be aware of the potential dangers associated with meeting online contacts face to face, do
not meet anyone you do not know, if you do, take an adult and meet publicly
 Do not distribute of inappropriate images and inappropriate language
 Respect the confidentiality of personal data belonging to other people
 Only accept friend requests from people you know

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  Parents should be aware of what you are doing online, discuss what you are doing
online
 Do not post images or details that can be used to locate you

Online gaming:

 Do not use real names as usernames

 Never share personal or financial details with other players
 Know how to block and report players for inappropriate messages or comments

Worked example

A student uses social media to keep in contact with other people.

Describe four strategies that the student could use to stay safe when using social media
to communicate with others.[4]

4 of:

Don’t give out other people’s personal information such as address or phone number [1]

Don’t send inappropriate images to anyone [1]

Don’t open/click on suspicious links/adverts on social media [1]

Don’t become online ‘friends’ with people you do not know//don’t contact/chat with people you do not know [1]

Never arrange to meet someone in person who you only met online [1]

If anything you see or read online worries you, you should tell someone about it/block them [1]

Use appropriate language [1]

Set security so only friends can contact you [1]

6.2 Security of Data

Threats to Data
Threats

 Hacking: Unauthorised access to computer systems or networks to gain control, steal

information, or cause damage
 Phishing: Deceptive emails or messages that appear to be from trusted sources to trick
individuals into revealing personal data
 Pharming: Manipulation of DNS (Domain Name System) to redirect users to fraudulent
websites, often for the purpose of stealing personal data
 Smishing: Phishing attacks carried out through SMS or text messages
 Vishing: Phishing attacks carried out through voice calls or VoIP (Voice over Internet
Protocol) systems
 Viruses and malware: Malicious software designed to disrupt, damage, or gain
unauthorised access to computer systems or networks
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  Card fraud: Unauthorised use of credit or debit card information for fraudulent purposes

Protection from Hacking

 Implement strong and unique passwords for accounts and regularly change them
 Enable two-factor authenticationfor additional security
 Regularly update software and operating systems to patch security vulnerabilities
 Use firewalls and antivirus software to detect and prevent unauthorised access
 Regularly backup data to ensure its availability and protection against potential data loss

Protection from phishing, pharming, smishing, and vishing attacks

 Being cautious of unsolicited emails, messages, or calls requesting

personal or sensitive information
 Verifying the authenticity of websites by checking for secure connections
(HTTPS) and looking for trust indicators, such as SSL certificates
 Avoiding clicking on suspicious links or downloading attachments from unknown
sources
 If you are unsure, end communication and establish contact with company or
contact to check legitimacy

Protection from viruses and malware

 Install antivirus software and keep it up to date

 Download files only from trusted sources and scan them for virusesbefore
opening or executing them
 Do not visit suspicious websites or click on pop-up ads
 Regularly update software, including web browsers and plugins, to patch security
vulnerabilities

Protection from card fraud

 Shielding PIN entry at ATMs or payment terminals to prevent shoulder surfing

 Being cautious when using payment cards online,ensuring secure and trusted
websites are used
 Regularly monitoring bank statements and reporting any suspicious transactions
 Using secure payment methods, such as chip and PIN or contactless payments, where
available
 Being aware of potential skimming devices on ATMs and payment
terminals and reporting any suspicious activity

Worked example

Data stored on a computer system is at risk of being hacked.

a. Explain what is meant by the term hacking. Include in your answer two examples of the effects
this can have on the computer system.[3]

Gaining unauthorised access to a computer system [1]

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2 of:Examples

Can lead to the identity theft of data [1]

Can lead to the misuse of/access to personal data [1]

Data can be deleted [1]

Data can be changed [1]

Data can be corrupted [1]

Place malicious files/software [1]

b. Describe three measures that could be taken to protect the data from being hacked.[3]

3 of:

Use of firewalls to block unauthorised computer systems [1]

Use of passwords [1]

Use of intrusion detection software/anti-spyware [1]

Use two-factor authentication [1]

Switch off WiFi/computer when not in use [1]

Protection of Data
Biometrics

 The use of unique physical or behavioural characteristics of individuals, such

as fingerprints, facial recognition, or iris scans, for authentication and access control
 Biometric data provides a more secure method of identification as it is difficult to forge
or replicate

Advantages and disadvantages of Biometrics

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

 Skin damage can stop identification

 Harder to crack
 Facial features can change over time
 Easier to use for
 Some biometrics are more expensive to set up than
individual
others
 High accuracy
 Voice recognition can be affected by illness

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Digital certificate

 An electronic document that verifies the authenticity and integrity of a website

 The purpose of a digital certificate is to establish trust between parties and ensure secure
communication
 Contents of a digital certificate typically include the entity's public key,identification
information, and the digital signature of a trusted third party

Secure Socket Layer (SSL)

 A protocol that establishes an encrypted link between a server and a client computer
 SSL ensures that data transmitted between the server and client remain
confidential and cannot be intercepted or adjusted by unauthorised individuals
 Identified on a website by the S at the end of HTTP

Encryption

 The process of converting data into a form that is unreadable without a decryption key
 Encryption is used to protect data on hard disks,email communications, cloud storage,
and secure websites (HTTPS)
 It ensures that even if data is accessed by unauthorised individuals, it cannot be
understood without a decryption key

Firewall

 A network security device that monitors and controls incoming and outgoing network
traffic
 The purpose of a firewall is to create a barrier between an internal network and external
networks, filtering traffic based on predefined rules
 It helps prevent unauthorised access, malware, and other network threats

Advantages and disadvantages of Firewalls

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

 Can affect the operation of the computer and some uploads

 Stops attacks from device
 To upload some files, the firewall may need to be switched off,
 Stops fraudulent sites
leaving the computer open to attacks
attacking the device
 Can stop legitimate software from running

Two-factor authentication (2FA)

 A security measure that requires users to provide two separate

forms of identification to verify their identity
 The purpose of 2FA is to add an extra layer of security beyond just a username and
password
 It usually involves a combination of something the user knows (password), something
the user has (smartphone or token), or something the user is (biometric data)
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User ID and password

 A common method of authentication that involves a unique identifier (user ID) and
a secret code (password)
 User ID and password are used to increase the security of data by allowing access only
to authorised individuals
 Strong passwords and regular password changes are important to maintain security
 It is recommended to use a combination of uppercase and lowercase letters, numbers,
and special characters in passwords

Advantages and disadvantages of Passwords

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

 Passwords too complex can be harder to

 Strong passwords are difficult to crack remember
 Regularly changing passwords increases the  Too many passwords are hard to remember
security  Harder to choose unique passwords if regularly
 Using a range of passwords over the system updating
will stop or slow access to the full system  Harder to remember if regularly updating
 Hackers can break most passwords

Worked example

The data stored on the computer system needs to be protected from unauthorised access.

Discuss the effectiveness of different methods of increasing the security of this data.

[8]

8 of:

Factors increasing effectiveness

Strong passwords are difficult to crack [1]

Biometric passwords are harder to crack [1]

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Regularly changing passwords increases security [1]

Use of two-factor authentication [1]

Using different passwords for parts of the computer system makes it more difficult to gain access to the full system [1]

A firewall required to stop attacks from computers [1]

A firewall stops fraudulent sites from attacking the computer [1]

Anti-spyware stops passwords from being seen when typed in [1]

Factors reducing effectiveness

Too complex a password can be easily forgotten [1]

Passworded files may not be backed up [1]

Using several different passwords can become cumbersome [1]

Regularly changing passwords means that passwords may be forgotten [1]

May be difficult to choose a unique password if it is changed every few weeks [1]

Passwords may become easier to guess if regularly changed [1]

Hackers can breach most passwords [1]

The firewall can affect the operation of the computer and stop some uploads [1]

The firewall may need to be shut down at times to upload files therefore making the computer unsafe [1]

Some legitimate software can be blocked by the firewall [1]

To gain full marks both sides of the discussion are needed

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7 Audience
7.1 Audience & Copyright
Target Audience

Developing ICT Solutions

 To build effective ICT solutions, the first step is to identify and understand the needs of the
intended audience. These needs can be functional, like processing information or aesthetic,
like a visually appealing interface
 After identifying the needs, select the appropriate technology and tools to create a solution.
This choice depends on factors like the complexity of the task, the budget available, and the
technical expertise of the users
 An essential aspect to remember while designing ICT solutions is to ensure that they are
user-friendly. This means that they should be intuitive to use, require minimal training, and
have easy-to-understand instructions
 Additionally, ICT solutions should be accessible to all users, including those with disabilities.
This could involve adding features like voice commands, large text options, or compatibility
with assistive devices
 Once the solution is created, it is crucial to test it to ensure it functions as expected and
fulfils the users' needs effectively

Audience Needs Analysis in ICT

 Understanding the audience is crucial in ICT solution design. The analysis should consider
factors such as the age, technical skills, and background of the audience, which can affect
their ability to use the solution
 The solution designer should also understand the type of information that the audience
needs. This can guide the design of the information architecture and the data processing
features
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  How the audience accesses and uses the information also impacts the design. For example,
if the audience mostly accesses the solution via mobile devices, the solution should be
mobile-friendly
 Lastly, the designer should consider any special needs of the audience, like visual or hearing
impairments. The solution should be designed to accommodate these needs, ensuring
inclusivity

Copyright

Why do we need Copyright?

 Copyright legislation is essential to protect the rights of creators and developers

 It prevents the unauthorised use, duplication, or distribution of software, known as software
piracy
 It ensures developers are rewarded for their work, encouraging further innovation and
development

Principles of Copyright in Computer Software

 Copyright law prohibits the unauthorised copying, distribution, or modification of software

 It also includes the End-User Licence Agreement (EULA), which outlines what the software
can and cannot be used for
 Violations of these principles, such as software piracy, can lead to legal consequences

Preventing Software Copyright Violations

 Software producers use various methods to protect their copyright, such as Digital Rights
Management (DRM)
 DRM involves technologies or systems that control the use, modification, and distribution of
copyrighted works
 Other methods include product activation, where software requires a unique code to be fully
operational
 Automatic updates can also serve as a form of copyright protection, as pirated software
often can't receive these updates, making it less functional or secure over time

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8 Communication
8.1 Effective use of the internet
Email - How To Use It

 Email is a method of exchanging messages and files over the internet

 It is used for personal communication, professional correspondence, and marketing
 Acceptable language must be used depending on the recipient of the email e.g. professional
when sending a work related email
 Employers often set guidelines for professional language, content, and frequency of emails
 Email security is crucial to protect sensitive information from being accessed or altered
 Netiquette refers to the proper behaviour and manners when using email
 Email groups allow for mass communication with a defined set of recipients

 Carbon Copy (CC) is used when you want to include additional recipients to view the email
 Blind Carbon Copy (BCC) is used when you want additional recipients to view the email
without other recipients knowing
 Forward allows you to send an existing email to a new recipient
 Attachments allow files to be sent along with the email message

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Worked example

Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of social networking rather than email as a means of
communication.[8]

Advantages:

Social networking messages can be available to/seen by all

Security settings can restrict who reads/makes the comments
Communication can take place in a (private) chatroom
Comments can be liked/disliked/shared
Don’t need to learn email address
Live video/audio calls can be made/streamed
Emails tend to be one to one
Can share live videos
Do you know who’s online
Larger upload size than the email

Disadvantages:

Emails are private between the sender and recipient // more secure
Messages can be alerted as a high priority
Attachments can be used
Emails tend to be more formal
Auto reply / forward / reply can be used
Social networking makes a person more prone to cyber predators/trolls

Exam Tip

 Don't use brand names (e.g. Gmail, Outlook) in your answer

Spam

 Spam refers to unsolicited or unwanted emails, often of a promotional nature

 Spam can clutter the inbox, potentially leading to important emails being overlooked, and
can sometimes carry malware or phishing
 To prevent spam, use spam filters, avoid disclosing your email address publicly, and don't
click on links in spam emails or reply to them

Worked example

Spam emails are a problem for computer systems.

Explain what is meant by a spam email.[2]

2 of:

Junk email [1]

Unsolicited email [1]
Can consist of unwanted adverts [1]

b. Explain why spam emails need to be prevented.[2]

2 of:

Spam may contain spyware/phishing [1]

Spam may spread malware/viruses [1]

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The spam email fills the inbox and stops other emails [1]
May attempt to solicit personal data/bank details [1]

c. Describe the methods which can be used to prevent spam emails.[4]

4 of:

Do not opt-in to marketing emails [1]

Delete accounts that you no longer use [1]
Never reply to a spam email // Don’t communicate with spammers [1]
Never reveal the main email address to strangers // set up an email address just for buying online [1]
Use a spam filter // click on the email address and add to blocked email // block the sender [1]

The World Wide Web & Web Pages

What is the World Wide Web

The Internet and the world wide web are often used interchangeably, but they are not the same
thing.

The Internet

 The Internet refers to the global network of computers and other electronic devices
connected through a system of routers and servers
 It is the infrastructure that allows us to send and receive information, including email, instant
messaging, and file transfers
 It also provides access to other services such as online gaming, video streaming, and cloud
computing

The World Wide Web

 The world wide web, or simply the Web, is a collection of websites and web pages that are
accessed using the internet
 It was created in 1989 by Tim Berners-Lee, who envisioned it as a way to share and access
information on a global scale
 The web consists of interconnected documents and multimedia files that are stored on web
servers around the world
 Web pages are accessed using a web browser, which communicates with a web server to
retrieve and display the content
 It is used for browsing web pages, sending emails, social networking, online shopping, and
much more
 Advantages include ease of communication, access to information, and online services
 Disadvantages include privacy concerns, cybercrime, and misinformation

What can I find online?

 An intranet is a private network within an organisation, while an extranet is an intranet that is

partially accessible to authorised outsiders

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  Blogs, forums, wikis, and social networks are types of web pages used for sharing
information and social interaction

Blogs

 A blog (short for weblog) is a website or part of a website that is updated regularly with
content, often written in an informal or conversational style like a journal
 They are usually presented in reverse chronological order
 They are usually managed by individuals or small groups
 They allow for reader comments, facilitating some level of discussion
 Blogs often focus on specific topics, such as food, travel, fashion, technology, or personal
experiences
 They can also serve as a platform for sharing opinions or insights

Forums

 A forum is an online discussion site where people can hold conversations in the form of
posted messages
 They are often organised around specific topics or interests, and divided into categories
known as threads
 Unlike blogs, forums are primarily focused on peer-to-peer interaction
 They may require users to create an account before posting
 Forums can be moderated or unmoderated

Wikis

 A wiki is a type of website that allows users to add, remove, or edit content
 It is designed to facilitate collaboration and knowledge sharing from many people
 It holds information on many topics which can be searched
 Posts are not in chronological order
 The structure is determined by the content or its users
 The most famous wiki is Wikipedia, an online encyclopaedia
 Changes can be tracked and reverted if necessary, and the content is usually written in a
neutral style

Social Networking

 Social networking sites are platforms where users can connect with others and share
content
 They include platforms like Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and LinkedIn
 Social networking platforms usually require users to create a profile and allow them to share
text, images, videos, and links
 They facilitate interaction, collaboration, and information sharing on a large scale
 Privacy settings allow users to control who can see their content

Worked example

Tick whether the following refer to moderated or un-moderated forums

[2]

Moderated Un-moderated

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All posts are held in a queue.
Posts are not policed.
This forum reduces the chance of offensive messages.
This forum stops several postings on the same topic.
4 correct answers – 2 marks
2 or 3 correct answers – 1 mark
1 correct – 0 marks

Moderated Un-moderated

All posts are held in a queue. χ

Posts are not policed. χ

This forum reduces the chance of offensive messages. χ

This forum stops several postings on the same topic. χ

The Functionality of the Internet

 Internet Service Providers (ISPs) provide services for accessing and using the Internet
 A Uniform Resource Locator (URL) is the address of a web page on the WWW

What is a URL?

 The URL is a text-based address that identifies the location of a resource on the internet
 It is the address of a web page, image, video, or any other resource available on the internet

 A URL can contain three main components:

o Protocol
o Domain name
o Web page / file name
 The protocol is the communication protocol used to transfer data between the client and the
server
o E.g. HTTP, HTTPS, FTP, and others
 The domain name is the name of the server where the resource is located
o It can be a name or an IP address
 The web page / file name is the location of the file or resource on the server
o It can contain the name of the file or directory where the resource is located
 A URL looks like this:
o protocol://domain/path
o E.g. https://www.example.com/index.html is a URL that consists of the HTTPS
protocol, the domain name "www.example.com", and the file name is "/index.html".

Risks of Using the Internet

 Inappropriate and criminal material: The internet can expose users to harmful or illegal
content
 Data restriction: Parental, educational, and ISP controls can limit access to certain
information or websites

 A web browser is a software application used to locate, retrieve, and display content on the
WWW, including web pages, images, video, and other files
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  A hyperlink is a word/phrase/image which references data that the reader can follow by
clicking or tapping, usually taking you to another web page

Worked example

HotHouse Design is a large design company. It has recently created a new web address for its
design portfolios. The web address is:
https://www.hothouse-design.co.uk/portfolios
a. Describe the following parts of the web address.[4]

https://

1 of:

This is the hypertext transfer protocol secure [1]

Set of rules/protocol [1]

hothouse-design

this shows the domain name that the company have purchased [1]

.uk

The company/domain is registered in the UK [1]

/portfolios

The folder in which the work is stored on Hothouse’s server [1]

b. Hyperlinks are widely used in web pages.

Explain what is meant by a hyperlink.[2]

Word/phrase/image [1]
When clicking links to another document/page/website/top or bottom of the page [1]

Search Engines

What are Search Engines?

 Search engines are tools that locate and display web pages related to the search terms
entered by the user
 They are essential for navigating the vast amount of information on the internet
 They index millions of web pages and use algorithms to rank the relevance of each page to
the search terms

Speed of Searching

 Search engines can scan through billions of web pages in a fraction of a second to find
matches to your search query
 The speed is affected by your internet connection and the efficiency of the search engine’s
algorithms

Amount of Information

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  Search engines can provide an overwhelming amount of information, making it crucial to use
specific and relevant search terms
 Using quotation marks for exact phrases, plus signs for mandatory terms, or minus signs for
excluding terms can help refine the search

Finding Relevant and Reliable Information

 The relevance of information is determined by the search engine’s algorithm, which

considers factors such as keyword frequency and page quality
 Reliable information typically comes from reputable sources such as educational,
government, or well-established industry websites

Evaluating Information Found on the Internet

 The internet offers a wealth of information, but not all of it is accurate or reliable
 Assess the reliability of information by considering the reputation and credibility of the source
 Determine the validity of information by checking it against other reputable sources
 Consider whether the information is biased, looking for perspectives that may be promoting
a particular viewpoint
 Check how up-to-date the information is, as outdated information can be misleading

Protocols

 HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol)

o The standard protocol for transmitting hypertext (web pages) over the internet
 HTTPS (HyperText Transfer Protocol Secure)
o A secure version of HTTP that encrypts data for security
 FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
o A network protocol for transferring files between computers
o How do you upload and publish content on a website using FTP?
 Download the FTP client program

 Connect to the FTP server using the FTP client program

 Login to the server using the FTP username and password

 Locate the files on your computer

 Click the upload button on the FTP client program

 Upload the files to the folder

 SSL (Secure Socket Layer)
o A security protocol that provides encrypted communication between a web browser
and a web server

Worked example
You have been asked by the secretary of a soccer club to create a website to publicise its results,
fixtures and other events.

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When the website has been created it has to be published on the internet. You plan to upload it onto
the internet using FTP.

Explain how to upload and publish the content of a website using FTP.[4]

4 of:

Download the FTP client program [1]

Connect to the FTP server [1]

Using the FTP client program [1]

Login to the server [1]
Using FTP username and password [1]
Locate the files on your computer [1]
Click the upload button on the FTP client program [1]
Upload the files to the folder/web hosting space [1]

9 File Management
9.1 File Management
Locating Stored Files

 A hard drive contains files and folders

 Within a folder, there may be files or other folders which are known as subfolders
 There are multiple ways to locate files
o Using Windows search
 Click on the Windows Icon at the bottom of the screen and type the file that is
required and click on the ‘documents’ button

Exam Tip

 If you are searching for a folder you can do the same thing but instead of clicking on
document, click on folder

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Locate a file manually

 The left hand window pane displays all drives and favourite folders
 The right hand pane displays the folders/ subfolders and files of the selected drive or folder
 Each folder can be accessed by selecting the folder and double clicking

 As the users navigate through the folders the current path location is displayed at the top

Open & Import Files

 It is a common method to simply double-click the file that you wish to open and it will load
into the most suitable application/program
 Sometimes the application/program that the file opens in is not the preferred choice for the
user
 There are 3 main ways to open or import files for use
o Option 1 - Open the file from the desired application


o Option 2 - Drag the file into the desired application

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 
o Option 3 - Right click on the file and choose Open with

Saving Files

 The below screenshot shows a project structure broken into 4 different sections, Initiation,
Planning, Executing and Closing
 Within each folder, files are saved according to the which part of the project they are relevant
to

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  Files are labelled with version numbers allowing the user to go back and review previous
versions. This is known as version control

Save Files Using Appropriate File Names

 Meaningful file names should give a clue as to what the document contains

 Doc1’ does not give any idea about the contents of the file and is not a meaningful file name
 ‘Plan’ is a partially meaningful name but could be any plan or any version of the plan
 ‘Initial_Plan_Version_1 is a meaningful name as it determines that it is an initial plan and is
the first version

Saving & Printing

There are different ways you can save or print your work

 Save - Saves the current file or if the file has been saved, updates
 Save as - Save the file with a new name and/or file type
 Export - Exports a copy of the file usually as a pdf but can also be other file formats within
the program
 Print - Prints the currently opened file

Web page in a browser View

 Saving
o To save a webpage, right click on the page and choose “Save as”

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 
o Choose a suitable location and save

 Printing
o To print a web page, right click on the web page and select “Print”

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 
o Choose your preferences and select “Print

Webpage in HTML view

 Print
o Right-click on the web page and select “view page source”


o Right click on the page source and select “Print”

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  Save
o Right click on the source code and choose “Save as”


o Save the folder to a suitable location and select “Save”

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Screenshots

 Using the search tool, search for and select the “snipping tool”

 Use the snipping tool to take a screenshot

 Save
o To save the screenshot, right click on the image and choose “Save as”

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  Print
o To print the screenshot, select the three dots at the top right of the program and
select “Print”

Database Reports

 Save
o With the report open, select File and then “Save as”

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 
o As only the report is to be saved select “Save object as” followed by “PDF or XPS”


o Choose a suitable location to save the report and save the file type as “PDF”
 Print
o To print the report, select the file and then select “Print”
o To ensure the report s laid out correctly first preview the report


o To finally print the report, select “Print”

Graphs & Charts

 Save
o Select the chart by clicking on it

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 o Click on” File” followed by “Save as”
o Select the file type as PDF and save

 Print
o Select the chart by clicking on it
o Select File and then Print

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Save & Export

 Many applications have their own unique file types that are specific to their functionality and
features. These file types are designed to store and represent data in a format that is
specific to the application's purpose
 Below is an example of a text document being saved as a Word application package type

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  Below is an example of a spreadsheet document being saved as a Excel application
package type

 Below is an example of a document being saved as a generic plain text file

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  Below is an example of a document being saved as a generic comma separated file

 The same method is used for both saving and exporting files to their required type
 If a document has already been saved the user must select SAVE AS to create a second
copy of the document and choose its required file type

Worked example

.PDF and .RTF are two file formats used for storing documents. Describe the file formats and
explain the differences between them.[5]

PDF is a portable document format that is readable on a PDF viewer or a browser [1] whilst an RTF document is a rich
text format and is readable by all word processing software [1]

An RTF document is fully editable whereas some PDF documents cannot be edited [1]

A PDF can use digital signatures whereas an RTF document does not allow digital signatures [1]

A PDF document tends to be compressed whereas an RTF document is not compressed [1]

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File Formats
Generic File Formats
 Generic file formats are files types that are compatible and allow sharing between different
devices and software programs
 Non generic files are types that require special software or hardware to be accessed
 Generic file types are needed for the following reasons:
o Generic files allow the exchange of data across many different types of software and
applications
o Generic files are widely adopted and therefore can be accessed by many users or
devices
o A single generic file can be created, edited and accessed across many different
devices

Characteristics & Uses of File Formats

Generic Images Files

 Joint Photographic Expert Group (.jpg)

o JPEG is a widely used image file format
o Uses the lossy compression method
o Significantly reduces file size while maintaining acceptable image quality
o JPEG files are commonly used for storing and transmitting digital photographs

 Portable Network Graphic (.png)

o PNG uses lossless compression
o Preserves high-quality images whilst still providing small file sizes
o Commonly used for web design, digital illustrations, logos, and icons
o Its transparency support allows its graphics to be placed into different backgrounds
easily

 Portable Document Format (.pdf)

o Widely used file format with its
o Ability to retain the layout and formatting of documents across a range of platforms
o Documents contain text, images, graphics, and even interactive elements.
o Can be password protected to stop unauthorised users from editing
o Allows users to provide a digital signature feature acting as a digital ‘ink signature’

 Graphics Interchange Format (.gif)

o Used for short, animated images and simple graphics
o Use a lossless compression algorithm
o Maintain high image quality while keeping file sizes small
o Used in online platforms, including social media, messaging apps, and websites

Generic Video Files

 Moving pictures expert group layer 4 (.mp4)

o A multimedia container rather than a single file format
o Can be used for video, image, and audio types
o Uses advanced compression techniques to achieve high-quality video playback
o The compression algorithm keeps file sizes relatively small
o Popular for streaming and transferring videos online
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  Quicktime Movie (.mov)
o A multimedia container format developed by Apple
o Used for storing video, audio, and other media data
o Can maintain excellent image quality while retaining smaller file sizes
o Suitable for both online streaming and local playback
o Widely used in professional video editing, film production, and multimedia projects

Generic Audio Files

 Moving pictures expert group layer 3 (.mp3)

o A very popular audio file format known for its high-quality compression algorithm
o Allows for a significant reduction in file size but minimal differences to sound quality
o Compatible with a wide range of devices and audio streaming platforms
o Become the standard format for digital music distribution

 Waveform File Audio format (.wav)

o Uncompressed audio file format known for its high lossless quality
o Preserves the original audio waveform.
o Commonly used in the music industry, broadcast, and multimedia production, where
audio quality is the top priority

Generic Text Files

 Text (.txt)
o Used for storing plain text data
o Contains only human-readable text without any additional formatting or styling
o Extensively supported across different platforms and applications
o Can be opened and edited using a word processor or basic text editor

 Rich Text Format (.rtf)

o RTF is a file format used for storing formatted text documents that can contain
different text styles, fonts, colours, and other basic formatting elements
o They can be opened and edited using a wide range of text editors and word
processors, making them suitable for creating documents that require basic
formattings, such as letters, reports, and academic papers

 Comma separated values (.csv)

o A plain text file format used for storing data in a structured manner
o Consist of rows and columns, with each cell separated by a comma
o Widely supported
o Easy to import and export data between different applications and platforms
o Commonly used for tasks involving data analysis, database management
o Can be easily opened and edited using spreadsheet software

Generic Compressed Files

 Zip (.zip)
o A container used for compression
o Allows multiple files and folders to be compressed into a single, smaller-sized archive
o Uses lossless compression algorithms to reduce file sizes
o Compression preserves original content
o Convenient for bundling multiple files into a single package

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  Roshal archive (.rar)
o A container used for compression
o similar to .ZIP, however, it uses a proprietary compression algorithm
o Generally results in higher compression ratios compared to other formats
o Commonly used for sharing files over the internet and when space-saving is
essential

Generic Web Development & Browsing Files

 Hypertext Markup Language (.html)

o A global file format used for creating and structuring web pages
o Contain text-based code that defines the structure, layout, and content of a webpage
o Rendered by web browsers, allowing users to view and interact with web pages
o Used across many different devices and platforms

 Cascading Style Sheets (.css)

o A file format that is attached to an HTML document
o Used to determine presentation and styling such as colours, fonts, layout, and
positioning
o Is widely used in web development to create responsive and attractive designs

9.2 File Compression

Why Reduce File Size?

 The size of a file determines:

o How much space it will require for storage
o How long it will take to transmit from one device to another
 Often file sizes need to be reduced and will use a form of compression
 The two types of compression are:
o Lossy compression - Unnecessary data is removed and can significantly reduce file
sizes. This is most often used for audio, video and image
o Lossless - Allows the original data to be perfectly reconstructed from the
compressed version without any loss of information or quality. This is most often
used for text and document and software compression
 E.g. if 10 images were to be displayed on a website and their original size was 18MB each,
with an internet connection of 32 megabits per second the webpage would take around 45
seconds to load and require 180 Mb of storage space online to host the images
 Using lossy compression it is possible to compress the files down to around 10% of their
original size meaning that the same internet connection would require just 4 seconds to load
the images and the storage requirement for the files would be 18MB

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How are Files Compressed?

There are many different technical ways that file sizes can be reduced however some simple
methods and techniques for multimedia files are below:

 Images can be compressed by the following:

o Reducing the number of colours in the image (known as the bit depth)
o Reducing the resolution of the image (the total amount of pixels that make up the
image)

 Videos can be compressed by the following:

o Reducing the video resolution
o Reducing the number of video frames per second

 Sound can be compressed by the following:

o Removing frequencies that are outside of the human hearing range

Worked example

An author is writing a new textbook about ICT. He has used a large number of images in the
document and wishes to send the document as an email attachment to his publisher, but the file is
currently too large.

Describe how he could reduce the size of the document without reducing the number of images.
[4]

The author could reduce the size of the document by either reducing the image resolution [1]

changing the file formats of each of the individual images [1]

saving as a PDF [1]

or compressing /zip the folder with all the photos to a smaller size [1]
How to Compress a File

 An uncompressed document containing both text and images

 A document can be compressed by converting it to a PDF file

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  By converting the document to a pdf, the file size reduction is more than half

Exam Tip

 Remember that although you are compressing the file to a PDF file this means that the file
cannot be edited in the same way and so it is important to keep a copy of the original
uncompressed file in case any changes are required

Compressing Multiple Images Together

 Hold Ctrl and select all the images you would like to compress, right click and choose
‘Compress to Zip file’

 Using the Zip file compression technique has reduced the file size considerably
o Total for all files before compression: 8477KB
o Total for all files after compression: 727KB
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The same can be done using WinRar

 Hold Ctrl and select all the images you would like to compress, right click and choose
‘WinRAR followed by Add to Archive’

 Give the archive a title and click OK

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  The compressed file is now in the directory

Note* Sometimes when using WinZip or WinRar the file sizes will not compress further as some file
types are already compressed, such as JPEG images. Another reason may be that different
compression algorithms are used by different compression software, and their effectiveness can
vary depending on the file types being compressed

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10 Image
10.1 Image Editing

 Placing an image with precision: This refers to positioning an image accurately within a
document or other media
o You can usually do this by selecting the image and dragging it to the desired location
o Some software allows for more precision through the use of coordinates or alignment
tools

 Resizing an image: This means changing the dimensions of an image

o You can often do this by selecting the image and dragging its corners or edges
o Maintaining the aspect ratio means the image's width and height change at the
same rate, preventing distortion
o Adjusting the aspect ratio can change the shape and proportions of the image

 Cropping an image: This involves cutting out and discarding parts of an image
o Cropping tools usually allow you to select a portion of the image to keep and discard
the rest

 Rotating an image: This means turning the image around a central point
o Most software allows rotation to any angle, and common rotations such as 90
degrees or 180 degrees are often provided as options

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  Reflecting (flipping) an image: This means creating a mirror image of the original
o An image can be flipped horizontally (left to right) or vertically (top to bottom)

 Adjusting brightness and contrast: These tools change the light and dark values in an
image
o Brightness affects all pixels in the image equally, making the image lighter or darker
o Contrast adjusts the difference between light and dark values, which can make the
image appear more or less detailed

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  Grouping and layering images: These techniques help to organise multiple images
o Grouping combines images so they can be moved or transformed as a single unit
o Layering involves placing images on top of each other
o You can change the order of layered images, moving them to the front or back

Exam Tip

 Make sure you use specific technical terms when answering questions on this topic

Worked example

An image has been changed in several different ways.

Original image

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For each of the following images describe the software editing technique used to produce
the edited images are shown from the original image.
Edited images

[4]

A - Resize the image maintaining an aspect ratio [1]

B - Rotate the image 90 degrees anti-clockwise/counter clockwise//270 degrees clockwise [1]
C - Reflect the image in the Y axis [1]
D - Brightness adjusted [1]

File Size Reduction

 File size reduction is crucial for storing, sharing, and loading digital images effectively and
efficiently
 It becomes especially important when dealing with large images or limited storage space
 One common way to reduce file size is by reducing the image resolution
o Image resolution refers to the amount of detail an image has
o The higher the resolution, the more pixels the image has, and the larger the file size
o Reducing resolution decreases the number of pixels and therefore reduces file size
o Be aware that reducing resolution can cause a loss of image quality, especially when
viewed at larger sizes
 The image on the right has a lower resolution than the one on the left

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  Another method to reduce file size is by reducing the colour depth of an image
o Colour depth, also known as bit depth, refers to the number of bits used to represent
the colour of a single pixel
o The more bits used, the more colours can be represented, but the larger the file size
o Reducing colour depth means using fewer bits and therefore fewer colours, which
can reduce the file size
o Like with resolution, reducing colour depth can lead to a loss of image quality,
resulting in an image that looks more "flat" or "posterised"

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11 Styles
11.1 Styles
Using Styles
 A style is a collection of formatting attributes, including font face, font size, font colour, text
alignment, and more
 Styles ensure consistency in your document's formatting

Create and Modify Styles

 To create a style, you select your desired formatting options and then save them as a new
style
 You can modify a style by editing its formatting options and then saving the changes

Apply and Update Styles

 Applying a style is as easy as selecting text and then choosing the desired style
 When you update a style, all the text using that style in your document will reflect the
changes

Font Attributes

Font Face

 This is the design of the text; examples include Arial, Times New Roman, and Calibri

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Font Type

 Serif fonts have little feet or lines attached to the ends of their letters, while Sans-serif fonts
do not

 Serif fonts are generally considered more traditional, and Sans-serif fonts are seen as
modern

Serif Sans-serif

Times New Roman Arial

Georgia Helvetica
Font Size and Colour

 Font size is measured in points, with one point being 1/72 of an inch
 Font colour can be any colour available in the software's colour palette

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Text Formatting
Text Alignment

 Alignment refers to the positioning of text within a document

 Options include left, right, centre, and fully justified (aligned to both the left and right
margins)

Text Enhancement

 You can make your text bold, italic, or underline it to highlight important information

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Spacing

 You can adjust paragraph spacing (before and after a paragraph) and line spacing within a
paragraph

Bullets

 Bullets are used for listing items - they can either be numbered or not
 You can change bullet shape, alignment, line spacing, and indent

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Worked example

a. Identify the paragraph formatting shown below

[1]

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 Hanging indent paragraph [1]

b. Identify the paragraph formatting used for the second paragraph

[1]

Indented paragraph [1]

c. Identify the alignment used in this paragraph

[1]

Fully justified [1]

d. Identify the alignment shown below

[1]

Right aligned [1]

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Corporate House Style
What is a Corporate House Style?

 A Corporate House Style refers to the consistent use of particular visual design elements
across a company's documents and communications
 These design elements may include specific fonts, colours, logos, and layout styles

Purpose of a Corporate House Style

 The primary purpose is to create a consistent and recognisable image for the company
 It makes the company's documents and products instantly identifiable to clients or customers
 This consistency also streamlines the creation of new documents within the company by:
o Reducing time and cost spent setting up and formatting documents
o Reducing the risk of errors

Uses of a Corporate House Style

 A corporate house style can be applied to a wide range of materials, including:

o Business documents such as reports and letters
o Marketing materials like brochures and advertisements
o Digital content including websites and email templates
o Product packaging

Worked example

The Medical Authority creates many different types of documents including letters and memos.
Each of them is produced using its corporate house style.
Explain why corporate house styles are required.

[3]

3 of:

Ensures consistency across all documents [1]

Lets people know that the stationery/documents belong to the same medical authority [1]
To reduce the time spent in setting up and formatting documents [1]
To reduce the cost of setting up and formatting documents [1]
To reduce the risk of errors e.g. mis-spellings, logos omitted etc. [1]

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12 Proofing
12.1 Proofing
Spell Check
Utilising Automated Software Tools

 Automated software tools like spell check and grammar check help to minimise errors in
your work
 These tools scan the document for spelling and grammar errors, highlighting potential issues
 Always review and make appropriate changes based on the suggestions these tools provide

Considering Automated Suggestions

 Automated suggestions provided by spell check software may not always be accurate or
appropriate
 The software may not recognise some words or phrases, particularly technical terms or
jargon
 Always use your judgement when accepting or rejecting these suggestions

Validation
Why use validation?

 Validation is essential to ensure data is accurate, complete, and meets specific criteria
before it's processed
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  It helps minimise data entry errors and maintains the integrity of the data

Characteristics and Uses of Validation Checks

 Range check: Confirms that the data entered falls within a specific range
 Character check: Ensures that the data contains the correct type of characters, like letters
or numbers
 Length check: Verifies the data entered is of the correct length
 Type check: Validates that the data is of the correct type, like text or number
 Format check: Confirms the data is in the correct format, such as a valid email address or
date
 Presence check: Ensures that the data field is not left empty

Using Validation Routines

 Validation routines are procedures that automatically perform validation checks

 They help to minimise data entry errors, saving time and maintaining data quality

Proofreading
Why Proofread?

 It is the final check to identify and correct errors before a document is finalised
 It ensures professionalism and prevents misunderstanding in communication

Identifying and Correcting Data Entry Errors

 Transposed numbers:
o Numbers that have been swapped, like typing 21 instead of 12
 Incorrect spelling:
o Words that are not spelt correctly
 Inconsistent character spacing:
o Different spacing between characters in a document
 Inconsistent case:
o Incorrect use of uppercase and lowercase letters

Identifying and Correcting Layout Errors

 Inconsistent line spacing:

o Different spacing between lines in a document
 Blank pages/slides:
o Unwanted empty pages or slides in a document or presentation
 Widows/orphans:
o Single lines at the beginning or end of a page that should be with the rest of the
paragraph
 Inconsistent or incorrect application of styles:
o Different font styles or sizes are used inappropriately in the document
 Split tables and lists:
o Tables or lists that are incorrectly broken up over columns or pages/slides

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Verification
Why use Verification?

 It is a process to ensure that data is accurate and has been inputted correctly
 It helps to maintain data integrity and reduce data entry errors

Characteristics and Uses of Verification

 Visual checking: Manual method of verifying data by comparing the source with the entered
data
 Double data entry: A method where data is entered twice and then compared for
inconsistencies

Is there a Need for Validation as well as Verification?

 While verification ensures data is entered correctly, validation makes sure the data is
sensible, reasonable and within acceptable boundaries
 Both verification and validation are essential in maintaining data accuracy and quality

Worked example

A local railway company is considering introducing a new system for its passengers using e-tickets
on a smartphone. Details of each of the passengers have been entered into the database.
a. Give one reason why this data was verified on entry.

[1]

To ensure that the data entered has been copied correctly [1]

Proofreading is sometimes thought to be verification.

b. Explain the difference between verification and proofreading.

[2]

Proofreading is checking the content of the data for errors [1]

Verification is comparing the data with the original [1]

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13. Document Production
13.1 Document Production
Create or Edit a Document
Enter and Modify Text and Numbers

 To create a document, you first enter text and numbers into it

 Text and numbers can be modified by adding, deleting, or changing characters as needed

Editing Techniques for Text and Numbers

 Highlight: Use the mouse to select the text or numbers you want to manipulate
 Delete: Remove the selected text or numbers from the document
 Move: Cut or copy the selected text or numbers, then paste it into a new location
 Cut, Copy, and Paste: Cut removes the selection from its original location, copy makes a
duplicate, and paste inserts the cut or copied material
 Drag and Drop: Click on the selected material, hold the mouse button down, move the cursor
to the desired location, and then release the mouse button

Placing Objects into the Document

 You can add objects such as text, images, screenshots, shapes, tables, graphs or charts,
spreadsheet extracts, and database extracts into your document
 These objects can come from a variety of sources, and you can adjust their size and position
in your document

Wrapping Text Around Objects

 You can arrange your text to wrap around tables, charts, or images in a variety of ways,
including:
o Above: The text appears above the object
o Below: The text appears below the object
o Square: The text forms a square around the object
o Tight: The text closely wraps around the object, following its shape

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Worked example

An auction company sells toys. Before the auction begins, a hard copy brochure is produced
showing information about the
items, data from the spreadsheet and images of some of the items.
Describe how this brochure is created.

[5]

5 of:

Create/choose a template for the brochure page [1]

Type in the text [1]
About the auction/date/name of seller/commission [1]
Highlight the data in the spreadsheet [1]
Open word processing/text editing software [1]
Copy the text/data/image and paste it into the brochure [1]
Position the data/text [1]
Select the image from the folder [1]
Insert the image of the items [1]
Position the image in a suitable location [1]
Check spelling/grammar [1]
Save the brochure [1]

Exam Tip

 Don't forget to use names like word processor instead of Microsoft Word and spreadsheet
instead of Excel - you won't get the marks if you use brand names

Tables
Creating a Table

 Tables are created by specifying the desired number of rows and columns

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  This can typically be done through a menu option or a shortcut in most word processing
software

Placing Text or Objects on a Table

 You can add text or objects such as images or graphs into the cells of a table
 Just click on the cell and start typing or paste the object

Editing a Table and Its Contents

 Tables can be edited in several ways:

o Insert rows and columns: Add more rows or columns to your table
o Delete rows and columns: Remove unnecessary rows or columns


o Merge cells: Combine two or more cells into one

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Formatting a Table

 Tables can be formatted to improve readability and visual appeal. Here are a few options:
o Set horizontal cell alignment: Choose whether the text is aligned to the left, right,
centre, or justified within a cell using the normal alignment options
o Set vertical cell alignment: Set text to align at the top, middle, or bottom of a cell


o Show or hide gridlines: Display or hide the lines that make up the table


o Wrap text within a cell: Make text automatically move to the next line when it
reaches the edge of a cell
o Shading/colouring cells: Apply a colour to the background of a cell


o Adjust row height and column width: Change the size of the cells in your table to
better fit your content

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Headers & Footers
Headers and Footers are areas at the top (header) and bottom (footer) of a page in a document
where you can add text or graphics

Creating and Editing Headers & Footers

 Headers and footers are areas at the top and bottom of a page in a document
 You can add or edit content in these areas as required

Aligning Contents of Headers & Footers

 The contents of headers and footers can be aligned consistently within a document
 They can be aligned to the left margin, right margin, or centred within margins

Placing Text & Automated Objects in Headers & Footers

 You can insert text and automated objects into headers and footers
 These objects can include file information, page numbering, total number of pages, date,
and time

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Page Layout in Documents
Line Spacing and Paragraph Settings

 Line spacing can be set to single, 1.5 times, double, or multiple

 Additional space can also be added before and after paragraphs

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Setting Tabulation

 Tabulation options include left, right, centred, and decimal tabs

 Special paragraph formats include indented paragraphs and hanging paragraphs

Text Enhancement

 Text can be enhanced using bold, underline, and italic

 Superscript and subscript options are available for specialised text, and changes in case can
be made

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Creating or Editing Lists

 Lists can be bulleted or numbered for organisation and clarity

 These list formats can be easily created and modified in a document

Editing Page Layout

 Page layout can be customised, including the page size and orientation, page margins,
number of columns, and column width

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  Spacing between columns can be adjusted

 Different types of breaks can be set or removed, such as page breaks, section breaks, and
column breaks

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Navigation
Find & Replace
What is Find and Replace?

 The Find and Replace function is a useful tool to quickly locate and change specific words or
phrases in a document

Case Matching

 The function can be set to match the case of the word or phrase, making the search case-
sensitive
 This means that 'Word' and 'word' would be considered different

Whole Word Matching

 The Find and Replace function can also be set to match whole words only
 This prevents partial matches from being considered, such as 'cat' in 'catalogue'

Bookmarks
What is a Bookmark?

 A Bookmark is a tool used in digital documents to mark a specific place for easy navigation
in the future

Adding Bookmarks

 Adding bookmarks can be done by selecting the text you want to bookmark, and then
choosing the 'Add Bookmark' option from the menu

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Deleting Bookmarks

 Bookmarks can be deleted through the 'Bookmark' menu

 Just select the bookmark you wish to delete and choose the 'Delete' option

Using Hyperlinks with Bookmarks

 Hyperlinks can be linked to bookmarks, making it easy to navigate to a specific spot in a

document from anywhere within the document

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Pagination & Margins
Purpose of Setting Page, Section, and Column Breaks

 Page, section, and column breaks allow for better organisation and control over the layout of
your document
 A page break starts a new page, a section break allows for different formatting in separate
parts of the document, and a column break starts a new column (if your document is
divided into columns)

Purpose of Setting Gutter Margins

 Gutter margins provide extra space on the sides of a page

 They are particularly useful in printed documents to allow for binding without obscuring text

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14 Databases
14.1 Databases

Types of Database

Flat File Database & Relational Database

 A database is a structured collection of data so it can be searched, sorted,

filtered and analysed quickly
o Data in a database can be any type of data including text, images, videos, sound
 Databases use tables to store data
 Tables have records of data represented by one row
o In the example below, each row represents the data stored about a single customer
(the customer’s record)
o In the customer table, there are 3 records
o Each record is divided into fields (CustomerID, FirstName, LastName, DOB and
Phone Number)

A Database Table Containing Customer Details

CustomerID FirstName LastName DOB

PhoneNumber

1 Andrea Bycroft 05031976 0746762883

2 Melissa Langler 22012001 0756372892
3 Amy George 22111988 0746372821

 Fields are represented by the columns in a table

o There are 5 fields in the customer table
o The first row in a table contains the field names which is the heading for the data
stored in that field
o Each field in a table has a data type which defines what data can be entered into
that field

Flat File Database Relational Database

 A single table of data  Organises data into multiple tables

 Data separated by commas  Tables linked by primary and
Characteristics
or tabs foreign keys

 Suitable for large datasets

 Ideal for small datasets
 Used in sectors such as healthcare
Uses  Used in data import/export
and finance

Advantages  All records are stored in  Reduced data redundancy due to

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 Flat File Database Relational Database

normalisation
 Reduced inconsistency of data
one place
 Easier to edit records/record format
 Easier to use
 Easier to add/delete data/records
 Sorting and filtering are
 More complex queries can be
simpler
carried out
 Can be used with a
 Better security
spreadsheet
 More ability to cater for future
requirements

 Complex to set up and manage

costing time and money
 Data redundancy with
 Requires more processing power
duplicated data
compared to flat file databases
 Difficult to manage as
 Slower extraction of meaning from
database size grows
data
 Harder to update
 Less robust as each table requires a
Disadvantages  Harder to change the data
key field
format
and relationships to other tables
 Harder to produce complex
 More developer expertise to run the
queries
database
 Almost no security
 More processing power is needed
for complex queries

Worked example

The owner of a gardening company is planning to create a database to store the details of all his
customers. He has the choice of using a flat file database or a relational database.
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using a relational database rather than a flat file
database.

[8]

Advantages of relational databases

Less data entry/data is stored only once / avoids duplication of data

Less inconsistency in data
Easier to edit data/records
Easier to edit data/record format
Easier to add/delete data/records
More complex queries can be carried out
Better security
More ability to cater for future requirements/expansion

Disadvantages of relational databases

More complex than a flat file database as more tables are required
Takes more time to set up
More of a reduction in performance if many tables are needed
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 Slower extraction of meaning from data
Less robust due to broken keys and records / each table requires a key field and relationships to other tables
More developer expertise/personnel to run the database:
More expensive to create a relational database
More processing power is needed for complex queries.

Advantages of flat file databases

All records are stored in one place

Easier to understand/use
Sorting is simpler
Filtering is simpler
Can be used with a spreadsheet / single table DBMS

Disadvantages of a flat file database

Data is more likely to be duplicated / difficult to stop duplication

Records can be duplicated and the flat file will not stop this
Harder to update
Every record in the database has to have the same fields, even though many are not used
Harder to change the data format
Harder to produce complex queries
Almost no security

Data Types

Import Data and Create Tables

 You can import data from existing files, like .csv or .txt
 You can use specified field names to create tables

Data Types

 Each field in a table has a data type

o If you assigned the data type Integer to a phone number it would remove the initial 0
o Common data types include text/alphanumeric, character, boolean,
integer, real and date/time
o Phone numbers have to be assigned the text/alphanumeric data type because they
begin with a 0

Database Data Types

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 Data Type Explanation Example

This data type allows letters, special characters like spaces and
Text/Alphanumeric NG321AE
punctuation and numbers to be entered into a field
This allows single characters to be entered into a field.
Character Characters can be any alphanumeric value and can be lowercase A
or uppercase
This data type can be used in fields where there are only two
Boolean possible options. Data is stored as a 1 or 0 in the database but can True/False
be used to represent True/False or Yes/No or checked/unchecked
Integer Only whole numbers can be entered 15
Currency Used for monetary values £4.75
Decimal / Real Numbers including decimal numbers can be stored 30.99

Only dates or times can be entered into a field with this type. A
Date/Time 180855
format for the date/time can also be assigned to the field

Setting Data Types and Sub-Types

 You can set appropriate data types to fields

 You can set sub-types of numeric data including percentages, the number of decimal
places

Setting Display Formats

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  You can set the display format of Boolean/logical fields to either
o Yes/No
o True/False
o Checkbox
 You can set the display format of date/time data

Exam Tip

 Make sure you're specific which type of numeric data it should be - integer, decimal/real or
currency

Worked example

A farmer has purchased a computerised milking system for her cows. She has asked a systems
analyst to create a database to store details of the cows being milked.
Examples of the details of the cows which will be stored are:

Breed Date_of_birth Weight_of_cow Average_milk_yield Passport_number

Holstein 25/02/2017 725.9 24.5 998/2017

Ayrshire 15/03/2016 715.0 20.1 972/2016
Jersey 25/02/2017 732.7 25.0 971/2016
Holstein 10/10/2016 715.0 25.0 765/2016
Complete the following table by entering the most appropriate data type for each field. For any
numeric field, specify the type of number.

Field name Data type

Breed
Date_of_birth
Weight_of_cow
Average_milk_yield
Passport_number
[5]

Field name Data type

Breed Text [1]

Date_of_birth Date [1]
Weight_of_cow Numeric: decimal/real [1]

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 Average_milk_yield Numeric: decimal/real [1]
Passport_number Text [1]

Primary Keys & Foreign Keys

What is a Primary Key?

 Each table has a primary key field which acts as a unique identifier
o Each item of data in this field is unique
o Duplicate data items would be blocked if they were entered into the primary key
field
 Because the items of data are unique within the primary key field they can be used
to identify individual records

A Database Table Containing Customer Details

CustomerID FirstName LastName DOB PhoneNumber

1 Andrea Bycroft 05031976 0746762883

2 Melissa Langler 22012001 0756372892
3 Amy George 22111988 0746372821

 In the example customer table, the primary key would be the CustomerID because each
customer’s ID is unique
 If there was a customer with the same name they could be identified correctly using the
CustomerID

Creating and Editing Keys

 Primary key - Uniquely identifies each record in a table

 Foreign key - Used to link two tables together. The Foreign Key in one table would be the
primary key in another

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Creating Relationships Between Tables

 Relational databases allow you to create relationships between different tables using primary
and foreign keys

What is a Foreign Key?

 A foreign key is how we link tables together using primary keys

 Using the table above with customer details, we'll add another table showing subscriptions
that customers have
 In this example CustomerID is a foreign key as it links with the CustomerID in the customer
table above

SubscriptionID CustomerID SubscriptionType

1 2 Annual

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 2 1 Monthly
3 3 Quarterly

Exam Tip

 If the answer to a question is the name of a field, ensure you copy it exactly from the
question. The examiner is looking for an exact answer with the correct capital letters and
underscores where they're included

Worked example

A systems analyst has created a new computer system to keep records in a medical centre. She
has created a relational database to store the medical records of patients.

The database uses primary and foreign keys. Explain the difference between a primary key and a
foreign key.

[4]

4 of:

The primary key holds unique data [1]

The primary key identifies the record [1]
The primary key can be automatically indexed [1]
Each table has one primary key whereas a table can contain several foreign keys [1]
A foreign key is used to link with the primary key of another table [1]

Form Design

Characteristics of Good Form Design

 Simplicity - The design should be clean and straightforward, not cluttered
 Ease of use - Users should be able to understand how to fill out the form quickly
 Intuitive layout - Related fields should be grouped together, and the sequence of fields
should follow a logical order
 Clear labels - Each field should have a clear, concise label indicating what information is
expected
 Appropriate controls - Use controls like radio buttons, checkboxes, and drop-down menus
where appropriate

Creating a Data Entry Form

 You need to specify the fields required for data input

 Choose the appropriate font styles and sizes. Aim for consistency and readability
 Keep adequate spacing between fields for clarity and ease of use

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Fine-Tuning Form Design

Appropriate Spacing

 The spacing between individual characters in fields should be adjusted for readability
 The use of white space is crucial - it improves readability and reduces cognitive load

Control Elements

 Radio Buttons - Used when there is a list of two or more options that are mutually exclusive
 Check Boxes - Used when the user can select multiple options from a list
 Drop Down Menus - Used when you want to provide many options but conserve space

Exam Tip

 Always focus on simplicity and user-friendliness in form design

 Make sure your form uses clear labels, logical field grouping, and intuitive sequence

Worked example

A school is setting up a new computerised system to manage many aspects of the school
administration. The data from the registration system is saved in the school administration
database. The headteacher will need to check the attendance records for any student for any
semester. She will type in the Student_ID and the Semester (Autumn, Spring or Summer). After she
has done this the following data will appear on the same screen.

Field name

Student_name
Days_present

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 Number_of_lates
Number_absences
Parents_phone_number
Tutor_group
Design a suitable screen layout to display one record. It must have appropriate spacing for each
field, navigation aids and a space to type in search data. Do not include examples of students.

[6]

4 of:

Appropriate spacing for each field [1]

Forward/backward buttons [1]
Submit/search button [1]
Information attempts to fill the page AND the design looks appropriate to scenario [1]
Box/boxes to enter Semester or Student_ID [1]
Drop down for the Semester or Student_ID // radio button for semester [1]
Suitable title [1]
Instructions/help [1]

2 marks for all six fields

1 mark for three to five fields
0 marks for less than three fields

Perform Calculations
Use of Arithmetic Operations or Numeric Functions

 In a database, you can use arithmetic operations or numeric functions to perform

calculations
 Calculated Fields are fields that carry out a calculation based on other number fields in the
database
o Let's say you have a products table with Price and Quantity fields. You could create
a TotalCost a calculated field like this:
o TotalCost = Price * Quantity
o This calculation multiplies the price of each item by its quantity to find the total cost
 Calculated Controls are objects you place on forms or reports to display the result of an
expression
o You might have a form in a sales database where you input
the QuantitySold and UnitPrice. A calculated control could be used to display
the TotalSale:
o TotalSale = QuantitySold * UnitPrice
o This displays the total sale on the form without storing it in the database

Using Formulae and Functions to Perform Calculations

 Databases allow you to use formulae and functions to perform calculations at run time
 This can include basic arithmetic operations: addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division

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  Suppose you have a discount field and you want to subtract it from the total cost, you could
use a subtraction operation like this:
o FinalCost = TotalCost - Discount

Aggregate Functions

You can also use aggregate functions to calculate statistical information about a set of records.
Some examples include:

 Sum - Adds together all the numbers in a column

o To find the total cost of all products sold, you could use the SUM function on
the TotalCost field:
o SUM(TotalCost)
 Average - Computes the average of a set of numbers in a column
o To find the average price of all products, you could use the AVERAGE function:
o AVERAGE(Price)
 Maximum - Finds the highest number in a column
o To find the most expensive product, you could use the MAX function on
the Price field:
o MAX(Price)
 Minimum - Finds the lowest number in a column
o To find the least expensive product, you could use the MIN function:
o MIN(Price)
 Count - Counts the number of rows in a column
o To find the number of products in the database, you could use the COUNT function:
o COUNT(ProductID)

Remember that the actual syntax and function names might differ slightly depending on the specific
database system being used.

Sorting Data in Databases

Sorting is a crucial function in databases. It helps organise and present data in a meaningful way.

Using a Single Criterion to Sort Data

 You can sort data based on a single criterion - such as by name, date, or numerical value
 For example, you might sort a list of students in ascending order by their last names
 To sort the customer's tables by LastName in either ascending or descending order:

1. Open the table in Datasheet View

2. Click on the column header for the field to be sorted. For example, a table of customers to
be sorted by LastName, click on the LastName column header
3. Click on the "Sort Ascending" or "Sort Descending" button in the toolbar at the top of the
screen

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Using Multiple Criteria to Sort Data

 You can also sort data based on multiple criteria

 For instance, you might want to sort a list of products first by category (ascending), and
within each category, by price (descending)
 To sort the customer's table first by City, and then by LastName within each city:
1. Open the table in Datasheet View
2. Click on the column header for the first field to be sorted. For example, sorting
by City and then by LastName within each city, first, click on the City column
header
3. Click on the "Sort Ascending" or "Sort Descending" button in the toolbar
4. Next, hold down the Shift key and click on the column header for the second field to
be sorted by (LastName in this example)
5. While still holding down the Shift key, click on the "Sort Ascending" or "Sort
Descending" button again

Ascending and Descending Order

 Ascending Order - Data is sorted from smallest to largest (e.g., from A to Z, or from 1 to
100)
 Descending Order - Data is sorted from largest to smallest (e.g., from Z to A, or from 100 to
1)

Exam Tip

 Remember, when sorting by multiple criteria, the data is first sorted by the first criterion.
Within each group of the first criterion, it is sorted by the second criterion, and so on

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Search & Select Data in Databases
Searching and selecting data in databases is typically done using queries. These queries can be
based on a single criterion or multiple criteria.

Using a Single Criterion to Select Subsets of Data

 You can use a single criterion to select specific data. For example, you might want to select
all customers from a specific city
 E.g. to return all customers from London:

1. Open the Query Design View

2. Add the table you want to query
3. Drag the field you want to query to the QBE grid. For instance, if you're looking for
customers from a specific city, drag the City field
4. In the Criteria row under this field, type the value you're looking for (e.g., 'London')

Using Multiple Criteria to Select Subsets of Data

 You can also use multiple criteria to select data. For instance, you might want to select all
customers from a specific city who have also purchased in the last month
 E.g. to return all customers from London who purchased in the last 30 days:

1. Follow the steps above to start a new query and add the City field with 'London' as the
criteria
2. Drag another field you want to query to the QBE grid. For example, if you're looking for
customers who purchased in the last month, drag the LastPurchaseDate field
3. In the Criteria row under this field, type Date()-30

Using Operators to Perform Searches

 AND - Returns true if both conditions are met

 OR - Returns true if at least one condition is met
 NOT - Returns true if the condition is not met

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  LIKE - Returns true if the value matches a pattern (used with wildcards)
 >, <, =, >=, <=, <> - These are comparison operators. They return true if the comparison
between the values is correct

Using Wildcards to Perform Searches

 Wildcards are used with the LIKE operator to search for patterns. The most common
wildcard characters are:
o % - Represents zero, one, or multiple characters
o _ - Represents a single character
 E.g. to return all customers whose names start with 'J':

1. Start a new query and drag the field you want to query to the QBE grid. For example, if
you're looking for customers whose names start with 'J', drag the Name field
2. In the Criteria row under this field, type J*

Exam Tip

 Remember, the exact steps and symbols used for wildcards may vary depending on the
specific DBMS and its version. In Microsoft Access, the asterisk (*) is used as the wildcard
character to represent multiple characters, while the question mark (?) represents a single
character
 When referring to field names from the exam question, make sure you copy it exactly the
way it appears in the question
 Make sure you give the information asked for in the question and not a different field

Worked example

A student is setting up a database of information about volcanoes for a Geography project. The
following is part of the database.

Name_of_volcano Country Height State Last_eruption Volcano_type

Use Japan 731 Active 2001 Stratovolcano

Tor Zawar Pakistan 2237 Dormant 2010 Fissure
Datong China 1882 Extinct 450 Cinder Cone
Changbaishan China 2744 Active 1903 Stratovolcano
Stromboli Italy 926 Active 2016 Stratovolcano
Tengchong China 2865 Dormant 1609 Pyroclastic cone
Wudalianchi China 597 Dormant 1721 Multi-coned

Operators such as AND, OR, NOT, LIKE, >, >=, <, <=, =, <> can be used to search the volcano
database. The search criteria for all the dormant volcanoes with a height of less than 1000 metres
would look like this:

State = “Dormant” AND Height < 1000

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Use only the given operators and data to:

a. write down the search criteria that will produce a list of all the volcanoes that are not extinct in
China that also last erupted before the year 1900.[6]

State = NOT ‘Extinct’ AND Country = ‘China’ AND Last_eruption < 1900

State = – 1 mark or State <> [1]

NOT ‘Extinct’ – 1 mark or <> ‘Extinct’ [1]
AND Country [1]
= ‘China’ [1]
AND Last_eruption [1]
< 1900 [1]

b. write down the names of the volcanoes that match the requirements of part (a).[2]

Tengchong [1]
Wudalianchi [1]

c. The data is sorted into ascending order of height. Write down the name of the volcano which
would now be in the first record.[1]

Wudalianchi [1]

Present Data
Data presentation in databases is often done through reports. These reports can be formatted and
customised to display data in a user-friendly manner.

Producing Reports to Display Data

 Reports should display all the required data and labels in full. For example, if you're creating
a sales report, it should include all relevant fields, like product name, quantity sold, and total
sales

Using Appropriate Headers and Footers

 Report Header: This appears at the beginning of the report. This is typically where you
would put the report title and other introductory information
 Report Footer: This appears at the end of the report. This is where you might put summary
or conclusion information
 Page Header: Appears at the top of each page. This might contain the page number and the
date
 Page Footer: Appears at the bottom of each page. This might also contain the page number
and the date

Setting Report Titles

 The report title should be set in the report header. It should be clear, concise, and accurately
reflect the contents of the report

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Producing Different Output Layouts

 You can control the display of data and labels in your report. For example, you might choose
a tabular format, where data is arranged in rows and columns, or a columnar format, where
each data field is listed vertically

Aligning Data and Labels

 Data and labels should be aligned appropriately. For example, numeric data is often right-
aligned, and decimal points should be aligned for easy comparison

Controlling the Display Format of Numeric Data

 You can control the number of decimal places displayed, the use of a currency symbol, and
the display of percentages. For example, a total sales field might be displayed with two
decimal places and a currency symbol

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15. Presentation
15.1 Presentation

Master Slide
Why Use Master Slide?

 Master Slide is a template slide that you can apply to any number of slides in your
presentation
 It allows for consistency in design and layout across your presentation

Inserting and Editing Objects

 Images: You can add pictures or graphics to your Master Slide

o Find 'Insert' on the menu bar, then click on 'Image'
o You can then choose a file from your computer or online
 Text: You can add text boxes to your Master Slide
o Go to 'Insert', then 'Text Box'
o Draw your text box on the slide and start typing
 Shapes: Add shapes to your Master Slide for design or emphasis

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 o Go to 'Insert', then 'Shapes'
o Choose your shape, draw it on your slide, and adjust it as needed
 Logos: You can insert a logo on the Master Slide for branding
o Follow the same steps as inserting an image
 Slide Headers and Footers: You can include information like slide title or date on your
slides
o Go to 'Insert', then 'Header & Footer
o Choose what you want to include and click 'Apply to All
 Placeholder Position: You can choose where your placeholders are on your Master Slide
o Click and drag your placeholders to where you want them on the slide

 Automated Slide Numbering: Automate the numbering of your slides

o Go to 'Insert', then 'Slide Number'
o Click 'Apply to All' to add slide numbers

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Formatting Master Slide Objects

 Headings and Subheadings: You can change the font, size, and colour of your headings
and subheadings
 Bullets: You can choose the style and indentation of your bullet points
 Background Colour: Change the colour of your slide background to suit your presentation
o Go to 'Design', then 'Format Background'

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Creating a New Presentation Using a Text File

 Start with a blank presentation

 Click 'New Slide', then 'Slides from Outline'
 Navigate to your text file and click 'Insert'

Outputting a Presentation
Displaying the Presentation

 PowerPoint presentations can be displayed for different purposes

 Looped On-Screen Carousel: This is ideal for displays in public spaces like receptions or
exhibitions
o Go to the 'Slide Show' tab, then 'Set Up Slide Show
o Select 'Loop continuously until 'Esc'', then click 'OK'

 Presenter Controlled: This allows you to control the presentation during a live presentation
o Go to the 'Slide Show' tab, then 'From Beginning' or 'From Current Slide', depending
on where you want to start

Printing the Presentation

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  PowerPoint presentations can be printed in different layouts
 Full Page Slides: This prints one slide per page
o Go to 'File', then 'Print'
o In the 'Print Layout' dropdown, select 'Full Page Slides

 Presenter Notes: This prints your slides along with any notes you've added for presenting
o Go to 'File', then 'Print'
o In the 'Print Layout' dropdown, select 'Notes Pages'

 Handouts: This prints multiple slides on a page, making it ideal for giving to your audience
o Go to 'File', then 'Print'
o In the 'Print Layout' dropdown, select 'Handouts' and choose how many slides per
page you want

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16 Spreadsheet
16.1 Spreadsheet
Create a Data Model

 A spreadsheet is made of cells, rows and columns

 A cell is one box on the spreadsheet and is referenced using its cell reference (e.g. A1)
 A row goes across and is referenced using the number down the side
 A column goes down and is referenced using the letter at the top

Inserting and Deleting Cells, Rows, and Columns

 You can alter the structure of a spreadsheet by inserting or deleting cells, rows, and columns
 This flexibility allows you to manage and organise your data effectively

Merging Cells

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  Merging cells combines two or more cells into one larger cell
 This is useful for creating headers or titles that span across multiple columns

Creating Formulae Using Cell References

 Formulae allow you to perform calculations on your data

 You can reference specific cells in your formulae to make them dynamic and adaptable

Replicating Formulae Using Absolute and Relative Cell References

 Absolute cell references ($A$1) stay constant, while relative cell references (A1) change
when you copy or drag a formula

 Use absolute references when you want the same cell referenced and use relative
references when you want the reference to change

Use of Arithmetic Operators in Formulae

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  Arithmetic operators allow you to perform basic mathematical operations in your formulae:
add (+), subtract (-), multiply (*), divide (/), and indices (^)

Using Named Cells and Named Ranges

 Named cells:
o Easily refer to a group of adjoining cells

o Shortens/simplifies formulae

o Enables referring to a group of cells without having to lookup cell references

o Don’t have to re-set the absolute referencing manually

Worked example

Tawara school has a shop that sells items needed by pupils in school. Part of a spreadsheet with
details of the items is shown.

a. Write down the number of rows that are shown in the spreadsheet that contain text.

[1]

6 rows [1]

b. Write down the number of columns that are shown in the spreadsheet that contain text.

[1]

Cedric Chong IGCSE ICT 162 | P a g e

 8 columns [1]
Exam Tip

 Make sure you know which way round rows and columns are - rows go across and columns
go down

Formulae & Functions

What is the difference between a Formula and a Function?

 A formula can:
o Contain a function
o Be simple calculations/mathematical operation
o Be typed directly into the formula bar

It is a statement that performs calculations on values in your worksheet. For instance, "=A1+B1"

 A function:
o Is a special type of formula/complex formula

o Is built into the software/spreadsheet

o Can be used to simplify complicated calculations

o Can have built-in commands

o Has a pre-defined name/reserved word

It is a preset command in spreadsheets. It is a type of formula that performs specific calculations

like SUM, AVERAGE, MAX, MIN, etc. For instance, "=SUM(A1:B1)"

Using Functions

A B C D
1 10 20 30 40
2 15 25 35 45
3 20 30 40 50

 Spreadsheets offer a variety of functions. Some of the most commonly used are:
o E.g. "=SUM(A1:B2)" This would add all the numbers from cell A1 to B2, giving the
result 65.
o E.g. "=AVERAGE(A1:B2)" This would find the average of all numbers from cell A1 to
B2, giving the result 16.25.
o E.g. "=MAX(A1:B2)" This would return the maximum number in the range from A1 to
B2, which is 25.
o E.g. "=MIN(A1:B2)" This would return the minimum number in the range from A1 to
B2, which is 10.
o E.g. "=INT(A2)" This would round down the number in cell A2 to the nearest integer,
which is 15.
Cedric Chong IGCSE ICT 163 | P a g e
 o E.g. "=ROUND(A2, 0)" This would round the number in cell A2 to the nearest whole
number, which is 15.
o E.g. "=COUNT(A1:B2)" This would count the number of cells in the range A1 to B2
that contain numbers, which is 4.
o E.g. "=LOOKUP(25, A1:B3)" This would look for the number 25 in the range A1 to B3
and return it.
o E.g. "=VLOOKUP(25, A1:B3, 2, FALSE)" This would look for the number 25 in the
first column of the range A1 to B3 and return the corresponding value in the second
column of the same row.
o E.g. "=HLOOKUP(25, A1:D2, 2, FALSE)" This would look for the number 25 in the
first row of the range A1 to D2 and return the corresponding value in the second row
of the same column.
o E.g. "=XLOOKUP(25, A1:B3, D1:D3)" This would look for the number 25 in the range
A1 to B3 and return the corresponding value from the range D1 to D3.
o E.g. "=IF(A1>B1, "Yes", "No")" This would check if the value in cell A1 is greater than
the value in cell B1. If true, it returns "Yes". If false, it returns "No".
o SUM: Adds all the numbers in a range of cells
o AVERAGE: Calculates the average of a range of cells
o MAX and MIN: Finds the largest and smallest numbers in a range respectively
o INT: Rounds a number down to the nearest integer
o ROUND: Rounds a number to a specified number of digits
o COUNT: Counts the number of cells in a range that contain numbers
o LOOKUP, VLOOKUP, HLOOKUP, XLOOKUP: Looks up values in a table based on a
given condition
o IF: Returns one value if a condition is true and another if it's false

Using External Data Sources within Functions

 Spreadsheets allow you to use external data sources within functions.

 This could be data from another worksheet, workbook, or even a database

Using Nested Functions

 You can use a function within another function. This is called nesting.
 For instance, "=IF(A1>B1, MAX(A1:B1), MIN(A1:B1))".
o This checks if A1 is greater than B1, and if true, it returns the max value, else it
returns the min value

Worked example

Tawara school has a shop that sells items needed by pupils in school. Part of a spreadsheet with
details of the items is shown.

Cedric Chong IGCSE ICT 164 | P a g e

Tax is paid on certain items sold in the shop. The tax rate that has to be paid is 20% of the selling
price. If tax is to be paid on an item, then ‘Y’ is placed underneath the Tax heading.
The formula in I4 is: IF(F4=''Y'',($I$1*D4*G4),'''')
Explain, in detail, what the formula does.

[5]

5 of:

If Tax is payable then//If F4 is equal to "Y" then [1]

If true the tax is paid [1]
Multiply the rate of tax/I1 [1]
By the selling price/D4 [1]
By the amount sold/G4 [1]
If Tax is not payable//If F4 <>"Y"//Else//Otherwise [1]
Then display a blank [1]
The tax is not paid [1]
Exam Tip

 If you're asked about a complex formula or function, plan out your answer and work from left
to right as you track through the formula. E.g. in the question above IF(F4="Y",
($I$1*D4*G4),"") would become If F4 is equal to "Y" then multiply I1 by D4 by G4. If F4<>"Y"
then display a blank

Order of Operations
Understanding the order of mathematical operations is critical when creating complex
formulae in spreadsheets

 In spreadsheets, as in mathematics, operations are executed in a specific order, known as

BIDMAS or BODMAS
 BIDMAS stands for Brackets, Indices (or powers/exponents), Division and Multiplication
(from left to right), Addition and Subtraction (from left to right)

Brackets can be used to specify which operations to perform first, outside of this order.

 For example, in the formula "=A1+2*3", the multiplication will be performed first, resulting in
"A1 + 6"
 But if we write the formula as "=(A1+2)3", the operation inside the brackets will be performed
first, resulting in "3A1 + 6"

Consider the following example spreadsheet:

A B C

1 10 20

2 5 15

3 =20*2

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  If you input the formula "=A1+B3" in cell C1, the result will be 50, because B3 is calculated
first (20*2=40), and then A1 is added (10+40=50)
 If you input the formula "=(A1+B1)*2" in cell C2, the result will be 60, because A1+B1 is
calculated first (10+20=30), and then the result is multiplied by 2 (30*2=60)

It's always a good idea to use brackets to make sure that your formulae work as expected, even if
they might not be necessary

 It makes the formula easier to read and understand

 It can prevent errors if the formula is edited in the future

Cell Referencing
Cell referencing is a critical concept in spreadsheet software like Excel.

 It allows you to refer to the contents of a cell in a formula rather than typing in a specific
value
 This can make your spreadsheets more flexible and powerful

There are two types of cell referencing: absolute and relative.

Relative cell referencing is the default type.

 When you copy a formula that includes a relative cell reference, Excel adjusts the reference
relative to the new location
 For example, if you copy the formula "=A1+B1" from cell C1 to C2, the formula will adjust to
"=A2+B2"

Absolute cell referencing is indicated with dollar signs before the column and/or row reference
(like $A$1).

 When you copy a formula with an absolute cell reference, that reference does not change
 For example, if you copy the formula "=$A$1+B1" from cell C1 to C2, the formula will stay as
"=$A$1+B2"

Consider the following example spreadsheet:

A B C
1 10 20
2 5 15

 If you input the formula "=A1+B1" in cell C1 and drag the fill handle down to copy the formula
to cell C2, the formula in C2 will change to "=A2+B2"
 But if you input the formula "=$A$1+B1" in cell C1 and drag the fill handle down, the formula
in C2 will still refer to cell A1: "=$A$1+B2"

Exam Tip

 Be careful when copying formulas! Make sure you're using the right type of cell reference for
what you want to do
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  Remember the dollar signs ($) for absolute cell referencing. It can save you a lot of time and
hassle!
 Use cell references rather than the value of the cell

Worked example

An auction company sells toys. It uses a spreadsheet to show each person’s items and the amount
of money the buyer and seller owe to the company.
Part of the spreadsheet is shown below.

a. The person selling the item pays a Seller’s commission on any item sold. This is calculated using
the Selling price and finding a match or the next value below in the table, in cells I6 to J11.
Write a formula to display in cell F6, the Seller’s commission on the Double Decker bus toy.
This formula will be replicated down to cell F13.

[5]

VLOOKUP(D6, I$6:J$11,2)

VLOOKUP() [1]
(D6, [1]
I6:J11, [1]
correct use of $ [1]
2) [1]

or

IF(D6<$I$7, J$6, [1]

IF(D6<$I$8, J$7, [1]
IF(D6<$I$9, J$8, [1]
IF(D6<$I$10, J$9, [1]
IF(D6<$I$11, J$10, ,J$11))))) [1]

b. Describe how you could replicate the formula in cell F6 for each item.

[2]

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2 of:

Click on the cell / F6 [1]

Move to the bottom RHS cell [1]
Select drag handle/cross / black box / double click on drag handle [1]
Drag handle/cross to F13 [1]

or

Click on the cell / F6[1]

Click fill [1]
... down [1]

or

Click on the cell / F6 [1]

Click copy [1]
Select F7 to F13 [1]
Click paste [1]

or

Hover over the cell / F6 [1]

Move to the bottom RHS cell [1]
Select drag handle/cross / black box / double click on drag handle [1]
Drag handle/cross to F13 [1]

Sort Data in Spreadsheets

Sorting data is a powerful feature in spreadsheets

 It arranges your data based on specific criteria

 You can sort in ascending or descending order

You can sort data using a single criterion

 For example, you could sort a list of names alphabetically

 In Excel, select the column you want to sort and then choose 'Sort A to Z' for ascending
order or 'Sort Z to A' for descending order

Cedric Chong IGCSE ICT 168 | P a g e

You can also sort data using multiple criteria

 For example, you could sort a list of students first by grade, and then alphabetically by name
within each grade
 In Excel, select your data and then choose 'Sort'. Add levels for each of your criteria

Consider the following example spreadsheet:

A B
1 Name Age
2 Alex 15
3 Ben 17
4 Alex 16

 If you sort by 'Name' only (A to Z), the spreadsheet might look like this:

A B

1 Name Age

2 Alex 16

3 Alex 15

4 Ben 17

 If you sort by 'Name' (A to Z) and then 'Age' (Smallest to Largest), the spreadsheet would
look like this:

A B

1 Name Age

2 Alex 15

Cedric Chong IGCSE ICT 169 | P a g e

3 Alex 16

4 Ben 17

Exam Tip

 Be sure to select all relevant columns before sorting, especially when dealing with multiple
criteria. Failure to do so may result in misalignment of your data!

Search & Select Data in Spreadsheets

Data selection allows you to focus on a specific subset of your data based on certain criteria

 This is useful for analysing parts of a larger dataset

 You can select data using a single criterion or multiple criteria

Searching for specific data in spreadsheets can be done using various operators

 These include AND, OR, NOT, >, <, =, >=, <=, <>
 For example, you might search for all students who scored above 85 (>) AND are in Year 11

Wildcards can be used when you're not sure of the exact data you're looking for

 The most common wildcards are the asterisk (*) and the question mark (?)
 An asterisk represents any number of characters. For example, "A*" would find "Alex",
"Aaron", etc.
 A question mark represents a single character. For example, "A?e" would find "Abe", but not
"Alex"

Consider the following example spreadsheet:

A B C

1 Name Mark Year

2 Alex 85 11

3 Ben 90 12

4 Chloe 80 11

5 Dave 88 12

6 Eve 82 11

 To select all students in Year 11, you could use the criterion "Year = 11"
Cedric Chong IGCSE ICT 170 | P a g e
  To search for students who are in Year 11 AND scored above 85, you could use the criteria
"Year = 11" AND "Grade > 85"

Exam Tip

 Remember that you can use operators and wildcards in your searches to find data more
efficiently
 Be sure to use the correct operator for your search. For example, if you want to find values
equal to or greater than a certain number, use >=, not just >
 Wildcards are especially useful when you're not sure of the exact value you're looking for.
But be careful, as they can also return unexpected results if not used properly!

Display Features
Display formulae or values in your spreadsheet as needed.

 Toggle between displaying cell values or the formulae used to calculate those values

Adjust row height, column width, and cell sizes to make data, labels, and formulae fully visible.

 This improves the readability of your spreadsheet and helps prevent errors

Cedric Chong IGCSE ICT 171 | P a g e

Wrap text within cells to ensure all data is fully visible.

 Wrapped text will automatically move to the next line within the cell if it exceeds the cell's
width

Hide and display rows and columns as needed to focus on specific data or to improve readability.

 This can be useful when working with large datasets or complex spreadsheets

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Spreadsheet Formatting
Enhance a spreadsheet using various formatting tools.

 Text colour, cell colour, bold, underline, italic, shading

 These features make your spreadsheet visually appealing and easier to read

Format numeric data appropriately.

 Display the number of decimal places, different currency symbols, percentages

 Proper formatting ensures accurate representation and interpretation of data

Use conditional formatting to change the display format depending on the contents of a cell.

 This helps to highlight important information or identify patterns and trends in the data

Cedric Chong IGCSE ICT 173 | P a g e

Worked example

Explain the steps that need to be taken to display cell H4 as US dollars.

[2]

2 of:

Highlight/select cell H4 [1]

Select format cells [1]
Select currency/accounting [1]
Select dollar/USD icon [1]

Cedric Chong IGCSE ICT 174 | P a g e

Page Layout
Set the orientation to portrait or landscape.

 Choose the best layout for your spreadsheet's data and design

Control the page layout for printing.

 Specify the number of pages, print area, display or hide gridlines, and display or hide row
and column headings

Consider the following example spreadsheet:

A B C
1 Name Mark Year
2 Alex 85 11

Cedric Chong IGCSE ICT 175 | P a g e

 3 Ben 90 12
4 Chloe 80 11
5 Dave 88 12
6 Eve 82 11

 Set the orientation to landscape to accommodate the table's width

 Define the print area as A1:C6
 Hide gridlines and display row and column headings for a clean printout

Exam Tip

 Always preview your printout before printing to ensure it looks as expected and fits within the
designated page boundaries
 Remember to set the print area, especially if you only want to print a specific part of the
spreadsheet

Graphs & Charts

Selecting Data for Graphs and Charts

 Highlight cells that are next to each other in a row or column by clicking and dragging your
mouse across the cells
 For cells that are not next to each other in a row or column, hold the 'Ctrl' key (or 'Cmd' on
Mac) and click the individual cells or ranges
 Specified data ranges can be selected by clicking the first cell in the range, holding 'Shift',
and clicking the last cell

Selecting the Graph or Chart Type

 Choose the appropriate chart type based on the data to be visualised

 Bar graphs and pie charts work well for categorical data, while line graphs and scatter plots
are suitable for numerical data

Cedric Chong IGCSE ICT 176 | P a g e

Labelling Graphs and Charts

 Always include a chart title that summarises what the graph or chart is about
 A legend identifies the different data series in your chart
 Sector labels, sector values, and percentages help interpret pie charts
 Category axis title, value axis title, category axis labels, value axis labels, and data
value labels are essential in making your graph or chart understandable

Cedric Chong IGCSE ICT 177 | P a g e

Adding a Second Data Series

 To add a second data series, select the new data and click on 'Add Data' in the chart menu
 This is useful when comparing two sets of related data

Adding a Second Axis

 Adding a second axis allows you to plot two different data sets with different scales
 Click on 'Add Axis' in the chart menu and select the data series to plot on the new axis

Formatting Numerical Values

 Format numerical values to a specified number of decimal places by selecting the cells
and choosing 'Format Cells' from the right-click menu
 To display currency symbols, choose 'Currency' in the 'Number' tab of the 'Format Cells'
dialog box

Adjusting Axis Scale

 Adjust the maximum and minimum values of an axis scale by right-clicking on the axis
and selecting 'Format Axis'
 Set incremental values to change the scale of your graph

Cedric Chong IGCSE ICT 178 | P a g e

Enhancing Graph Appearance

 Extracting a pie chart sector emphasises a particular part of the data

 Change the colour scheme or fill patterns to make your graph visually appealing

Example

Mont Sales Expenses

h (£) (£)
Jan 5000 2000
Feb 6000 2500
Mar 5500 2200

 The above data can be used to create a Line Graph to illustrate the sales and expenses over
three months

Worked example

A farmer has purchased a computerised milking system for her cows. She has asked a systems
analyst to create a database to store details of the cows being milked. The amount of milk each cow
produces is currently recorded daily in a spreadsheet.
This is part of the spreadsheet.
Cedric Chong IGCSE ICT 179 | P a g e
You have been asked to produce a graph or chart to show the amounts of milk for the cow with
Animal Passport Number 971/2016.
Describe the steps you would use to produce a graph or chart of this data as a separate sheet.
Include in your answer the name of the new sheet.

[6]

5 of:

Highlight A7 to B16 [1]

Hide row 6 [1]
Select insert [1]
Select graph [1]
Choose chart – bar chart [1]
Add chart title [1]
Title example milk yield for cow 971 / 2016 [1]
Add axes titles [1]
Add a legend [1]
Right click and select Move to new sheet [1]
Type an appropriate title/name on the tab [1]
Save the chart [1]

1 mark for the name of the new sheet – Allow any appropriate name

Cedric Chong IGCSE ICT 180 | P a g e

17 Website Authoring
17.1 Website Authoring

Web Development Layers

Content Layer

 The content layer forms the structure of a web page

 This is where you enter the text, images, and other content that make up the body of the
web page
 It's typically constructed using HTML (HyperText Markup Language)

Presentation Layer

 The presentation layer is used to display and format elements within a web page
 It controls how the content looks, including layout, colours, fonts, and more
 This layer is mainly handled by CSS (Cascading Style Sheets)

Behaviour Layer

 The behaviour layer uses scripting languages to control elements within a web page
 It enables interactive elements and complex functionality, such as form validation, image
sliders, and dynamic content updates
 JavaScript is the primary language used for the behaviour layer

Worked example

Web development layers are used when designing web pages. An example of one of the layers is
the presentation layer.
Name the other two web development layers.

[2]

Content/Structure[1]

Behaviour/Scripting [1]

Cedric Chong IGCSE ICT 181 | P a g e

HTML
Creating the Content Layer

 The content layer of a web page is made up of HTML elements such as headings (<h1>, <h2>,
etc.), paragraphs (<p>), links (<a>), images (<img>), and more
 HTML elements are the building blocks of web pages and are used to structure and organise the
content
 The head section contains information about the web page that's not displayed on the page itself
o It's enclosed by <head> and </head> tags
o The content inside the head tag is displayed in the browser tab
 The body section contains the main content of the web page, such as text, images, videos, hyperlinks,
tables etc.
o It's enclosed by <body> and </body> tags
o The content inside the body tag is displayed in the browser window

Head Section Elements

Page Title

 The <title> element is used to set the page title that displays in the browser tab
 It is placed inside the <head> section of the HTML document

External Stylesheets

 External stylesheets are linked in the <head> section using the <link> element
 The rel the attribute is set to "stylesheet", and the href the attribute contains the relative file path to
the CSS file
 Stylesheets are loaded in the order they are listed, so hierarchy is important

Metatags

 Metatags are snippets of text in HTML that describe a page's content

 They don't appear on the page itself but in the page's code
 Search engines, browsers and other web services use metatags to glean information about a web page
 Metatags provide additional information about the web page to the browser and search engines
 E.g.
o Charset
 The <meta charset="UTF-8"> the tag specifies the character encoding for the
HTML document
 UTF-8 is the most common character encoding and includes almost all characters
from all writing systems
o Keywords
 The keywords attribute in a <meta> tag is a comma-separated list of words that
represent the content of the web page
 It was originally intended to help search engines understand the content of a page, but
it's less relevant today as search engines have become more sophisticated
o Author
 The author attribute in a <meta> the tag identifies the author of the web page
 It can be helpful for copyright purposes and for readers who want to know the source
of the content
o Description

Cedric Chong IGCSE ICT 182 | P a g e

  The description attribute in a <meta> tag provides a concise explanation of the
content of the web page
 This description often appears in search engine results and can influence click-
through rates
o Viewport
 The <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-
scale=1"> a tag makes your web page display correctly on all devices (desktop,
tablet, mobile)
 It controls the viewport size and the initial zoom level

Default Target Windows

 The target attribute of the <base> the element can set a default target window for all links on a
page
 For example, <base target="_blank"> will open all links in a new window or tab

e.g.

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<meta charset="UTF-8">
<title>My Web Page</title>
<link rel="stylesheet" href="styles.css">
<meta name="description" content="This is my web page">
<meta name="author" content="Your Name">
<base target="_blank">
</head>
<body>
<h1>Welcome to My Web Page!</h1>
<p>This is a sample paragraph.</p>
</body>
</html>

Worked example

You are a student creating a website for your IGCSE ICT revision work. You have produced some HTML,
but have not yet added the logo or merged the cells. You are aiming to produce the following page.

Fig. 1

Cedric Chong IGCSE ICT 183 | P a g e

Part of the markup you have produced is:

<table>
<tr>
<td><h1>IGCSE ICT</h1></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><h3>Theory</h3></td>
<td><h3>Practical 1</h3></td>
<td><h3>Practical 2</h3></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><h3>2 hour<br>Theory exam</h3></td>
<td><h3>2.5 hour<br>Practical exam</h3></td>
<td><h3>2.5 hour<br>Practical exam</h3></td>
</tr>
</table>
a. Write the HTML that would display the image called “Logo.jpg” as shown in Fig. 1. If the browser cannot
find the image, then the text “Tawara School Logo” will be displayed.

[5]

<td rowspan="3"><img src="Logo.jpg" alt="Tawara School

Logo"></td>
One mark for each point

<td rowspan = ”3”> [1]

<img [1]
src = ”Logo.jpg” [1]
alt = ”Tawara School logo”> [1]
</td> [1]

or

<td rowspan="3"><img alt="Tawara School Logo”[3]

src="Logo.jpg"></td> [2]

b. The third line of HTML currently shown in the code does not produce the title as shown in Fig. 1. Write the
HTML that would produce the title as shown in Fig. 1.

[2]

<td colspan="3"><h1>IGCSE ICT </h1></td>

<td colspan [1]

="3"> [1]

Cedric Chong IGCSE ICT 184 | P a g e

Creating Body Content
 The <body> section of the HTML document is where the main content goes
 This can include text, images, tables, links, and more

Tables in Webpages

 In the early days of web development, tables were often used to create complex page layouts
 They provide a way to arrange data into rows and columns
 By utilising cell padding, cell spacing, and borders, developers could manipulate the appearance of
the page
 Today, tables are primarily used for displaying tabular data - information that is logically displayed in
grid format
 For example, financial data, timetables, comparison charts and statistical data are often presented in
tables
 Tables make it easy for users to scan, analyse and comprehend the data
 Tables also enhance accessibility. Screen readers for visually impaired users can read tables
effectively if they are correctly structured
 Semantic HTML elements like <table>, <tr>, <th>, and <td> help in conveying the structure
and purpose of the data to these assistive technologies

Inserting a Table

 Tables in HTML are created using the <table> element

 Table rows are defined with <tr>, headers with <th>, and data cells with <td>
 Use rowspan and colspan attributes to make cells span multiple rows or columns

Table Attributes

 Set table and cell sizes with the width and height attributes, using pixel or percentage values
 Apply styles to tables with inline CSS or by linking an external stylesheet

Inserting Objects

 Insert text with elements like <p> for paragraphs and <h1> to <h6> for headings
 Insert images with the <img> element, using the src attribute to specify the image source
 Use the alt attribute to provide alternate text for images
 Adjust image or video size with the width and height attributes
 Insert sound clips and videos with the <audio> and <video> elements, adding controls for
playback controls, and autoplay to start automatically

<body>
<h1>Welcome to My Web Page!</h1>
<p>This is a sample paragraph.</p>
<table style="width:100%">
<tr>
<th>Header 1</th>
<th>Header 2</th>
</tr>
<tr>

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 <td>Data 1</td>
<td>Data 2</td>
</tr>
</table>
<img src="image.jpg" alt="My Image" width="500" height="600">
<audio controls>
<source src="sound.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<video controls autoplay>
<source src="video.mp4" type="video/mp4">
</video>
</body>

Styling
Using the <div> Tag

 The <div> a tag is a container unit which encapsulates other page elements and divides the HTML
document into sections
 <div> elements are block level elements and are often used to group elements to format them with
styles

Applying Styles and Classes

 Styles can be applied directly to an element using the style attribute

 Classes are defined in CSS and can be applied to HTML elements using the class attribute
 Multiple elements can share the same class

Text Styling Tags

 Use the <h1> to <h6> tags for headings, with <h1> being the largest and <h6> the smallest
 Use the <p> tag for paragraphs
 Use the <li> tag for list items within <ul> (unordered/bullet list) or <ol> (ordered/numbered list)

Applying Styles to Lists

 The <ul> tag creates an unordered list, and <ol> creates an ordered list
 Styles can be applied directly to these lists using the style attribute or by using a class

<html>
<head>
<style>
.blue-text {
color: blue;
}
.large-font {
font-size: 20px;
}
</style>
</head>
<body>

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 <div class="blue-text large-font">
<h1>Blue Heading</h1>
<p>Blue paragraph.</p>
<ul style="list-style-type:circle;">
<li>Blue list item 1</li>
<li>Blue list item 2</li>
</ul>
</div>
</body>
</html>

Bookmarks & Hyperlinks

Creating a Bookmark

 A bookmark in HTML is a way to provide links to specific sections of a web page

 It allows users to navigate easily to different sections of content without having to scroll through the
entire page

 Bookmarks are created using the id attribute in HTML

 They allow users to jump to specific sections within a page
 Example: <div id="section1">This is Section 1</div>
 Any tag can be turned into a bookmark by adding an id attribute to it
 The id should be unique and not used more than once on a page
 To link to the bookmark, use the <a> tag with a href value set to # followed by the id of the
bookmark
 By combining the <a> tag and the href attribute with a specific id, you can create a link that takes
the user to that bookmarked section of the page

Creating Hyperlinks

 A hyperlink, often just called a 'link', is a reference to data that a reader can directly follow by
clicking or tapping
 It is one of the core elements of the World Wide Web, as it enables navigation from one web page or
section to another
 Hyperlinks are created using the <a> (anchor) tag in HTML
 They can link to different sections of the same page, other locally stored web pages, or external
websites
o Text Hyperlinks: Usually, a portion of text that is highlighted in some way, like being
underlined or a different colour
o Image Hyperlinks: An image that you can click on to take you to another page or another
part of the same page
o Button Hyperlinks: A clickable button that redirects the user to another page or section
 Hyperlinks utilise the 'href' attribute within the <a> tag in HTML
 The 'href' attribute contains the URL of the page to which the link leads
 The text between the opening <a> and closing </a> tags are the part that will appear as a link on
the page

Hyperlink Types

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  Same-page bookmark: Use the # followed by the id of the element, you want to jump to.
Example: <a href="#section1">Go to Section 1</a>
 Locally stored web page: Use the relative path to the file. Example: <a
href="contact.html">Contact Us</a>
 External website: Use the full URL. Example: <a
href="https://www.google.com">Google</a>
 Email link: Use mailto: followed by the email address. Example: <a href="mailto:
[email protected]">Email Us</a>
 Specified location: Use the target attribute to specify where to open the link. _blank for a new tab
or window, _self for the same tab or window, or a named window. Example: <a
href="https://www.google.com" target="_blank">Google</a>

<html>
<body>
<div id="section1">
<h1>This is Section 1</h1>
<a href="#section2">Go to Section 2</a><br>
<a href="contact.html">Contact Us</a><br>
<a href="https://www.google.com" target="_blank">Google</a><br>
<a href="mailto:[email protected]">Email Us</a>
</div>
<div id="section2">
<h1>This is Section 2</h1>
<a href="#section1">Go back to Section 1</a>
</div>
</body>
</html>

Relative and Absolute File Paths

Relative File Paths

 A relative file path specifies the location of a file or directory about the current location, or the
location of the file that references it
 For instance, if an HTML file and an image are in the same directory, you can reference the image in
the HTML file using just its name (e.g., image.jpg)

Absolute File Paths

 An absolute file path specifies the exact location of a file or directory, regardless of the current
location
 It includes the entire path from the root directory to the file or directory in question
 For instance, an absolute file path on a Windows system might look like C:\Users\Username\
Documents\image.jpg

Reasons Not to Use Absolute File Paths for Local Objects

 Using absolute file paths for local web pages or objects can lead to broken links when the website is
moved to a different directory or server
 The web page or object might not exist at the specified location on the server or the user's computer
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  If a website is moved or backed up, absolute links will still point to the original location, not the new
or backup location

How to use CSS

 The presentation layer of a web page is defined by CSS (Cascading Style Sheets). This layer deals
with the layout, colours, fonts, and animations on the page
 It separates the content (HTML) from the appearance of the web page
 CSS allows for better control and flexibility in designing a web page

Inline Styles

External CSS is written in a separate file with a .css extension, and linked to the HTML document. This
allows for the same styles to be reused across multiple pages. E.g.

<head>
<link rel="stylesheet" href="styles.css">
</head>
Inline CSS is written directly within the HTML tags using the style attribute. This applies the style only to
that specific element. E.g.

<p style="color:blue;">This is a blue paragraph.</p>

Background Properties

 Background Colour: Set the background colour using the background-color property.
o e.g. background-color: blue;
 Background Images: Set a background image using the background-image property.
o e.g. background-image: url('');

Font Properties

Control the appearance of text with font properties. This includes font-size, font-family, color, text-
align, and more. E.g.

p{
font-size: 14px;
font-family: Arial;
color: blue;
text-align: center;
}

Tables

CSS is used to style HTML tables, allowing us to define the appearance of the table, table rows, table
headers, and table data cells.

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  Size: Control the width and height of a table using width and height.
o e.g. width: 100%; height: 200px;
 Background Colour: Use background-color to set the background.
o e.g. background-color: yellow;
 Borders: Apply a border using the border property. This includes colour, thickness, and visibility.
o For instance: border: 2px solid black;
 Collapsed Borders: Use border-collapse: collapse; to make borders appear as a single line
 Spacing: Control the space between cells with border-spacing.
o e.g. border-spacing: 5px;
 Padding: Define the space between cell content and its border with padding.
o e.g. padding: 10px;

table {
width: 100%;
height: 200px;
background-color: yellow;
border: 2px solid black;
border-collapse: collapse;
border-spacing: 5px;
}

 Size: Control the width and height of rows, headers, and data cells just like with tables.
o e.g. width: 50px; height: 50px;
 Background Colour: Use background-color to set the background of rows, headers, and data
cells
 Horizontal and Vertical Alignment: Control alignment with text-align (horizontal) and vertical-
align (vertical).
o e.g. text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;
 Padding: Define the space between cell content and its border with padding
 Borders: Apply a border using the border property

th, td {
width: 50px;
height: 50px;
background-color: white;
text-align: center;
vertical-align: middle;
padding: 10px;
border: 1px solid black;
}
Exam Tip

 Be aware that inline CSS has the highest priority. If both external and inline styles are applied, the
inline style will override the external
 Keep in mind that CSS properties are case-sensitive. Always use lower case

Classes
 Classes in CSS are used to style multiple HTML elements at once
 To define a class, use a period (.) followed by the class name. To apply a class to an HTML element,
use the class attribute
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  Background Colour: Use the background-color property. E.g.

.red-background {
background-color: red;
}

 Background Images: Use the background-image property. E.g.

.image-background {
background-image: url('');
}

 Font Properties: Control the font size, family, colour, and alignment. E.g.

.big-blue-text {
font-size: 20px;
font-family: Arial;
color: blue;
text-align: center;
}

 Size: Control the width and height with width and height. E.g.

.small-cell {
width: 30px;
height: 30px;
}

 Background Colour: Use background-color to set the background. E.g.

.yellow-cell {
background-color: yellow;
}

 Horizontal and Vertical Alignment: Use text-align (horizontal) and vertical-align (vertical).
E.g.

.center-align {
text-align: center;
vertical-align: middle;
}

 Spacing, Padding, Borders: Use padding for space inside the cell, and border for cell borders.
E.g.

.padded-cell {
padding: 10px;
border: 2px solid black;
}

 Collapsed Borders: Use border-collapse: collapse; the table class to remove spaces between
cell borders. E.g.

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.collapsed-table {
border-collapse: collapse;
}
Apply these classes to HTML elements like this:

<table class="collapsed-table">
<tr class="small-cell yellow-cell center-align">
<td class="padded-cell">Content</td>
</tr>
</table>
Exam Tip

 Remember, CSS classes begin with a period (.) in the stylesheet

 The class attribute is used in the HTML document to apply a class

External CSS
 External Styles are CSS styles that are defined in a separate .css file and linked to the HTML
document. This allows for reusing the same styles across different web pages
 To create external styles for HTML elements like h1, h2, h3, p, and li, simply specify the element
and define the styles within curl('')
 External and internal styles (in the head section)
 Browser default

Characteristics of a Style and a Class

 A Style is a set of CSS properties that define the appearance of an HTML element
 A Class is a way of selecting multiple elements to apply the same style
 The difference between them lies in their application: a style is used to define the CSS properties,
while a class is used to apply these properties to multiple elements

Relative File Paths for Attached Stylesheets

 Relative file paths are used for linked stylesheets because they refer to the location of the CSS file
relative to the current HTML file. This makes the code more portable and easier to manage
 E.g. if the CSS file is in the same folder as the HTML file, the path would be "styles.css". If the
CSS file is in a subfolder named css, the path would be "css/styles.css"

Worked example

A teacher is creating a web page in HTML to display on the school’s intranet.

All colour codes must be in hexadecimal. It has the following style sheet attached:

h1 {color: #ff0000;
font-family: Times, serif;
font-size: 30pt;
text-align: center;}
h2 {color: #0000ff;

font-family: Times, Helvetica, serif;

font-size: 24pt;
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text-align: center;}
h3 {color: #00ff00;

font-family: Times, Helvetica, serif;

font-size: 14pt;
text-align: justify;}

body {background-color: #ad88e6;}

table {border-color: #000000;}
Having tested the web page the teacher needs to make some changes to the style sheet.
Write down the CSS to:
a. edit style h1 so that the font is Comic Sans or, if not available, Arial or, if this is not available, the browser’s
default sans-serif font.

[3]

font-family: "Comic Sans", Arial, sans-serif;

"Comic Sans", [1]

Arial,[1]
sans-serif; [1]
Must be in the correct order

b. add a markup to the table style to set a 3-pixel wide, dashed external border.

[4]

table {border-color: #000000; border-style: dashed; border-width: 3px }

border-style: [1]
dashed;[1]
border-width:[1]
3px[1]

c. edit style h3 so that the colour is set to black.

[1]

h3 {color: #000000;

#000000; [1]

d. add a markup to the start of style h2 to display the text as bold.

[2]

h2 { font-weight: bold;

font-weight:[1]
bold;[1]
Exam Tip

 You are being asked to write code in a specific language so you must be exact:
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 o Don't forget quotes around items like Comic sans
o Check spellings including color not colour
o Make sure you include delimiters where necessary
o Make sure you include ;
o Don't forget to write font-weight rather than font-type

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