3.

847

Article

Vibration Prediction of the Robotic

Arm Based on Elastic Joint
Dynamics Modeling

Jianlong Li, Dongxiao Wang, Xing Wu, Kai Xu and Xiaoqin Liu

https://doi.org/10.3390/s22166170
 sensors
Article
Vibration Prediction of the Robotic Arm Based on Elastic Joint
Dynamics Modeling
Jianlong Li 1,2 , Dongxiao Wang 1,2 , Xing Wu 1,2,3 , Kai Xu 1,2 and Xiaoqin Liu 1,2, *

1 Key Laboratory of Advanced Equipment Intelligent Manufacturing Technology of Yunnan Province,

Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming 650500, China
2 School of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Kunming University of Science and Technology,
Kunming 650500, China
3 Yunnan Vocational College of Mechanical and Electrical Technology, Kunming 650203, China
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: The flexibility of the joint drive system of an industrial robot can cause vibration at the
end part, which can lead to motion errors. A method to predict the vibration during the motion of
the robot arm is proposed considering the robot joint flexibility. The method combines the internal
transfer function of the drive system and the identification of parameters under external excitation.
Firstly, the dynamics of the robot joint system are modeled by a double inertia elastic system. The joint
system transfer function from the electromagnetic torque to the arm vibration is obtained according to
the dynamics model. To solve the unknown parameters in the transfer function, a vibration dynamics
model of the joint arm under the external forces on the arm is developed. According to this model,
the equivalent stiffness, damping and load inertia of the joint can be obtained by the direct parametric
method. Then, the vibration spectrum of the robot arm is derived from the motor electromagnetic
torque and joint dynamics models were used to predict the vibration spectrum of the robot arm. The
experiments were conducted on a single-joint robot testbed, and on an articulated industrial robot. In
both experiments, the key parameters in the system were determined by impact experiments. Then,
the vibration signal of the arm during the robot motion was obtained by electromagnetic torque
Citation: Li, J.; Wang, D.; Wu, X.; Xu, prediction. The predicted vibration signals are analyzed in comparison with the actual vibration
K.; Liu, X. Vibration Prediction of the signals. The experimental results both show the validity of the vibration prediction.
Robotic Arm Based on Elastic Joint
Dynamics Modeling. Sensors 2022, 22, Keywords: flexible joint; prediction function; parameter discrimination; vibration prediction
6170. https://doi.org/10.3390/
s22166170

Academic Editor: Yongmin Zhong

1. Introduction
Received: 28 July 2022
Accepted: 13 August 2022
Each joint of an articulated industrial robot is a complex mechanical drive system. The
Published: 18 August 2022
stiffness of each part of the mechanism in this system is limited. Among them, the stiffness
of the gearbox is the smallest in the transmission system [1,2]. The elastic factors in the
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
system cause mechanical vibration, which in turn affects motion accuracy and accelerates
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
the fatigue of the drivetrain. Monitoring robot vibration caused by joint flexibility has
published maps and institutional affil-
important value to improve the reliability of industrial robots [3,4].
iations.
The basic method of monitoring robot vibration is to install vibration sensors directly
on the arm. This method is simple and convenient, but it interferes with the normal
operation of the robot and is not conducive to the proper functioning of the robot. In
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
addition, the method of monitoring vibration by installing sensors is costly. By modeling
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. the dynamics of the robot joint servo system, the vibration generated by the joint flexibility
This article is an open access article can be predicted directly from the internal electrical parameters [5]. Yang et al. [6] modeled
distributed under the terms and the motion of a robot with a flexible jointed steel arm and obtained an equation of motion
conditions of the Creative Commons to obtain the angle of the jointed arm using the motor drive torque as the input to the
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// joint system. The arm vibration prediction was performed using this equation of motion,
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ and the accuracy of the equation of motion was verified by simulation. Moberg et al. [7]
4.0/). developed an extended flexible joint model. The method considers not only the flexibility

Sensors 2022, 22, 6170. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22166170 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

Sensors 2022, 22, 6170 2 of 20

of the harmonic reducer but also the flexibility of the bearing and arm. The vibration of the
flexible joint was analyzed. Zaher [8] modeled the dynamics of n rigid links and n flexible
joints from the point of view of multi-body dynamics. The dynamical equations are solved
numerically, and the residual vibrations are analyzed. These studies have demonstrated
the feasibility of vibration prediction both theoretically and experimentally, but they need
to be performed on a high-precision test bench. Actual industrial robots cannot meet this
high precision and are affected by field noise. These factors will affect the accuracy of the
vibration prediction of the actual industrial robot. It can be used for highly flexible robotic
arms when modeling systems using aggregate parameter schemes, which will increase the
applicability of these methods [9].
The simplification of the actual physical system is conducive to the establishment of
the dynamic model of the system. Additionally, vibration prediction of the elastic systems
relies on both the dynamic model and input excitation. The servo drive system can be
equated to an inertia system [10]. System dynamics are more easily obtained using inertial
systems. Yabuki et al. [11] equated the servo drive system to multi-inertia systems and
then obtained the frequency response characteristics from motor torque to motor output
speed. Sato [12] uses a two-inertia equivalent servo drive system to obtain the frequency
response characteristics of the system from vibration torque to torsional torque. In [13],
when the coupling shaft between the rotor and the load is stiff, the system is called a
one-inertia system. The system inertia is identified by the adaptive algorithm based on the
model reference.
Good results in joint vibration prediction depend on the accuracy of the joint parame-
ters. Parameters such as stiffness and inertia are highly uncertain and need to be solved
by identification methods. A lot of research has been carried out on the identification of
external mechanical parameters in the equivalent model of the servo drive system [14,15].
Parameter identification methods can be divided into two categories: offline and online
methods. Offline methods are based on the acquisition of system input–output data, pro-
cessing of the data, and identification algorithms [16]. Online methods estimate the system
parameters by measuring the data online during the robot’s motion [17]. Both methods
require the recording of input–output data during the motion of the robot joint system. The
parameters are then identified according to the corresponding identification method.
This paper focuses on the scope of offline technology and also aims to provide specific
guidelines for accurate parameter identification methods for flexible articulated robots.
In the literature, a number of papers deal with the identification of robot joint parame-
ters. Beineke et al. extract motor speed response data for different stages for a two-inertia
system with nonlinear characteristics. Identify the friction and clearance of the non-linear
part of the system obtained [18]. Östring [19] analyzed a direct parameter identification
method modeled as a three-inertia system for a robotic joint system. The physical param-
eters (inertia, stiffness, damping, etc.), are identified directly using the MATLAB system
identification toolbox and compared with the “black box” model structure identification
method. For non-parametric identification, Pacas et al. proposed a method to obtain
the resonant frequency of a two-inertia elastic system directly from frequency response
tests. Bode diagram obtained by the Welch method using a special internal excitation
signal excitation system [20,21]. Internal excitation methods allow better control of the
excitation signal bandwidth. However, a special excitation signal must be fed through the
control system. This is difficult to achieve in many commercial robotic systems. In [17],
the parameters of the flexible articulated robot manipulator are estimated using a filtered
regressor form. In order to evaluate the performance of the proposed parameter identifica-
tion scheme, the least squares with forgetting factor parameter identification method was
also performed. Kostić et al. employs a model parameter identification method based on a
regression volume form of the system model to identify the parameters of a robot system
with a tandem elastic drive [22]. Due to insufficient estimation of the friction model, the
authors did not obtain accurate results. In [23], a regressor-based method is proposed for
Sensors 2022, 22, 6170 3 of 20

parameter identification. The method allows the estimation of all dynamic parameters, but
only provides simulation results.
In this paper, a method combining the internal transfer function of the drive system
and the parameter identification under external excitation is proposed for the vibration
prediction of the articulated arm of industrial robots. This paper is organized into five
sections. After a literature survey in Sections 1 and 2 describes the dynamic modeling of
the prediction function. Additionally, a model for the identification of joint parameters
under external excitation is studied. Section 3 identifies the parameters of the single-joint
robot test stand and performs vibration prediction. In Section 4, a brief discussion of the
results obtained from industrial robots. The paper ends with some conclusions in Section 5.

2. The Dynamic Modeling of the Prediction Function

2.1. Vibration Modeling of the Articulated Robot Arm under Electromagnetic Torque
The structure of each joint servo system of an industrial robot is similar in that they all
consist of three parts: the 𝑇servo motor, the speed reducer, and 𝜃 the actuator, as shown in
Figure
𝑇 1. In the figure, T
𝜃 e is the electromagnetic torque, θ m is the motor rotation angle, Tl is
the load torque, θl is the rotation angle of the arm.

Figure 1. The schematic diagram of a single joint of an industrial robot.

The joint elasticity is modeled as a linear torsional spring according to Spong’s the-
ory [24]. The stiffness of the torsion spring is the result of the equivalence of the stiffness of
each part of the transmission system. The equivalent stiffness of the joint is calculated fol-
lowing Equation (1). The equivalent motor-side inertia and load-side inertia for the high-speed
axis switching to the low-speed axis are calculated following Equations (2) and (3).

1
K= 1 1 1 1
(1)
𝐾 K=1 + K2 + · · · + Ki
1 1 1
+ +⋯+
𝐾 𝐾 𝐾
J M = ( Jm + Js ) · n2 (2)
𝐽 = (𝐽 +𝐽 ) ⋅ 𝑛
JL = Jl (3)
𝐽 =𝐽
where K1 ,K2 , . . . , Ki are the stiffness of each part, K is the equivalent stiffness of the joint,
Jm is the𝐾actual
𝐾 motor 𝐾 inertia, Js is the inertia of the𝐾speed reducer, Jl is the load inertia (the
𝐽
load 𝐽
is the arm), J M is the equivalent 𝐽 load-side inertia,
inertia of the motor-side, JL is the
and n is the reduction ratio.
Sensors 2022, 22, 6170 4 of 20

Typically, the joints of an industrial robot are modeled as a double inertia system, as
shown in Figure 2. Based 𝐽 on the above analysis, the differential equation
𝐽 of the system is
𝑛
established as follows:  .. .

 J M θ..s + bm θ. s = nTe − TS


 JL θ l + bl θ l = TS− TL 
. . (4)

 TS = K (θs − θl ) + c θ s − θ l

 . . .
𝐽  𝐽
ωm = θ m ; ωl = θ l ; ωs = θ s
𝑛
where TS is the torque of the drive shaft system, bm and bl are the damping of the motor
and the load, θs is the output angle of the speed reducer, c is the shaft system damping,
α is the angle of the arm to the y-axis, L is the arm equivalent length, and G is the arm
equivalent weight.

𝐽 𝜃 + 𝑏 𝜃 = 𝑛𝑇 − 𝑇
⎧
⎪
𝐽 𝜃 +𝑏 𝜃 =𝑇 −𝑇
⎨ 𝑇 = 𝐾(𝜃 −𝜃 ) + 𝑐 𝜃 −𝜃
⎪
⎩𝜔
Figure 2. The double inertia model of the = 𝜃 ；𝜔
robot joint.= 𝜃 ；𝜔 = 𝜃
𝑇 𝑏 𝑏
According to Equation (4), the control block diagram of the dual inertia elastic system
𝜃 as shown in Figure 3. In addition, the 𝑐transfer function between the
can be obtained, ⎧ 𝐽 𝜃 𝐿+ 𝑏 𝜃 = 𝑛𝑇 − 𝑇
𝛼load speed and the electromagnetic 𝐺
⎪ torque
𝐽 𝜃 + of
𝑏 𝜃the
= motor
𝑇 − 𝑇 can also be obtained, as shown in
Equation (5). ⎨ 𝑇 = 𝐾(𝜃 −𝜃 ) + 𝑐 𝜃 −𝜃
⎪
ωl ⎩𝜔 = 𝜃 ；𝜔 = 𝜃cs；𝜔 +K =𝜃
Gs (s) = =       (5)
𝑇 nT e J b + J L bm 2 𝑏 J M K𝑏+ JL K
J M J L s3 + M l s + s + K ( bm + bl )
𝜃 + J M c + JL c +bm c + b𝑐l c + bm bl
𝛼 𝐿 𝐺

Figure 3. Control block diagram of the two-inertia elastic system.

According to the differential property of the Laplace transform, as shown in Equations (6):
𝜔 𝑐𝑠 + 𝐾
𝐺 (𝑠) = =  h i 𝐽 𝐾 + 𝐽 𝐾 m −1
𝑛𝑇 𝐽 𝑏 +𝐽𝑏 d m f (t)
𝐽 𝐽𝑠 +  𝑠 +m m s) − 𝑠+𝐾(𝑏 +𝑏 )

+𝐽 𝑐 + 𝐽 𝑐L dt +𝑏 = 𝑐 +s 𝑏 F𝑐(+ 𝑏 𝑏 ∑ Ψ m − i −1
i =0 (6)
 m −1 m −1

 ∑ Ψ m − i −1 = ∑ s m − i −1 f ( m − i −1) (0 )
i =0 i =0

where 𝜔 f (t) is the time domain function,

𝑐𝑠 + 𝐾F (s) is a function of the f (t) after Laplace transfor-
𝐺 (𝑠) = =
mation,
𝑛𝑇 and Ψ is the 𝐽 constant
𝑏 + 𝐽 𝑏 introduced 𝐽 𝐾in+the
𝐽 𝐾numerator for the corresponding differen-
𝐽 𝐽𝑠 + 𝑠 + 𝑠+𝐾(𝑏 +𝑏 )
tial order. +𝐽 𝑐 + 𝐽 𝑐 +𝑏 𝑐 + 𝑏 𝑐 + 𝑏 𝑏
Sensors 2022, 22, 6170 5 of 20

When analyzing the dynamic characteristics of the system, the effect of constants is not
considered and Ψ is taken to be equal to 0. The transfer function from the electromagnetic
torque to the angular acceleration of the joint arm rotation can be obtained from the
differential characteristic by Equation (6), as shown in Equation (7).
..
θ cs2 + Ks
Ga ( s ) = l =      (7)
nTe J M bl + J L bm 2 J M K + J L K + bm c
J M J L s3 + s + s + K ( bm + bl )
+ J M c + JL c + bl c + bm bl

The servo drive control system introduces motor speed feedback, and the closed
loop speed makes the system have good stability. From Equation (7), it can be seen
that the introduction of motor speed feedback introduces conjugate poles and conjugate
zeros to the closed-loop system. The frequency of the conjugate pole is called the natural
torsion frequency (NTF) ω NTF . The frequency of the conjugate zero point is called the
anti-resonance frequency (ARF) ω ARF . If bm = 0, bl = 0, and c = 0 are assumed, the ω NTF
and ω ARF can be expressed as follows:
s
K
ω ARF1 = (8)
JL
s  
1 1
ω NTF1 = K + (9)
JM JL
According to Equation (7), if the system parameters are determined and the electro-
magnetic torque of the motor is known, then the angular acceleration of the articulated arm
can be obtained, as shown in Equation (10).
..
θ l = n · Te · Ga (s) (10)

The actual joint system prediction process needs to consider the effect of transmission
efficiency. Therefore, the actual prediction function is obtained as shown in Equation (11).
..
θ l = η · n · Te · Ga (s) (11)

where η is the transmission efficiency of the joint system.

In general, the electromagnetic torque can be calculated from the motor current and
the encoder. If the system transfer characteristics are clear, the acceleration of the arm can
be obtained. The parameters involved in the system transfer characteristic Equation (7)
include motor measured inertia and damping, the load measured inertia and damping,
the coupling stiffness of the drive shaft system and damping, and the gearbox reduction
ratio. Among them, the load-side inertia and the drive shaft coupling stiffness are usually
unknown and need to be identified by parameter identification methods.

2.2. Parameters Identification Model under the External Torque

The internal excitation method and the external excitation method are two common
methods for parameter identification [25,26]. For the internal excitation method, specific
signals must be fed to the control system and it is difficult to implement in many commer-
cial robotic systems. The external excitation method consists of establishing the transfer
function of the external excitation and vibration response and then implementing parameter
identification by applying excitation. This method is not dependent on the control system.
It is a common method in experimental modal analysis for structure. In this paper, the
method of external excitation is introduced to determine the key parameters of the joint.
Sensors 2022, 22, 6170 6 of 20

2.2.1. The Single-Degree-of-Freedom Systems

When the motor shaft is fixed, the joint model in Figure 1 can be simplified to a
single-degree-of-freedom oscillating system with only the joint arm rotating as shown in
𝑇
Figure 4. In the figure, TL is the external excitation torque.

Figure 4. The single-degree-of-freedom oscillation system.

In the static equilibrium condition:

Kϕ𝐾𝜑 cos α
= 𝐺𝐿cos𝛼
s = GL (12)

where ϕ𝜑s is the spring initial angle of rotation.

Assume that the swing angle of the arm with external excitation TL applied𝑇 𝜃
is θl . The
result is obtained from the momentum moment theorem as follows:
.. 𝐽 𝜃+  + 𝐾(𝜃 −𝜑 ) + 𝐺𝐿cos(𝛼+𝜃 ) = −𝑇
. 𝑐 𝜃. −𝜑
JL θ l + c θ l − ϕs + K (θl − ϕs ) + GL cos(α + θl ) = − TL (13)
𝐽 𝜃 + 𝑐𝜃 + (𝐾−𝐺𝐿sin𝛼)𝜃 = −𝑇
.. .
JL θ l + cθ l + (K − GL sin 𝜃α)θl = − TL (14)
When the arm is in a tiny vibration state,
cos𝜃the
≈ θ1l is small:
sin𝜃
cos θl ≈≈1𝜃 (15)

sin θl ≈ θl (16)
When combining Equations (15) and (16), the Laplace transformation of Equation (14)
yields the transfer function of the arm vibration angle about the externally acting moment
as follows: 𝜃 −1
𝐺 (𝑠) = =
θl 𝑇 𝐽 𝑠 + 𝑐𝑠 +1𝐾 − 𝐺𝐿sin𝛼
−
Gts (s) = = (17)
TL JL s2 + cs + K − GL sin α
The natural vibration frequency is obtained according to Equation (17):
s 𝐾 − 𝐺𝐿sin𝛼
𝜛 =
K − GL𝐽 sin α
̟ NTF2 = (18)
JL

Obviously, the natural vibration frequency of the joint system under the action of the
applied torque is close to the value of the antiresonant frequency of the joint system under
the action of the electromagnetic torque (see Equations (8) and (18)). The value of GL sin α
is much smaller than the value of K, so the values of the two frequencies are approximately
equal. When the effect of GL sin α on the system is neglected in the actual system, the
system is the same as the single-degree-of-freedom system in Figure 5.
 𝐺𝐿sin𝛼
𝐾
Sensors 2022, 22, 6170 7 of 20
𝐺𝐿sin𝛼

Figure 5. Simplification Model. (a) the single-degree-of-freedom; (b) the multi-degree-of-freedom.

Using the differential nature (see Equation (6)), Equation (17) is differentiated twice to
obtain the transfer function of the angular acceleration of the vibration with regard to the
externally acting moment. Each differentiation process introduces a constant, Ψ2 and 𝛹 Ψ3 ,
𝛹
respectively. As follows:
.. 𝜃 −𝑠 + 𝛹 𝑠 + 𝛹
𝐺 (𝑠) θ=l = − s2 + Ψ2 s + Ψ3
Gta (s) = 𝑇= 𝐽 2𝑠 + 𝑐𝑠 + 𝐾 − 𝐺𝐿sin𝛼 (19)
TL JL s + cs + K − GL sin α

The direct parameter method is to directly identify the physical parameters of the
structure based on the system input and output data [27]. This method is simple and easy
to implement, and there is no conversion error in the intermediate process. The physical
motion parameters of the system can be obtained directly from the identification results.
Good estimation performance can be obtained as long as the system itself is sufficiently
excited. In the direct closed-loop identification setup, the form of the transfer function in
Equation (20) can be obtained by the direct parameter method, as follows:
𝑏 𝑠 +𝑏 𝑠+𝑏
𝐺 (𝑠) =b s2 + b s + b
Gi (s) = 12𝑠 + 𝑎 𝑠 + 𝑎
2 3
(20)
s + a1 s + a2

where
11

⎧ b1𝑏==−−JL𝐽

⎪
⎪ a1 = Jc 𝑐 (21)

 a = 𝑎K −GL
L
= sin α
⎨2 J L𝐽

In order to obtain the mechanical⎪ ⎪parameters𝐺𝐿sin𝛼

𝐾 − JL , K and c of the system, it is necessary
𝑎 =
⎩ 𝐽
to substitute a1 , a2 and b1 into Equation (21). a1 , a2 and b1 are obtained.
By substituting the stiffness, inertia, and damping 𝐽 𝐾obtained 𝑐 from the determined pa-
rameters in the system
𝑎 𝑎 and the above
𝑏 identification back to
𝑎 𝑎 the joint 𝑏arm vibration prediction
function, an explicit expression for the transfer function model from the electromagnetic
torque of the motor to the arm vibration can be obtained. Using the electromagnetic torque
signal and this model, the arm vibration spectrum can be predicted.

2.2.2. The Multi-Degree-of-Freedom Systems

The actual system is flexible in all parts. The greater the flexibility, the greater the
contribution to the vibration of the system. When there is only one part of the system
with large flexibility, the less flexible part can be neglected. In this case, the system can
be considered a single-degree-of-freedom system. When there are multiple parts of the
system that are relatively flexible, this system is considered to be a multi-degree-of-freedom
system, as shown in Figure 5b. The above single-degree-of-freedom system (see Figure 4)
can be simplified to the single-degree-of-freedom system shown in Figure 5a by ignoring
the influence of the connecting rod.
Sensors 2022, 22, 6170 8 of 20

Converts it into a combination of single-degree-of-freedom systems when dealing with

multi-degree-of-freedom systems. In [25], a multi-degree-of-freedom system is decoupled
into a combination of multiple single-degrees-of-freedom. Through the decoupling process,
a complex multi-degree-of-freedom system is reduced to a combination of a set of single-
degree-of-freedom systems. Neglecting the effect of GL sin α in the transfer function of the
single-degree-of-freedom system (see Equation (19)), as follows:
..
2 e e
eta (s) = θ l = −s + Ψ2 s + Ψ3
G (22)
TL Js2 + ces + K
e e

Multi-degree-of-freedom systems can be obtained using this combination of single-

degree-of-freedom systems:

2 e e 2 e e
GTA (s) = G eta1 (s) + · · · = −s + Ψ21 s + Ψ31 + −s + Ψ22 s + Ψ32 · · ·
eta1 (s) + G (23)
J11 s2 + ce11 s + K
e e11 J22 s2 + ce22 s + K
e e22

Equation (23) can likewise be written in the form of a combination of Equation (20),
as follows:

b11 s2 + b21 s + b31 b12 s2 + b22 s + b32

GTA (s) = Gi1 (s) + Gi2 (s) + · · · = + ··· (24)
s2 + a11 s + a21 s2 + a12 s + a22

In the same way as solving the single-degree-of-freedom parameters in part Section 2.2.1,
the parameters of each single-degree-of-freedom system after decoupling can be obtained
according to Equations (23) and (24).
       
b11 b12 ··· −1/ e J11 −1/ e J22 ··· e
J11 e
J22 ··· −1/b11 −1/b12 ···
 a11 a12 · · · =  ce11 / e
J11 ce22 / e
J22 · · · ⇒  ce11 ce22 · · · = − a11 /b11 − a12 /b12 · · · (25)
a21 a22 ··· Ke11 / e
J11 Ke22 / e
J22 ··· K e11 Ke22 ··· − a21 /a11 − a22 /b12 ···
For a multi-degree-of-freedom system, multiple sets of parameters can be identified.
These parameters are the result of the decoupling of the matrix composed of the system
parameters. After decoupling each single-degree-of-freedom system is independent. The
parameters obtained by using each single-degree-of-freedom system and the motor param-
eters can be regarded as an independent two-inertia system. When vibration prediction is
performed, the prediction function is the result of multiple two-inertia systems connected
in parallel.

2.3. Summary
A method combining the internal transfer function of the drive system and the pa-
rameter identification under external excitation is proposed for the vibration prediction
of the articulated arm of industrial robots. Figure 6 shows the flow chart of the vibration
prediction process, which can be summarized as follows:
Sensors 2022, 22, 6170 9 of 20

Figure 6. The flow chart of the prediction method.

(1) The dynamics model of the servo system is established under the action of external
forces when the motor is stationary and holding the brake.
(2) Using the shock signal to excite the system of stationary holding brake to obtain the
system frequency response function (FRF).
(3) The unknown parameters of the system are determined by the direct parameter
method.
(4) The transfer relationship from the electromagnetic torque of the motor to the vibration
acceleration of the load when the motor is in motion is determined. Additionally, the
vibration prediction function is established according to this transfer relationship.
(5) When the servo system moves, the electromagnetic torque signal of the motor is
obtained.
(6) The vibration prediction function is determined based on the identification parameters
and known parameters.
(7) The spectrum of predicted vibration is determined by the motor’s electromagnetic
torque signal and the vibration prediction function.

3. Experiments on a Single-Joint Test Bench

3.1. Experimental Setup
The single-degree-of-freedom articulated arm robot was built to simulate the single
joint motion condition of an industrial robot. The entire setup is shown in Figure 7. The
robot includes a PLC controller, servo motor, RV reducer, base, and articulated arm. The
structural parameters of the test bench are shown in Table 1.
Sensors 2022, 22, 6170 10 of 20

Figure 7. The single-degree-of-freedom rotary arm test stand.

Table 1. Test bench parameters.

kW m
Parameter Value kg ⋅ m Parameter Value N ⋅ m/rad
PMSM rated power 1 kW kg ⋅ m
2
Swing arm length 1 m kg
Rotational inertia of PMSM 0.00021kW
kg · m Reducer stiffness m N · m/rad
168,449.59
Rotational inertia of reducer 0.000248 kg · m2 Swing arm mass 12 kg
kg ⋅ m N ⋅ m/rad
kg ⋅ m kg
3.2. Identify Stiffness and Load Inertia by Impact Test
In order to determine the key parameters in the joint, impact experiments were carried
out. At the beginning of the experiment, the pendulum arm was adjusted to a position
parallel to the ground. The impact excitation force was applied to the pendulum arm by
the hammer excitation method, and the vibration acceleration signal of the pendulum
arm and the force signal applied by the hammer were collected at the same time. The
impact location and acceleration sensor position are shown in Figure 7, the experimental
force hammer model is YDL-2 SN201206, vibration sensor PCB single axis 333B30 type
acceleration sensor. The sampling frequency is 1024 Hz and the sampling time is 2 s. The
vibration acceleration signal is converted to angular acceleration by multiple the radius
from the shaft to the accelerometer as shown in Figure 8b. The torque signal is converted to
the torque in the same manner, as shown in Figure 8a.

b
Acceleration(rad/s 2 )

b
Acceleration(rad/s 2 )

Figure 8. The results of the impact experiment. (a) impact torque signal; (b) vibration acceleration signal.

The torque generated by the external excitation force is used as the excitation signal
of the joint system, while the arm vibration caused by the excitation force is used as
the response signal of the joint system. The frequency response function of the system
Sensors 2022, 22, 6170 11 of 20

is obtained from the excitation signal and the response signal. In the experiment, the
frequency response function is the result of averaging 20 experiments, as shown by the
solid blue line in Figure 9.

Figure 9. Frequency response function of articulated arm under hammering excitation.

The identification transfer model was obtained according to the experimental FRF in
the 0–50 Hz range curve by the direct parametric method [27]. The transfer model is shown
in Equation (26), and the transfer model curve is shown as the red dashed line in Figure 9.

−0.331s2 − 9501s + 2.45 × 104

Gita (s) = −0.331𝑠
2 − 9501𝑠 + 2.454× 10 (26)
𝐺 (𝑠) = s + 19.79s + 6.41 × 10
𝑠 + 19.79𝑠 + 6.41 × 10
The inertia, stiffness, and damping of this single-degree-of-freedom system are obtained
from the set of Equations (21) and (26), as shown in Table 2. Ψ2 and Ψ3 in Equation (19) are
𝛹 𝛹
the constants brought about by the differential characteristic (see Equation (6)). The specific
values of Ψ2 and Ψ3 are related to the angle and time variation functions. These two
𝛹 𝛹
values can be obtained in the identification of the physical model. Because the relationship
between angle and time variation is unknown, the physical relationship between these two
values and the system is unknown. These two values are not used in the identification
process. The stiffness in the reference value is from the manufacturer. The inertia is
an approximately calculated value. The damping is related to various factors such as
transmission parts, working conditions, and lubrication. The reference damping in Table 2
is calculated according to the material damping formula [28].

Table 2. Identification results.

Parameters Identifying Value Reference Value

Stiffness 193,665 N · m/rad 168,449 N · m/rad
N ⋅ m/rad 2 N ⋅ m/rad
Inertia 3.02 kg · m 3.4 kg · m2
Damping kg
59.76 N⋅ m· m · s/rad kg ⋅ m· s/rad
30.27 N · m
N ⋅ m ⋅ s/rad N ⋅ m ⋅ s/rad
3.3. Prediction Experiment of Swing Arm Vibration
According to Equations (7) and (11), the dynamics model for vibration prediction
involves motor inertia, load inertia, the equivalent stiffness of the joint, and the shaft
damping. The motor inertia is known, while the load inertia, the equivalent stiffness
of the joint, and the shaft damping are identified in Section 2.2. The damping of both
motor and load are very low in the actual system [29], but cannot be ignored completely
in the prediction process. In this paper, both motor and load damping are chosen as
2 N·m·s/rad [30]. The parameters are brought into Equation (7) to obtain the transfer
function between the electromagnetic torque and the acceleration of the joint arm, and the
amplitude part of the frequency response are plotted in Figure 10.
Sensors 2022, 22, 6170 12 of 20

Amplitude(dB)

–
Figure 10. Amplitude–frequency characteristics of the transfer function from electromagnetic torque
to arm vibration.

3.3.1. Vibration Prediction under Torque Control

In this experiment, the motor is running in torque control. The specific process was
−
as follows: the joint arm was adjusted to a position with an angle of − −60 degrees to the
X-axis as the starting position. The motor was controlled with a sweeping torque signal of
–
4–80 Hz, and the movement time was 3 s. The electromagnetic torque was obtained by PLC
software reading with an internal sampling rate of 500 Hz. The vibration acceleration signal
during the arm motion movement is acquired by the acceleration sensor, and the sampling
rate was 1024 Hz. Similarly, the signal of the linear acceleration is converted into angular
acceleration, and the angular acceleration of the joint vibration is equal to the angular
acceleration of the arm vibration. Figure 11a shows the electromagnetic torque of the
motor from the PLC software, and Figure 11b shows the spectrum of this electromagnetic
torque signal.
Electromagnetic Torque(N·m)

aa bb
Amplitude(N·m)

Figure 11. Motor electromagnetic torque waveform and frequency spectrum. (a) waveform of the
signal; (b) spectrum of the signal.

The transmission efficiency of this test stand from the motor to the articulated arm
is about 70%. According to Equation (11), the transmission efficiency, electromagnetic
torque spectrum, and frequency response characteristics are multiplied to obtain the arm
acceleration vibration signal spectrum, as shown in the dashed line in Figure 12. The
solid line in Figure 12 shows the spectrum of the measured vibration acceleration signal
of the arm. It is obvious that the predicted arm vibration acceleration signal spectrum
in the frequency range of 10–75 Hz is basically consistent with the measured vibration.
The predicted values in the frequency range of 0–15 Hz are smaller than the experimental
values, which may be caused by the error of low-frequency torque measurement during
the experiment.
 ––
––
–
–
Sensors 2022, 22, 6170 13 of 20

Figure 12. Comparison of predicted spectrum and actual spectrum.

3.3.2. Vibration Prediction under Speed Control

Experiment of the arm vibration prediction when the motor is under speed control,
and the specific process was as follows: the pendulum arm was adjusted to the position of
0 degrees from the X-axis as the starting position. The motion was controlled by PLC to the
position of 120 degrees from the X-axis and then returned to the starting position with a
motion time of 4.8 s. The control of the motor was changed to speed control. The speed
control command of the motor is shown in Figure 13, and the maximum speed is 246 rad/s.

Figure 13. The speed control command of the motor.

The experimental procedure is the same as in Section 3.3.1. Figure 14a shows a full-
−
cycle motor electromagnetic torque signal. The amplitude of this signal is between −−1.9
and 2.4 N·m. Figure 14b shows the frequency spectrum of this torque signal.
−

a b

Figure 14. Motor electromagnetic torque signal. (a) waveform of the signal; (b) spectrum of the signal.

The predicted vibration spectrum is obtained according to Equation (11) as shown

in the red dashed line in Figure 15. The spectrum of the electromagnetic torque (see
Figure 14b) has burrs in the whole frequency band. So, the prediction result obtained is not
a smooth curve.
Sensors 2022, 22, 6170 14 of 20

Figure 15. Comparison of predicted spectrum and experimental spectrum.

The solid blue line in Figure 15 shows the spectrum of the experimentally obtained
vibration. The predicted spectrum is consistent with the experimental spectrum in the
– Hz. The experimental spectrum is larger than the predicted spectrum above
range of 0–60
60 Hz. On the one hand, the model does not take into account that higher-order intrinsic
frequencies can lead to this situation. The closer the frequency band is to the higher-order
intrinsic frequency, the greater the effect on the prediction results. Only the first-order
intrinsic frequency is considered in the prediction process, resulting in the predicted value
for this cross-section being smaller than the experimental value. On the other hand, the
electromagnetic torque signal used in the prediction is read directly from the PLC software.
However, the low sampling rate of the PLC software showed some distortion in the high-
frequency section and therefore the predicted values for the high frequencies were smaller
than the actual values.

4. Experiments on the Articulated Robot

4.1. Experimental Setup
The vibration prediction experiments achieved good results on a single joint test stand
(see Figure 7). However, the actual industrial robot joint motion is not as simple as it could
be. On the one hand, industrial robots require multiple joints to work together, each of
which is an independent system. In robot work engineering, the joint systems interact with
each other. On the other hand, the flexibility of the components in each individual joint
is different, so the analysis of the joint needs to be simplified on a case-by-case basis. To
achieve vibration prediction of the robot, experiments were conducted on the industrial
robot in Figure 16 below. The structural composition of each joint of the robot is the same
as the structure of the test bench in Figure 7, and the parameters of each part of the robot
are shown in Table 3.

Figure 16. Six-degree-of-freedom industrial robots.

kW
Sensors 2022, 22, 6170 15 of 20

Table 3. Test bench parameters.

The Parameters of the Second Joint Value kW

kg ⋅ m
PMSM rated power 2 kW
Rotational inertia of PMSM 0.001 kg · m2 kg ⋅ m
Rotational inertia of reducer 0.00032 kg · m2
Number of motor pole pairs 5
Torque constant of the motor 0.458

Two experiments were conducted on the second joint of an industrial robot. First, the
impact experiments were carried out to determine the key parameters in the joint system.
Then, the vibration prediction experiments were performed while the second joint was
moving alone.

4.2. Experimental Setup

The impact experiments were performed on the robot in Figure 16. The experimental
procedure was the same as in Section 2.2. During the experiment, the attitude of the
robot was adjusted to the position shown in Figure 16. The experiment was conducted to
determine the key parameters in the second joint system. The vibration signals and the
applied force signals of the robot arm were collected. The vibration acceleration signals
were converted to angular acceleration as shown in Figure 17b. The force signal was
converted to a torque signal as shown in Figure 17a.

Figure 17. The results of the impact experiment. (a) impact torque signal; (b) vibration accelera-
tion signal.

The impact moment applied to the joint arm is in the plane of the x–y coordinate
system and the direction is perpendicular to the linkage. The frequency response of the
system obtained from the hammering experiment is shown as a solid blue line in Figure 18.
There are two distinct resonance peaks in the frequency response function.
The flexible links that exist in the joint systems of actual industrial robots are not
unique. Virtually every component’s flexibility contributes to system vibration. Usually,
the flexibility of a structure is inversely proportional to its stiffness. The more flexible
structures respond to system vibrations in the lower frequency portion. The vibration
generated when the stiffness of the component is high reacts to the high-frequency part.
The vibration in the high-frequency part is not easily excited and is analyzed mainly for the
low-frequency part in the analysis. The low frequency is more likely to be excited in real-
world environments, causing the system to resonate. When there are multiple structures
with better flexibility in the system, the frequency response function of the system will
have multiple resonance peaks in the low-frequency segment.
 Amplitude(rad/N·s 2 )
Sensors 2022, 22, 6170 16 of 20

Amplitude(rad/N·s 2 )

Figure 18. Two single-degree-of-freedom systems.

The vibrations caused by joint flexibility are mainly concentrated in the low-frequency
range, so the curves in the 0–50 Hz range in the FRF are chosen to identify the joint
parameters. This impact experiment excites two resonant frequencies of the second joint.
The case of these two resonance peaks is treated according to the theory in Section 2.2. A
segmented frequency response function with two peaks can be considered a two-degree-of-
freedom system. This two-degree-of-freedom system can be obtained by the combination
of two single-degree-of-freedom systems. The FRF of the single-degree-of-freedom system
corresponding to the two peaks was obtained by the direct parameter method, as shown
in Figure 18. The results of the summation of the two FRFs are shown in the red curve in
Figure 19.

Experimental FRF Fitting FRF1

80

60

40

20

0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Frequency(Hz)
Experimental FRF Fitting FRF1
80 19. The result of adding two single-degree-of-freedom systems.
Figure

The expression for the two single-degree-of-freedom systems is obtained as shown in

60
Equation (27). The parameter values for each single-degree-of-freedom system can then
40
be obtained, as shown in Table 4. These parameters correspond to the values after the
decoupling transformation of the system parameters.
20
−0.116s2 − 59.97s − 5.76 × 106 −0.074s2 + 2.461 × 102 s − 5.882 × 104
GTA (s) = Gi1 (s) + Gi2 (s) 0= + (27)
0 s2 +
107.11s +20
4
1.11 × 1030 40 s2 +
506.062s + 3.251 × 10
4

Frequency(Hz)
Table 4. Identification results.

Parameter Identifying Value Identifying Value

Stiffness e11 = 95689.66 N · m/rad
K e22 = 439324.32 N · m/rad
K
Inertia J11 = 8.603 kg · m2
e J22 = 13.55 kg · m2
e
Damping ce11 = 61.29 N · m · s/rad ce22 = 81.92 N · m · s/rad
 𝐾 = 95689.66N ⋅ m/rad 𝐾 = 439324.32N ⋅ m/rad
𝐽 = 8.603kg ⋅ m 𝐽 = 13.55kg ⋅ m
Sensors 2022, 22, 6170 𝑐̃ = 61.29N ⋅ m ⋅ s/rad 𝑐̃ = 81.92N ⋅ m ⋅ s/rad
17 of 20

4.3. Vibration Prediction of the Second Joint

In the vibration prediction experiment of the second joint of the robot, only the
second joint drive command is given. The motion commands of the industrial robot are
implemented by writing joint motion angle programs. The vibration signal generated by
the joint and the three-phase current signal of the motor is also collected. The vibration
signal acquisition equipment is the same as that used for the above experiments. The
current signal is collected by the current sensor.
Torque in an industrial robot joint cannot be obtained directly from a torque sensor.
Therefore, the electromagnetic torque is usually 𝑖 (𝑡) calculated from the current. In [31], assum-
ingℎthat𝑖 (𝑡) 𝑖 (𝑡) line current
the measured 𝑇 (𝑡) is i a (t), and its Hilbert Transform (HT) is denoted as
h[i a (t)], then iq (t) and Te (t) can be obtained as follows:
1 𝑖 (𝜏)
𝑖 (𝑡) = |ℎ 𝑖 (𝑡) | = Z ∫ 𝑑
1 ∞ i a𝑡(τ
𝜋 −)𝜏
iq (t) = | h[i a (t)]| = | dτ | (28)
𝑇 (𝑡) = 𝐾 (𝑡)
π𝑖 − ∞ t−τ

𝐾 T𝑇e ((𝑡)
t ) = Kt i q ( t ) (29)
where Kt is the torque constant, and Te (t) is the electromagnetic torque of the motor.
The electromagnetic torque is obtained by multiplying the current and the envelope of
the motor torque constant [31]. Figure 20 shows the motor’s three-phase current signal. The
electromagnetic torque signal is obtained according to Equations (28) and (29) as shown in
Figure 21a. Figure 21b shows the spectrum corresponding to the electromagnetic torque.

10
iu
iv
5
iw

-5

-10
0 1 2 3 4
Time(s)
Figure 20. Three-phase current of the motor.

a b

Figure 21. Motor electromagnetic torque. (a) waveform of the signal; (b) spectrum of the signal.

The parameters of the joint system are obtained by separately identifying the two
single-degree-of-freedom systems. The joint system is considered a result of the parallel
connection of two two-inertia systems in the prediction process. The parameters obtained
Sensors 2022, 22, 6170 18 of 20

from the two single-degree-of-freedom systems and the motor parameters form the two-
inertia system, respectively. The procedure for predicting the vibration spectrum of the
arm during motion by the two-inertia system is the same as in Section 2.3. The second
joint parameter used in the prediction process was determined in Section 3.2, as shown
in Table 4. Figure 22a shows the amplitude-frequency characteristic curves of the two
two-inertia systems connected in parallel. The results of the summation of the two curves
are shown in Figure 22b.

a b

Figure 22. System amplitude and frequency characteristics. (a) Two dual inertia systems; (b) The
results of the parallel connection of two dual inertia systems.

The predicted spectrum obtained from the prediction function (Equation (11)) is
compared with the experimentally obtained spectrum as shown in Figure 23. The frequency
response function (see Figure 22b) is a smooth curve, but burrs in the spectrum of the
electromagnetic torque signal (see Figure 21b) resulting in the noise in the predicted result.

Predicted Spectrum
10 0 Experimental Spectrum

10 -2

10 -4
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Frequency(Hz)
Figure 23. Comparison of predicted spectrum and actual spectrum.

In Figure 23, the predicted results are compared and analyzed with the experimental
results. It is obvious that the overall trends of the two curves match well. In the 0–80 Hz
band, the predicted value is slightly larger than the experimental value. The reason for this
difference is that the second joint is also weakly influenced by the flexibility of the other
joints when operating alone.

5. Conclusions
In this study, the vibration problem of the arm caused by joint flexibility in industrial
robots is addressed. First, the dynamics of the servo-flexible joint system are modeled.
Then, a vibration prediction function using the electromagnetic torque of the motor and
a dual inertia model is developed. Finally, the prediction function is used to predict the
vibration of the arm. In addition, the uncertainty of the system parameters is addressed. A
joint parameter identification model under the action of the applied torque is established.
The parameters are identified by the direct parameter method in the case of external
excitation. Experiments show that the proposed method of predicting the robot arm
vibration by the prediction function is feasible. The frequency spectrum of the joint arm
vibration signal is obtained using the motor electromagnetic torque signal. Additionally,
Sensors 2022, 22, 6170 19 of 20

the prediction accuracy is high in the frequency band close to the intrinsic frequency. The
resonant frequency and vibration amplitude of the system are monitored by predicting
this frequency band of the signal. This has practical implications for improving the life of
industrial robots and monitoring the health of joints.

Author Contributions: X.L., X.W. and J.L. designed the study; J.L., D.W. and K.X. contributed
research to the theory; J.L. and D.W. conducted the experiments; J.L. and K.X. analyzed the data; X.L.
and J.L. wrote the paper and graphs; X.W., D.W. and K.X. contributed to and proofread for scientific
advice. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This paper was partially supported by the Yunnan Provincial Major Science and Technology
Special Program-Cash Equipment Manufacturing Special Fund (No. 202002AC080001) and the
National Key Research and Development Program Project Subject Fund (No. 2018YFB1306103).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their constructive
comments.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Nakayama, Y.; Fujikawa, K.; Kobayashi, H. A torque control method of three-inertia torsional system with backlash. In
Proceedings of the 6th International Workshop on Advanced Motion Control. Proceedings (Cat. No. 00TH8494), Nagoya, Japan,
30 March–1 April 2000; pp. 193–198.
2. Li, X.; Cao, L.; Tiong, A.M.H.; Phan, P.T.; Phee, S.J. Distal-end force prediction of tendon-sheath mechanisms for flexible
endoscopic surgical robots using deep learning. Mech. Mach. Theory 2019, 134, 323–337. [CrossRef]
3. Yang, S.-M.; Wang, S.-C. The detection of resonance frequency in motion control systems. IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 2014, 50,
3423–3427. [CrossRef]
4. Surpatane, R.S. Detection and suppression of resonance frequency in motion control system. In Proceedings of the 2016
International Conference on Electrical, Electronics, and Optimization Techniques (ICEEOT), Chennai, India, 3–5 March 2016;
pp. 4528–4533.
5. Thomsen, D.K.; Søe-Knudsen, R.; Balling, O.; Zhang, X. Vibration control of industrial robot arms by multi-mode time-varying
input shaping. Mech. Mach. Theory 2021, 155, 104072. [CrossRef]
6. Yang, Y.; Xu, W.; Mu, Z. Dynamic modeling and vibration properties study for flexible-joint space manipulators. In Proceedings
of the 2014 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Biomimetics (ROBIO 2014), Bali, Indonesia, 5–10 December 2014;
pp. 2443–2448.
7. Moberg, S.; Wernholt, E.; Hanssen, S.; Brogårdh, T. Modeling and parameter estimation of robot manipulators using extended
flexible joint models. J. Dyn. Syst. Meas. Control 2014, 136, 031005. [CrossRef]
8. Zaher, M.H.; Megahed, S.M. Joints flexibility effect on the dynamic performance of robots. Robotica 2015, 33, 1424–1445. [CrossRef]
9. Giorgio, I.; Del Vescovo, D. Energy-based trajectory tracking and vibration control for multilink highly flexible manipulators.
Math. Mech. Complex Syst. 2019, 7, 159–174. [CrossRef]
10. Singh, V.P.; Kishor, N.; Samuel, P.; Singh, N. Small-signal stability analysis for two-mass and three-mass shaft model of wind
turbine integrated to thermal power system. Comput. Electr. Eng. 2019, 78, 271–287. [CrossRef]
11. Yabuki, A.; Ohishi, K.; Miyazaki, T.; Yokokura, Y. Quick reaction force control for three-inertia resonant system. IEEJ J. Ind. Appl.
2019, 8, 941–952. [CrossRef]
12. Sato, H.; Miyazaki, T.; Hojo, Y. Vibration Amplitude Suppression Control of Industrial Machine Driven at Resonance Frequency.
In Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE 16th International Workshop on Advanced Motion Control (AMC), Kristiansand, Norway, 14–16
September 2020; pp. 337–342.
13. Guo, Y.; Huang, L.; Muramatsu, M. Research on inertia identification and auto-tuning of speed controller for AC servo system. In
Proceedings of the Power Conversion Conference-Osaka 2002 (Cat. No. 02TH8579), Osaka, Japan, 2–5 April 2002; pp. 896–901.
14. Lian, C.; Xiao, F.; Gao, S.; Liu, J. Load torque and moment of inertia identification for permanent magnet synchronous motor
drives based on sliding mode observer. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 2018, 34, 5675–5683. [CrossRef]
15. Ke, C.; Wu, A.; Bing, C. Mechanical parameter identification of two-mass drive system based on variable forgetting factor
recursive least squares method. Trans. Inst. Meas. Control 2019, 41, 494–503. [CrossRef]
16. Wu, J.; Wang, J.; You, Z. An overview of dynamic parameter identification of robots. Robot. Comput.-Integr. Manuf. 2010, 26,
414–419. [CrossRef]
Sensors 2022, 22, 6170 20 of 20

17. Miranda-Colorado, R.; Moreno-Valenzuela, J. Experimental parameter identification of flexible joint robot manipulators. Robotica
2018, 36, 313–332. [CrossRef]
18. Beineke, S.; Schutte, F.; Wertz, H.; Grotstollen, H. Comparison of parameter identification schemes for self-commissioning drive
control of nonlinear two-mass systems. In Proceedings of the IAS’97. Conference Record of the 1997 IEEE Industry Applications
Conference Thirty-Second IAS Annual Meeting, New Orleans, LA, USA, 5–9 October 1997; pp. 493–500.
19. Östring, M.; Gunnarsson, S.; Norrlöf, M. Closed-loop identification of an industrial robot containing flexibilities. Control Eng.
Pract. 2003, 11, 291–300. [CrossRef]
20. Pacas, M.; Villwock, S.; Szczupak, P.; Zoubek, H. Methods for commissioning and identification in drives. COMPEL-Int. J. Comput.
Math. Electr. Electron. Eng. 2010, 29, 53–71. [CrossRef]
21. Villwock, S.; Pacas, M. Application of the Welch-method for the identification of two-and three-mass-systems. IEEE Trans. Ind.
Electron. 2008, 55, 457–466. [CrossRef]
22. van Zutven, P.; Kostić, D.; Nijmeijer, H. Parameter identification of robotic systems with series elastic actuators. IFAC Proc. Vol.
2010, 43, 350–355. [CrossRef]
23. Zollo, L.; Lopez, E.; Spedaliere, L.; Garcia Aracil, N.; Guglielmelli, E. Identification of dynamic parameters for robots with elastic
joints. Adv. Mech. Eng. 2015, 7, 843186. [CrossRef]
24. Spong, M.W. Modeling and control of elastic joint robots. J. Dyn. Syst. Meas. Control 1987, 109, 310–319. [CrossRef]
25. Avitabile, P. Modal Testing: A Practitioner’s Guide; John Wiley & Sons: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2017.
26. Łuczak, D.; Nowopolski, K. Identification of multi-mass mechanical systems in electrical drives. In Proceedings of the 16th
International Conference on Mechatronics-Mechatronika 2014, Brno, Czech Republic, 3–5 December 2014; pp. 275–282.
27. Östring, M. Closed Loop Identification of the Physical Parameters of an Industrial Robot; Linköping University Electronic Press:
Linköping, Sweden, 2000.
28. Zirn, O. Machine Tool Analysis: Modelling, Simulation and Control of Machine Tool Manipulators; ETH Zürich: Zürich, Switzerland,
2008; pp. 99–100.
29. Saarakkala, S.E.; Hinkkanen, M. Identification of two-mass mechanical systems in closed-loop speed control. In Proceedings
of the IECON 2013-39th Annual Conference of the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society, Vienna, Austria, 10–13 November 2013;
pp. 2905–2910.
30. Saarakkala, S.E.; Hinkkanen, M. Identification of two-mass mechanical systems using torque excitation: Design and experimental
evaluation. IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 2015, 51, 4180–4189. [CrossRef]
31. Xu, K.; Wu, X.; Liu, X.; Wang, D. Identification of Robot Joint Torsional Stiffness Based on the Amplitude of the Frequency
Response of Asynchronous Data. Machines 2021, 9, 204. [CrossRef]