Kabul

University
Engineering Faculty
Civil Department

Seminar 1

Research paper

Name: Alem
ID:12924
Effect of Climate Change on Weather
and Land
Abstract
This research paper examines the multifaceted effects of climate change
on both weather patterns and land environments. The study evaluates
how climate-induced changes, such as extreme weather events, rising
global temperatures, desertification, and sea level rise, influence natural
ecosystems and human societies. Using global data and case studies, the
paper also analyzes potential long-term consequences and suggests
mitigation and adaptation strategies.

Introduction
The impact of climate change on global weather and land systems is
profound and growing. Rising temperatures, shifting precipitation
patterns, and more frequent extreme weather events are altering
landscapes, causing irreversible damage to ecosystems, and affecting
human livelihoods. This research aims to explore these impacts, with a
focus on how they reshape both weather and land environments.

Methodology
The research relies on a review of existing literature, data analysis from
scientific sources, and case studies from regions significantly impacted
by climate change. The main sources include climate reports, satellite
imagery of land degradation, and peer-reviewed studies on extreme
weather trends.
Effects on Weather
Climate change has caused noticeable shifts in global weather patterns.
These changes are characterized by more frequent extreme weather
events, such as hurricanes, droughts, and floods. Rising temperatures
increase the evaporation rate, leading to heavier rainfall in some
regions while exacerbating droughts in others.

Rain
Warming increases global average precipitation. Precipitation is when
water vapor condenses out of clouds, such as rain and snow. Higher
temperatures increase evaporation and surface drying. As the air warms
it can hold more water. For every degree Celsius it can hold 7% more
water vapor. Scientists have observed changes in the amount, intensity,
frequency, and type of precipitation. Overall, climate change is causing
longer hot dry spells, broken by more intense rainfall.

Climate change has increased contrasts in rainfall amounts between wet

and dry seasons. Wet seasons are getting wetted and dry seasons are
getting drier. In the northern high latitudes, warming has also caused an
increase in the amount of snow and rain. In the Southern Hemisphere,
the rain associated with the storm tracks has shifted south. Changes in
monsoons vary a lot. More monsoon systems are becoming wetter than
drier. In Asia summer monsoons are getting wetter. The West African
monsoon is getting wetter over the central Sahel, and drier in the far
western Sahel.

Extreme storm
Storms become wetter under climate change. These include tropical
cyclones and extratropical cyclones. Both the maximum and mean
rainfall rates increase. This more extreme rainfall is also true for
thunderstorms in some regions. Furthermore, tropical cyclones and
storm tracks are moving towards the poles. This means some regions
will see large changes in maximum wind speeds. Scientists expect there
will be fewer tropical cyclones. But they expect their strength to
increase. There has probably been an increase in the number of tropical
cyclones that intensify rapidly. Meteorological and seismological data
indicate a widespread increase in wind-driven global ocean wave
energy in recent decades that has been attributed to an increase in
storm intensity over the oceans due to climate change. Atmospheric
turbulence dangerous for aviation (hard to predict or that cannot be
avoided by flying higher) probably increases due to climate change.

Floods
Due to an increase in heavy rainfall events, floods are likely to become
more severe when they do occur. The interactions between rainfall and
flooding are complex. There are some regions in which flooding is
expected to become rarer. This depends on several factors. These
include changes in rain and snowmelt, but also soil moisture. Climate
change leaves soils drier in some areas, so they may absorb rainfall
more quickly. This leads to less flooding. Dry soils can also become
harder. In this case heavy rainfall runs off into rivers and lakes. This
increases risks of flooding.

Climate change affects many factors associated with droughts. These

include how much rain falls and how fast the rain evaporates again.
Warming over land increases the severity and frequency of droughts
around much of the world. In some tropical and subtropical regions of
the world, there will probably be less rain due to global warming. This
will make them more prone to drought. Droughts are set to worsen in
many regions of the world. These include Central America, the Amazon
and south-western South America. They also include West and Southern
Africa. The Mediterranean and south-western Australia are also some of
these regions.

Higher temperatures increase evaporation. This dries the soil and

increases plant stress. Agriculture suffers as a result. This means even
regions where overall rainfall is expected to remain relatively stable will
experience these impacts. These regions include central and northern
Europe. Without climate change mitigation, around one third of land
areas are likely to experience moderate or more severe drought by Due
to global warming droughts are more frequent and intense than in the
past.

Several impacts make their impacts worse. These are increased water
demand, population growth and urban expansion in many areas. Land
restoration can help reduce the impact of droughts. One example of this
is agroforestry.

Ocean
There are many effects of climate change on oceans. One of the main
ones is an increase in ocean temperatures. More frequent marine
heatwaves are linked to this. The rising temperature contributes to a
rise in sea levels due to melting ice sheets. Other effects on oceans
include sea ice decline, reducing pH values and oxygen levels, as well as
increased ocean stratification. All this can lead to changes of ocean
currents, for example a weakening of the Atlantic meridional
overturning circulation (AMOC). The main root cause of these changes
are the emissions of greenhouse gases from human activities, mainly
burning of fossil fuels. Carbon dioxide and methane are examples of
greenhouse gases. The additional greenhouse effect leads to ocean
warming because the ocean takes up most of the additional heat in the
climate system. The ocean also absorbs some of the extra carbon
dioxide that is in the atmosphere. This causes the pH value of the
seawater to drop. Scientists estimate that the ocean absorbs about 25%
of all human-caused CO2 emissions.

The various layers of the oceans have different temperatures. For

example, the water is colder towards the bottom of the ocean. This
temperature stratification will increase as the ocean surface warms due
to rising air temperatures. Connected to this is a decline in mixing of
the ocean layers, so that warm water stabilizes near the surface. A
reduction of cold, deep water circulation follows. The reduced vertical
mixing makes it harder for the ocean to absorb heat. So a larger share of
future warming goes into the atmosphere and land. One result is an
increase in the amount of energy available for tropical cyclones and
other storms. Another result is a decrease in nutrients for fish in the
upper ocean layers. These changes also reduce the ocean's capacity to
store carbon. At the same time, contrasts in salinity are increasing. Salty
areas are becoming saltier and fresher areas less salty. Warmer water
cannot contain the same amount of oxygen as cold water. As a result,
oxygen from the oceans moves to the atmosphere. Increased thermal
stratification may reduce the supply of oxygen from surface waters to
deeper waters. This lowers the water's oxygen content even more. The
ocean has already lost oxygen throughout its water column. Oxygen
minimum zones are increasing in size worldwide.

Sea level rise

The melting of polar ice caps and glaciers, along with thermal expansion
of seawater, has resulted in rising sea levels. Coastal erosion, flooding,
and salinization of freshwater systems are some of the consequences of
this trend. Placeholder for images.

Extreme Weather Events

One of the most visible impacts of climate change has been the
increasing frequency and intensity of extreme weather events.
Heatwaves have become more common across various regions, while
hurricanes and storms are more destructive. For instance, the 2017
Atlantic hurricane season, which included Hurricane Harvey and Maria,
set new records for the destruction caused. Scientists have attributed
the increase in hurricane intensity to warmer ocean temperatures,
which fuel these storms.

Heatwaves, especially in Europe and North America, are not only more
frequent but also longer-lasting. The heatwave that hit Europe in 2022
resulted in numerous heat-related deaths and wildfires, further
illustrating the profound effect of rising global temperatures on weather
patterns.

Desertification and Land Degradation

Land degradation, accelerated by climate change, has led to the loss of
arable land, impacting food security in vulnerable regions. The Sahel
region in Africa, for example, is experiencing increased desertification,
which is affecting local farming communities. Farmers in this region are
now forced to adapt to harsher conditions, including droughts and less
predictable rainfall patterns.

In South America, the Amazon rainforest, often referred to as the 'lungs

of the planet,' is under threat due to deforestation and rising
temperatures. The Amazon's ability to sequester carbon dioxide is
diminishing as trees are cut down and the forest dries out. This has
triggered concerns that the Amazon may reach a tipping point, after
which it could transform into a savanna.

Sea-Level Rise and Coastal Impact

Rising sea levels are a direct consequence of global warming. As polar

ice caps melt and the ocean water warms and expands, coastal cities and
small island nations are increasingly at risk. The Pacific Island nations,
including Tuvalu and the Maldives, are particularly vulnerable. In these
regions, rising sea levels have already displaced communities and
contaminated freshwater sources.

Furthermore, major cities like New York, Tokyo, and Mumbai are
expected to face significant challenges in the coming decades. According
to projections, sea levels could rise by up to 1 meter by 2100, potentially
displacing millions of people living in low-lying areas and causing
billions of dollars in infrastructure damage.
Conclusion
Climate change continues to impact both weather and land on a global
scale, leading to unpredictable changes in weather patterns,
desertification, and coastal degradation. To mitigate these effects,
immediate action on greenhouse gas emissions, sustainable land use,
and effective adaptation strategies is required. Failure to address these
issues will exacerbate the challenges posed to both human societies and
natural ecosystems.

References
1. IPCC, 2021. Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis.
2. NASA. Global Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet.
3. NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information, 2020.

4. IPCC, 2021. Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis.

5. NASA. Global Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet.
6. NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information, 2020.
7. World Bank, 2020. Climate Change and Extreme Weather Events.
8. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC),
2020.