Reasoning:

The word reasoning derived from the word reason.

Definitions Of Reasoning:
 Reasoning is a mental process in which we understand what is unknown from what
is known.

or

 Reasoning is the process of thinking about things in logical, rational way.

or

 A specialized thinking that enables a person to understand a link between Cause and
Effect.

or

 Thinking about the reason in the creative thing for the information.

or

 The drawing of conclusion from known facts.

or
Reasoning is stepwise thinking with a specific purpose and Goal in mind.

Steps are:

1. Statement
2. Relation
3. Conclusion

Note
Every thinking is not reasoning but all reasoning is thinking.

Examples of Reasoning
 Someone has coffee every morning before work, Monday-Friday. It is safe to stay
based on these facts this person likes coffee.
 All dogs bark, this animal barks, so therefore this animal is a dog.
 In winter it will snow, because it is winter there will probably be snow.
 Why do we use reasoning?
 Decision making
 Problem solving
 To evaluate things

Types of Reasoning:
There are three types of reasoning.

1. Inductive reasoning
2. Deductive reasoning
3. Abductive reasoning

1. Inductive Reasoning 2. Deductive Reasoning

 It moves from Specific to General  It moves from General to Specific

 Which proceed from known to unknown  Which proceed unknown to known
 One object to whole (overall).  Whole (overall) to one object.
 It gives new knowledge  It does not give new knowledge.
 It is a method of new theory development  It is a method of verify theory.
 It is a method of teaching.  It is a method of instruction.
 It is a upward approach.  It is a downward approach.
 It is a slow process.  It is a quick process.
 It is easy.  It is difficult.
 It has full of activities.  There is a less scope of activities.
 It is relies more on qualitative analysis.  It is relies more on quantitative analysis.
 It trains the mind and gives self-confidence  It encourages dependence on other resources.
and initiative.  If the statement is true, conclusions are always
 If statements are true, conclusions need not true.
always be true. Note
 Deductive reasoning is based on Inductive
Examples of Inductive Reasoning reasoning
Example-1 Examples of Deductive Reasoning
Specific Observation: Ahmad is an intelligent student. Example-1
Relation: Ahmad belongs to class A. General Conclusion: Class A students are intelligent.
General Conclusion: It means whole class A is intelligent. Relation: Ahmad is a class A student.
Specific Observation: Ahmad is an intelligent student.
Example-2
Specific Observation:
 Sparrows have wings. Example-2
 Pigeons have wings. General Conclusion: All mammals have backbone.
 Hawks have wings. Relation: Humans are mammals.
General Conclusion: Specific Observation: Humans have backbone.
All birds have wings.
Example-3 Example-3
Specific Observation: General Conclustion: All plants perform photosynthesis.
 2 + 3 = 5. Relation: A cactus is a plant.
 6 + 3 = 9. Specific Observation: Cactus performs photosynthesis.
 9 + 2 = 11.
General Conclusion:
When we add an odd number into an even number the
answer will also be an odd number.

3. Abductive Reasoning

 It starts with incomplete observations and ends with best prediction which may be true.
 It leads to discoveries.
 The conclusion of the Abductive reasoning is the best guess / prediction.
 It is a type of inductive reasoning.

Some other Definitions:

1. Proposition: A declarative statement that is either true or false but cannot be both.
2. Premise: One of more propositions or a statement is used as the supporting reason to draw conclusion.
3. Inference: The mental or thinking process made to draw a conclusion from a premise.
4. Argument: An argument is a collection or group or series of premises (also known as statements) used
to support a conclusion.
Arguments
 All men are mortal. ( premise)
 Ali is a man. ( premise)
 Therefore, Ali is mortal. ( conclusion)
5. Conclusion: In Logic, a conclusion is the final proposition (Statement) that is derived from the
premises of an argument.

Logic:

The logic word derived from the Greek word „logos‟ meaning “thought or reason”. Logic was first developed
by Aristotle.

Definitions of Logic
 Logic is the study of correct reasoning.
or
 Logic as the study of the methods and principles used in distinguishing correct from incorrect
reasoning.
or
 Logic is a science of reasoning. The aim of Logic is provide methods, techniques and develops which
help in differentiating right reasoning from wrong and good reasoning from bad.
or
 Logic is the study of reasoning and argument.
 or
 Logic is the science of Truth. Truth is discovered with the help of reasoning.

Importance of Logic:

Logic helps you:

I. Think clearly and critically
II. Communicate clearly
III. Make good decisions
IV. Solve problems easily
V. Understand others better
VI. Avoid mistakes

Examples of Logic:
 All dogs have a good sense of smell.
 If I study hard, I will do well on the exam.
 If I don‟t water my plants, they will die.
 A fewer and cough suggest illness, so rest and medication are necessary.
 If a product has good reviews, it‟s likely a quality product.
 Deciding on a job offer considering salary, benefits and location.
 2 + 3 = 5 (basic arithmetic)
 If x = 5, then x + 3 = 8 (algebra)
 A triangle has three sides ( geometric logic)

 Propositions: A proposition or a statement is a declarative sentence that is either true or false.

 Questions, exclamations and commands are not propositions.

Examples of Propositions Examples of not propositions

1. Three plus two equals five (True) 1. Do you speak English? (Question)
2. Three plus two equals six (False) 2. Open the door. (command)
3. The sun rises in the east (True) 3. What a hot day! (exclamation)
 4. ( 5, 6 )⊂ (7, 6, 5 ) (True) 4. Please give me the book. (request)
5. We shall have a meeting tomorrow. (True) 5. May Allah bless you
6. Ayesha is a name. (True) 6. Solve this paper.
7. 4 (False) 7. x + y > 2 is not a proposition because truth or
false is not certain.

Truth Value:
If any proposition is true then its truth value is denoted by T and if the proposition is false then truth value is
denoted by F.
Proposition variables:
Represent simple statement by letter p, q, r, … knows as proposition variables
For Example:
p: The sun is rises in the east.
q: 1 is less than 3.
Types of Proposition:

1) Simple Proposition: The proposition having one subject and one predicate is called a simple
proposition.
Example:
 This flower is pink.
 Every even number is divisible by 2.

2) Compound Proposition: Two or more simple proposition when combined by various connectives into
a single composite sentence is called compound proposition.
Example:
 The earth is round and revolves around the sun.
 A triangle is equilateral if and only if its three sides are equal.

Logical Connectives:
The particular words and symbols used to join two or more proposition into a single
composite form or compound proposition are called logical connectives.

Name Symbols Connective word

Negation not
Conjunction and
Disjunction or
Implication If… then…
or
Conditional
Equivalence Iff (If and only if)
or
Biconditional
Truth Table:
The table giving the truth values of a compound statement in terms of its
component parts (p, q, r, s,…), it‟s called a truth table.

Negation and its truth table:

Negation: (
If p is a statement, then negation of p is the statement not p.

If p is true, then is false.

If p is false, then is true.

For Example:

p: 2 + 3 > 1 then : 2+3

q: It is cold then It is not cold.

Truth Table for Negation:

p

T F

F T

Conjunction and its Truth table:

Conjunction:

If p and q are two statements, then conjunction of p and q is the compound

statement denoted by and read as “p and q”. The compound statement is true
when both p and q are true. Otherwise it is false. The truth vales of are given in truth
table.
For Example:

(i) Lahore is the capital of the Punjab and Quetta is the capital of Balochistan.

(ii) 4 < 5 ˄ 8 < 10

(iii) 4 < 5 ˄ 8 > 10

(iv) 2 + 2 = 3 ˄ 6 + 6 = 10

Clearly conjunctions (i) and (ii) are true whereas (iii) and (iv) are false.

Truth table for Conjunction:

p q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

Disjunction and its Truth table:

Disjunction:

If p and q are two statements, then disjunction of p and q is the compound

statement denoted by and read as “p or q”. The compound statement is true if at
least one of p or q is true. The truth vales of are given in truth table.

For Example:

(i) 10 is a positive integer or 0 is a rational number. Find the truth value of this
disjunction.

Solution: Since the first component is true, the disjunction is true.

(ii) A triangle can have two right triangles or Lahore is the capital of Sindh.

Solution: Both the components being false, the composite proposition is false.

Truth table for Disjunction:

p q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F