Reproduction

 The process by which a living being produces new individual of its own kind or similar looking is
called reproduction. Reproduction is an integral feature of all living beings.
 Reproduction is not necessary to maintain the life of an individual organism, unlike the essential
life processes such as nutrition, respiration, or excretion.

Importance of Reproduction:
 Reproduction is important for each species, because this is the only way for a living being to
continue its lineage.
 Reproduction also facilitates evolution because variations come through reproduction; over several
generations.
 Reproduction is linked to the stability of populations of species. ( DNA copying during reproduction
is important for the maintenance of body design features that allow the organism to use that
particular Habitat.)

DNA copying during Reproduction or how different body designs created:

 a basic event in reproduction is the creation of a DNA copy.
 Chromosomes in the nucleus of a cell contain information for inheritance of features from parents
to next generation in the form of DNA (Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid) molecules.
 The DNA in the cell nucleus is the information source for making proteins. If the information is
changed, different proteins will be made. Different proteins will eventually lead to altered body
designs.

Q. How a cell and Dna divides?

There are some chemical reactions in a cell which leads to DNA replication
and cell division.

Q why does keeping one copy of DNA in the original cell and simply pushing
the other one out would not work?
After DNA replication, If one of the copy of DNA is pushed outside without any organised cellular structure
or new cell for maintaining the life processes , it will get degraded. Therefore, DNA copying is always
accompanied by the creation of a new cell, and then the DNA copies separate, each with its own cellular
apparatus. In this way a cell divides to give rise to two cells.

Q. why Dna copying is important?

 Reproduction involves formation of new cells with inherited genetic information or dna from parent
and DNA is also the information source for making proteins , if the DNA is not copied it can not be
transferred from parent to new cell and without DNA no organism can be produced . Dna copying
can also brings variations.
 DNA copying during reproduction is important for the maintenance of body design features that
allow the organism to use its particular Habitat.

Q. Are all cells likely to be absolutely identical? Or

Q. Why the cell or organisms show variations?
No bio-chemical reaction is absolutely reliable and therefore the process of copying the DNA has some
variations each time. As a result, the DNA copies generated will be similar, but may not be identical to the
original. Some of these variations might be so drastic that the new DNA copy cannot work properly and
Such a newborn cell will simply die called as mutation. On the other hand, some variations in the DNA
copies are essential and beneficial for evolution and survival of the organisms.

Q. what is The Importance of Variations? OR

Q. Why is variation beneficial to the species but not necessarily for the
individual?
If for a species the environmental conditions change so drastically that there survival becomes difficult. for
ex. If there were a population of bacteria living in normal to cold waters, and if the water temperature were
to be increased by global warming, most of these bacteria would die, but the few variants resistant to heat
would survive and grow further. Thus these variants help in the survival of the entire species. Variation is
thus useful for the survival of species over time.

Types of Reproduction:

There are two main types, viz. asexual and sexual reproduction.
Asexual Reproduction: When a single parent is involved and no gamete formation takes place; the
method is called asexual reproduction. No meiosis happens during asexual reproduction.
Sexual Reproduction: When two parents are involved and gamete formation takes; the method is called
sexual reproduction. Meiosis happens during gamete formation; which is an important step of sexual
reproduction.

Difference:

Sexual reproduction Asexual reproduction

It involves the fusion of the male and female It does not involves the fusion of the male and the
1 gamete. female gamete

2. It requires two (usually) different individuals. It requires only one individual.

The individuals produced are not identical to

The individuals produced are identical to the parent
3. their parents and show variations from each and are hence, called clones.
other and also, from their parents.

Most animals reproduce sexually. Both sexual Asexual modes of reproduction are common in
and asexual modes of reproduction are found in organisms having simple organizations such as algae,
4. plants. fungi and complex plants etc.

5. It is a slow process. It is a fast process.

 ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION:

MODES OF REPRODUCTION USED BY SINGLE cell ORGANISMS

Fission
1. Binary Fission: Most of the unicellular animals prefer this method for reproduction. These
organisms reproduce by binary fission; especially when conditions are favourable, i.e. adequate
amount of food and moisture is available. Binary fission is somewhat similar to mitosis. Fission
occurs in 2 steps:
The parent cell nucleus divides (karyokinesis) followed by division of the cell into 2 daughter
cells,each cell getting one nucleus( cytokinesis). The parent generation ceases to exist, after
binary fission. Amoeba is a very good example of the organism which reproduces by binary fission.

Based on division plane fission can be of 2 types:

irregular Regular(longitudinal)

The splitting of the two cells during Binary fission occurs in a definite orientation in
division can take place in any plane. relation to the structure of unicellular organism.

Ex. Amoeba In Leishmania (which cause kala-azar), which

have a whip-like structure at one end of the cell.
 1. Multiple Fission:
When conditions become unfavourable, i.e. food, moisture, proper temperature, etc. are not available; this
is the preferred mode of reproduction by unicellular organisms. The steps are :
The organism develops a thick coating around itself called cyst. The cyst helps the organism to survive
unfavourable conditions.
The nucleus divides into several nuclei by multiple fission and each daughter nucleus is surrounded by a
membrane. All metabolic activities stop in the organism, after cyst formation.
When favourable conditions return, the cyst dissolves or breaks down; releasing the daughter nuclei.
The daughter nuclei; in turn; grow into new individuals. Ex. Malaria parasite Plasmodium.

Budding
Fragmentation:
Reproduction by fragmentation is seen in filamentous algae, e.g. Spirogyra. The filament of
Spirogyra divides into many pieces and each piece develops into a new individual.
 Regeneration:
Many fully differentiated organisms have the ability to give rise to new individual organisms from their body
parts.
If the individual is somehow cut or broken accidentally, many of the broken pieces grow into separate
individuals. Planaria shows good example of reproduction by regeneration. If a Planaria is cut into several
pieces; each piece develops into a new individual called regeneration.
For example, simple animals like Hydra and Planaria can be cut into any number of pieces and each piece
grows into a complete organism.

Q. How regeneration takes place?

Regeneration is carried out by specialised cells. These cells proliferate (divide) and make large numbers
of cells. From this mass of cells, different cells undergo changes to become various cell types and tissues.
These changes take place in an organised sequence referred to as development.
Q. Why regeneration is not the same as reproduction?
Because most organisms would not normally depend on being cut up to be able to reproduce. Being
broken or cut off is only a chance or accidental event whereas reproduction is an inbuilt capability of an
organism.

Budding
 In budding a small outgrowth or a bud develops due to repeated cell division at one specific site on
the body of the organism.
 Nucleus gets elongated and divides into 2 nuclei, one nuclei stays in the bud.
 These buds develop into tiny individuals and when fully mature, buds detach from the parent body
and become new independent individuals.
 Example: In Hydra (multicellular), Yeast (unicellular)
BINARY FISSION BUDDING
1.The parent body divides into two equal and The parent produces a small bud that gradually
similar halves, each half forms a new individual. grows in size and then separates from the body.
2. A bud is not formed. A protuberance (bud) is formed.
3. 2 equal daughter cells formed. Buds are smaller than parent body.
4. Parent's body disappears. examples: bacteria, Parent's body remains intact. example: Yeast,
Amoeba,Paramecium. Hydra

Spore Formation
 Many fungi, few bacteria etc. reproduce asexually through spores.
 Spores are produced in special spore-bearing organs; called sporangium. They look like tiny
blob-on-a-stick. The stock bearing sporangia are sporangiophores.
 When spores mature; the sporangium bursts open to release them.
 The spores are covered by thick walls that protect them.
 When they come into contact with another moist surface, they begin to grow and develop into new
individual.
 Ex. the bread mould (Rhizopus).
Q. How will an organism be benefited if it reproduces through spores?
Reproduction through spores gives several advantages to an organism. Some of them are as follows:
 Spores can remain dormant till favourable conditions become available.
 Spores help an organism to tide over the bad phase.
 Spores can be spread through water, air or animals and thus is good for the spread of an organism
to more places.

Vegetative Propagation:
 There are many plants in which parts like the root, stem and leaves develop into new plants under
appropriate conditions, this process is called vegetative propagation.
 It is of two types natural and artificial:

Natural:
 Buds produced in the notches along the leaf margin of Bryophyllum fall on the soil and develop
into new plants.
 Tuber of Potato: The potato tuber is a modified stem. Many notches can be seen on the surface
of potato. These are called ‘eyes’ of potato. Each ‘eye’ of a potato can give rise to a new potato
plant. Farmers utilize this capability of potatoes to grow potato more quickly; which is not possible
by using the seeds of potato.

Artificial Vegetative Propagation : Cutting, Layering and Grafting

 Layering: in this process a weak stem attached to plant is bent down and buried in soil with a cut
on it. The buried cut soon produces roots and this branch is then cut from main plant to grow as a
new individual. Ex. Jasmine
 Grafting: in this method 2 plants are taken and joined. Stock is the plant which has its roots intact
and scion is the twig bearing leaves that is joined to stock. Both are cut at a point and then joined
one above another and tied up. As the graft gets healed up the grafted plant will grow and show
qualities of both the plants in graft. Ex. Roses, mangoes

 Cutting: in this process a stem is given an oblique cut and cut stem is kept for growing in soil to
form a new individual. Ex. Rose, sugarcane,citrus.
 Advantages of vegetative propagation:
 Plants raised by vegetative propagation can bear flowers and fruits earlier than those produced
from seeds.
 Such methods also make possible the propagation of plants such as banana, orange, rose and
jasmine that have lost the capacity to produce seeds.
 Another advantage of vegetative propagation is that all plants produced are genetically similar
enough to the parent plant to have all its characteristics.

Advantages of Asexual Reproduction:

 The organism does not have to depend on another organism for carrying out reproduction;
because a single parent is needed.
 It takes less time than sexual reproduction and hence more number of offspring can be produced
in shorter time.
 The offspring are exact clones of their parent.
 Desirable characteristics can be easily incorporated into plants with artificial vegetative
propagation.

Disadvantages of Asexual Reproduction:

 As a single parent is involved, so there is negligible chance of variation.
 In most of the cases in simple organisms, the parent generation ceases to exist after asexual
reproduction.
 Asexual reproduction cannot give rise to biodiversity which is important for a healthy ecosystem.

Sexual Reproduction
 Sexual reproduction involves two parents and gamete formation.
Q. How the normal chromosome and dna amount is maintained in new individual?
 Gametes are special cells which are formed after meiosis. There are two types of gametes, viz.
male and female gametes.
 The number of chromosomes is haploid in the gametes,this means gametes have only half the
number of chromosomes and half the amount of DNA as compared to the nonreproductive body
cells.
 the small and motile gamete is called the male gamete and the larger gamete containing the
stored food is called the female gamete.
 When male and female gametes fuse during fertilization, the number of chromosomes becomes
diploid. Thus, when these germ-cells from two individuals combine during sexual reproduction to
form a new
 Individual or zygote, it results in re-establishment of the normal (diploid) number of chromosomes
and the DNA content in the new generation. This is important for maintaining the unique identity of
a particular species which reproduces by sexual method.

DNA Replication:
 DNA replication is the process by which DNA makes a copy of itself. This is important because the
daughter cells would need additional copies of the DNA. The process of DNA replication is a fool
proof process, yet some alterations do take place. These alterations may lead to some variations
in the characters of the daughter cells.
 Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants

 Flower is a modified stem which bears special organs and plays the role of the reproductive
system in plant.
 The reproductive parts of angiosperms are located in the flower. Stamens and carpels are the
reproductive parts of a flower which contain the germ-cells.
 A typical flower is composed of four distinct whorls, viz. calyx, corolla, androecium and gynoecium.
 Calyx: The outermost whorl of the flower is called calyx. It is composed of green leaf-like
structures; called sepals.

 Corolla: The second whorl of the flower is called corolla. It is composed of colourful leaf-like
structures; called petals. Petals are colourful so that insects and birds can be attracted; to assist
the flower in pollination.

 Androecium: This is the third whorl in the flower. It is composed of stamens. Stamen is made of a
slender stalk called filament and anthers on top. Anthers produce the pollen-grains that are
yellowish in colour. . Pollen grains are the male gametes.

 Gynoecium: This whorl is at the centre of the flower. Its single unit is called pistil or carpel. It is
composed of a swollen base; called ovary,middle elongated part is the style and the terminal
part which may be sticky is the stigma to receive pollens. Ovules are inside the ovary. Ovules
contain egg and egg is the female gamete.

 Pollination:
 The transfer of pollen grains from anther to the stigma is called pollination.
 The pollen grains need to be transferred to the stigma so that fertilization can take place..
 If the pollen grains from the same flower or the same plant are transferred to the stigma; it
is called self pollination.
 If pollen grains from a different plant are transferred to the stigma of different plant; it is
called cross-pollination. Cross pollination is better; from the perspective of variations.
 Many agents help plants in cross pollination, e.g. insects, animals, air, water, etc. Insects
are the main pollinators for the plant kingdom.

Fertilisation:

 The fusion of male and female gametes is called fertilization. The product of fertilization
is called zygote. Zygote undergoes several rounds of cell divisions and develops into an
embryo. Subsequently, the embryo develops into a new individual.
  The process of fertilisation:
1. After the pollen lands on a suitable stigma, it has to reach the female germ-cell or egg which are in
the ovary. For this, a tube grows out of the pollen grain and travels through the style to reach the
ovary.
2. The fusion of male and female gametes is called fertilization. The product of fertilization is called
zygote.

3. After fertilisation, the zygote divides several times to form an embryo within the ovule. The
ovule develops a tough coat and is gradually converted into a seed.

4. The ovary grows rapidly and ripens to form a fruit containing seeds.

5. Changes in flower After Fertilization: the petals, sepals, stamens, style and stigma may shrivel
and fall off. Ovules changes to seed and ovary turns into fruit and zygote turns into embryo.

6. The seed contains the future plant or embryo which develops into a seedling under appropriate
Conditions. This process is known as germination.

7. Structure of Seed: A seed contains an embryo, some reserve food and is enclosed by a
protective covering; called seed coat. The reserve food is stored in the cotyledons. The embryo
has two pointed parts. The upper part is called plumule which gives rise to the shoot system.
The lower part is called radicle which gives rise to the root system. Cotyledons supply food
when the embryo needs it during germination.
 Reproduction in Human Beings

Puberty
Human beings are complex animals and hence there is a distinct phase in their life cycle which marks the
onset and attainment of sexual maturity. This period is called puberty. It usually starts at around 10 – 11
years of age in girls and at around 12 – 13 years of age in boys. It usually ends at around 18th year of age
in girls and at around 19th year of age in boys.
Common changes: thick hair growing in new parts of the body such as armpits and the genital area
between the thighs, which can also become darker in colour.
 Thinner hair can also appear on legs and arms, as well as on the face.
 The skin frequently becomes oily and we might begin to develop pimples.
 Girls and boys begin to be conscious and aware of both our own bodies and those of others in
new ways.
Changes in Boys during Puberty:
 The boys suddenly grow in height dramatically.
 Voice becomes deep and the Adam’s apple becomes prominent.
 Shoulders become broad and body becomes muscular.
 Boys begin to have new thick hair growth on the face and their voices begin to crack.
 the penis occasionally begins to become enlarged and erect, either in daydreams or at night.

Changes in Girls during Puberty:
 The voice becomes thin. Shoulders and hip become rounded.
 In girls, breast size begins to increase,with darkening of the skin of the nipples at the tips of the
breasts.
 Also,girls begin to menstruate at around this time.
Q. Why does the body show sexual maturation at a particular age or puberty age?
while the body of the individual organism is growing to its adult size in early age as child, the resources of
the body are mainly directed at achieving body growth and the maturation of the reproductive tissue is not
a major priority. Thus, as the rate of general body growth begins to slow down during age of puberty, the
reproductive tissues begin to mature. This period during adolescence is called puberty
Q. why need for reproductive organs or secondary sexual characters?
 If animals are to participate in the process of mating, their state of sexual maturity must be
identifiable by other individuals. Many changes during puberty, such as new hair-growth patterns,
are signals that sexual maturation is taking place.
 On the other hand, the actual transfer of germ-cells between two people needs special organs for
the sexual act, such as the penis when it is capable of becoming erect. In mammals such as
humans, the baby is carried in the mother’s body for a long period, and will be breast-fed later.
The female reproductive organs and breasts will need to mature to accommodate growing embryo
and nourish the child.
Male Reproductive System:
The male reproductive system in human beings is composed of following parts:
1. Testis: There is a pair of testes; which lie in a skin pouch; called scrotum.
 The formation of germ-cells or sperms takes place in the testes.
 These are located outside the abdominal cavity in scrotum because sperm formation requires a
lower temperature than the normal body temperature..
 Sperms are the male gametes.
 Apart from that, testis also produces testosterone. Testosterone is also called the male
hormone, as it is responsible for developing certain secondary sexual characters in boys.

2. Vas Deferens: Vas deferens is the tube which carries sperms from testes to the urethera.
 the vas deferens which unites with a tube coming from the urinary bladder and opens in urethra
 Along the path of the vas deferens, glands like the prostate and the seminal vesicles add their
secretions so that the sperms are now in a fluid which makes their transport easier and this fluid
also provides nutrition.

3. The urethra It is a common passage for both the sperms and urine.

4. Seminal Vesicle and prostate gland: Secretions from the seminal vesicle and prostate gland
add up to make the semen which makes their transport easier and this fluid also provides nutrition.

5. Penis: It is a muscular organ which serves the genital-urinary functions. The urethra works as the
common passage for urine as well as for sperms.

6. The sperms these are tiny bodies that consist of mainly genetic material and a long tail that helps
them to move towards the female germ-cell.
 Female Reproductive System:

The female reproductive system in human beings is composed of following parts:

1. Ovary:
 There are two ovaries; one near each fallopian tube. Ovary produces the eggs or the female
gametes.
 When a girl is born, the ovaries already contain thousands of immature eggs. On reaching puberty,
some of the eggs start maturing. One egg is produced every month by one of the ovaries
 One egg matures in each ovulation cycle and is released from the ovary.
 The egg is caught by the flimbriae and transferred to the fallopian tube.
 They are also responsible for the production of some hormones like oestrogen and progesterone..

2. Fallopian Tubes: One fallopian tube comes out from each side at the top of the uterus. The
fallopian tubes end in finger-like structures; called flimbriae. Fertilization happens in the fallopian
tube.

3. Uterus: This is pear-shaped elastic bag-like hollow muscular organ .

 The two oviducts unite into it.
 The uterus opens into the vagina through the cervix.
 Uterus is the place where the embryo gets implanted and develops into a newborn baby.
 The wall of the uterus provides safety and nutrition to the growing foetus.

4. Vagina: The cervix (mouth of the uterus) opens into the vagina. Vagina is a muscular tube-like
organ.

Fertilisation process :
 The sperms enter through the vaginal passage during sexual intercourse.
 They travel upwards and reach the oviduct where they may encounter the egg and fuses with it.
 The fertilised egg, called the zygote, gets implanted in the lining of the uterus, and starts dividing.

Preparation or uterus condition to receive fertilised egg:

  the uterus prepares itself every month to receive and nurture the growing embryo.
 The inner lining of uterus thickens and is richly supplied with blood to nourish the growing embryo.
 The embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s blood with the help of a special tissue called placenta.

 Placenta is a disc embedded in the uterine wall of mother. It contains villi on the embryo’s side of
the tissue. On the mother’s side the blood spaces surround the villi.
Function of placenta:
 This provides a large surface area for glucose and oxygen to pass from the mother to the
embryo.
 The developing embryo will also generate waste substances which can be removed by
transferring them into the mother’s blood through the placenta.

 The development of the child inside the mother’s body takes approximately nine months. The
child is born as a result of rhythmic contractions of the muscles in the uterus.
Q What happens when the Egg is not Fertilised?
 If the egg is not fertilised, it lives for about one day. Since the ovary releases one egg every month,
the uterus also prepares itself every month to receive a fertilised egg.
 Thus its lining becomes thick and spongy. This would be required for nourishing the embryo if
fertilisation had taken place.
 If the egg is not fertilisation, the thick uterus lining with blood vessels is not needed any longer.
 So, the inner thick lining of uterus slowly breaks and comes out through the vagina as blood and
mucous.
 This cycle takes place roughly every month and is known as menstruation.
 It usually lasts for about two to eight days.

Reproductive Health

Many diseases can be sexually transmitted.

STDs:
These include bacterial infections such as
 gonorrhoea
 syphilis

 viral infections such as warts and HIV-AIDS

contraceptive methods
Contraception is an artificial method or other techniques, mainly used to prevent pregnancy. These
contraceptive methods fall in a number of categories.

mechanical barrier :
the creation of a mechanical barrier so that sperm does not reach the egg. Condoms on the penis or
similar coverings worn in the vagina can serve this purpose.

Oral pills
These contraceptives acts by changing the hormonal balance of the body so that eggs are not released
and fertilisation cannot occur. These drugs commonly need to be taken orally as pills. However, since they
change hormonal balances, they can cause side-effects too.
Surgical methods
Temporary
such as the loop or the copper-T are placed in the uterus to prevent pregnancy. They can cause side
effects due to irritation of the uterus.

Permanent
If the vas deferens in the male is blocked, sperm transfer will be prevented.
If the fallopian tube in the female is blocked, the egg will not be able to reach the uterus.
In both cases fertilisation will not take place.
While surgical methods are safe in the long run, surgery itself can cause infections and other problems if
not performed properly.
Surgery can also be used for removal of unwanted pregnancies.

sex ratio
 For a healthy society, the female to male sex ratio must be maintained.
 Because of illegal female foeticides, female child is declining at an alarming rate in some sections
of our society, although prenatal sex determination has been prohibited by law.