The Digestive System

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 6.1.1 Why digest food?
Food consists of:
– Carbohydrates These are large, insoluble polymer
molecules. They must be digested into
– Lipids monomers small enough to pass
through the cell membrane of the cells
– Proteins lining the digestive tract so they can be
– Nucleic acids absorbed in to the blood stream

– Minerals Can be absorbed directly (because of

– Vitamins small size), so do not need to be
“digested”
– Water
 6.1.2 Enzymes and digestion
• Digestion involves hydrolysis of food
molecules breaking
apart
molecules by
adding water

Hydrolysis of lactose (a
disaccharide) into glucose and
galactose (both monosaccharides)
with the addition of water
 Increase the rate
• Digestive enzymes catalyze the hydrolysis of
insoluble food molecules to soluble end
products
The enzyme sucrase
catalyzes the hydrolysis of
sucrose (a disaccharide)
into glucose and fructose
(both monosaccharides)
with the addition of water
 6.1.2 Enzymes and digestion
Digestive Enzymes
Digestive Enzymes
Break down complex substances into simpler
substances that can be absorbed by the body

Complex proteins Amino acids

Complex sugars Glucose

Fat molecules Fatty acids

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 Digestive enzymes work best at 37⁰ C
(body temp)

• Reactions occur faster at

higher temperatures, but Optimum temperature
for enzyme
the rate of denaturation of
enzymes also increases at
higher temperatures.

Enzyme activity
• High temperatures break Too cold for
the enzyme Rapid
the bonds important for the to operate denaturation
tertiary structure of the
enzyme.
• This destroys the active
sites and therefore makes
the enzyme non-functional.
Temperature (°C)
6.1.3 Examples of digestive enzymes
Class of Example Source Substrate Product Optimal
Enzyme pH
Amylase Salivary Salivary Starch Maltose 7-8
digest amylase glands (disaccharide)
carbohydrates

Protease Pepsin Stomach polypeptides Shorter 2-3

digest proteins cells polypeptides

Lipase Pancreatic Pancreas triglyceride Glycerol and 7-8

digest fats lipase cells 3 fatty acids
 6.1.4 Digestive System
Parts ofThethe
Digestive System
Alimentary Canal
Consists of the alimentary canal (the long tube)
and several accessory organs.

anal canal
mouth
Parts of the
pharynx Alimentary Canal large intestine

esophagus small intestine

stomach
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Organs of the
Parotid
Digestive System
Organs of the Digestive salivary
Tongue
gland
Mouth Pharynx
System Tooth
Sublingual
salivary gland
Submandibular
salivary gland Esophagus

Liver
Stomach

Pancreas
Gall bladder
Duodenum

Small
Large intestine intestine

Anal canal Rectum

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 food
Tracing Toast
mouth pharynx epiglottis esophagus

stomach
anus feces
Tracing a piece of duodenum
food through the
rectum
alimentary canal jejunum

sigmoid ileum
colon

descending transverse ascending cecum

colon colon colon

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Animation of digestive system
 6.1.5 Function of the Stomach
1. Mechanical Digestion 2. Chemical Digestion
• Muscle contractions • Enzymes and HCl digest
break apart and mix chyme
food
• bolus  chyme

Semi-fluid
Mass of mass of
solid food partly
digested
food
6.1.5 Function of the Small Intestine
1. Digestion by
enzymes in the
duodenum (first 50
cm)
2. Absorption of
nutrients into the
blood stream (see
6.1.7)
6.1.5 Function of the Large Intestine

Removes water and minerals

6.1.6 Absorption and Assimilation
ABSORPTION ASSIMILATION
Transport of molecules Incorporation of
from the intestine to molecules from the
the blood stream blood stream into
cellular structures
 6.1.7 Structure of Villus
The small intestine has large folds which
increase the surface area for
absorption. One finger-like projection is
called a villus (plural: villi).
 6.1.7 Structure of Villus
A single layer of epithelial cells line the villi.
These cells have microvilli that increase
the surface area for absorption
 6.1.7 Structure of Villus
Each villus has a capillary bed that absorbs
small molecules from the small intestine
and transport the molecules in the blood
stream
 6.1.7 Structure of Villus
The lacteal absorbs fats that pass through
the villi epithilium.
H.2.1 Digestive Juices and Glands
• EXOCRINE glands are different than ENDOCRINE glands

Secrete other
stuff (sweat, oil, Secrete
wax, enzymes hormones
etc) into ducts directly into the
(a pipe or tube) blood stream

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 Digestive “Juices” are…
• ENZYMES
• Good time to review
• Catalyst
• Lower activation energy
• In the case of digestion, this is catabolic
rxns

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• Salivary glands in the mouth
– Secrete amylase
– Breaks starch (polysaccharide) into maltose
(disaccharide)
• Gastric glands in the stomach wall
– Secrete pepsin
– Break proteins into smaller polypeptide chains
• Pancreas
• Glands in the wall of the small intestine

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 H.2.2 Structure of Glands
• Exocrine glands contain a glandular portion and a duct
portion.

• Secretory cells form a single layer around the duct.

• The secretory cells release the secretion into the
lumen of the duct.
• Ducts open onto surfaces such as the skin or another
cavity (mouth, alimentary canal).
• A good additional resource can be found here 24
H.2.3 Composition of Digestive Juices
GLAND COMPOSTION of “JUICE”

Salivary gland Water, salts, amylase, mucus

(mouth)

Gastric glands Water, mucus, HCl, enzymes (i.e.

(stomach) pepsin)
Pancreas Water, bicarbonate (buffers acid from
stomach), enzymes (i.e. amylase,
lipase)
Small intestine Enzymes (i.e. carbohydrases to break
down carbohydrates) 25
H.2.4 Control of Gland Secretions
The activities of the digestive system are regulated by
both hormones and neural reflexes.
HORMONES NEURAL
• The physical presence of food in • Nerves come to the digestive
the lower region of the stomach organs from the brain or the spinal
stimulates the endocrine cells cord.
within then stomach wall to
release the protein hormone • The nervous system is triggered
“gastrin”. by the senses (touch, smell, sight,
feeling…)
• Gastrin is released into the blood
and travels back to the heart and • The nerves release chemicals
through the arteries only to return which cause the speed up or
to the digestive system to induce delay of the movement of food
the secretion of gastric juice. and the production of juices by the
digestive organs.

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 H.2.5 Membrane Bound Enzymes
• Many digestive enzymes are embedded in the
membrane of cells that line the digestive tract.
Being fixed to the
membrane is efficient
 Inside the cell since the enzyme is not
removed (can be
 Cell membrane reused) and can be
linked to secondary
functions including
Outside the cell
membrane transport.
(active site of
enzyme oriented
towards the middle of
the alimentary canal).
 H.2.6 Cellulose Digestion
• Cellulose is the major
constituent of the plant cell
wall.
• Humans cannot digest
cellulose.
– We don’t produce the
cellulase enzymes
– We don’t carry the bacteria
in the gut which produce
cellulase (like cows do)
• Cellulose remains
undigested and is part
of feces
 H.2.7 Pepsin and Trypsin
• Pepsin and trypsin are both protease enzymes (they
break proteins into smaller amino acid strands)
– Pepsin is produced by stomach exocrine cells
– Trypsin is produced by pancreas exocrine cells
 H.2.7 Pepsin and Trypsin
• Both are initially synthesized as inactive precursors.
• Both are chemically altered after secretion to
produce the active forms of the enzyme.
• This prevents self digestion of the cells that produce
pepsin and trypsin. Triggered by acid conditions
of the stomach

Enzyme bound to the small

intestine membrane
 H.2.8 Stomach Ulcers and Cancer
• The stomach has an acidic
environment caused by the
secretion of HCl.
– The acid is a barrier to
infection from
microorganisms ingested with
food.

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 H.2.8 Stomach Ulcers and Cancer
• To protect the stomach wall from it’s own acid and
digesting enzymes, a mucus lining covers the
surface.

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 H.2.8 Stomach Ulcers and Cancer
• Stomach ulcers are areas where the mucus layer
has eroded, leaving the stomach muscle layers
unprotected and exposed to gastric acids and
digestive enzymes.

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H.2.8 Stomach Ulcers and Cancer
Stomach cancer can develop from ulcers (however, having an
ulcer does not mean you will develop cancer.)

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 H.2.8 Stomach Ulcers and Cancer
• Stomach ulcers occur with an infection of the
bacterium Helicobacter pylori.
• YES! Ulcers are caused by an infectious disease.
• Check out this site for additional information…
– No. Really. Read this information.

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H.2.9 Lipid digestion in a
hydrophilic medium

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