energies

Review
Electric Vehicles—An Overview of Current
Issues—Part 2—Infrastructure and Road Safety
Marek Guzek 1, * , Jerzy Jackowski 2 , Rafał S. Jurecki 3 , Emilia M. Szumska 3 , Piotr Zdanowicz 1
and Marcin Żmuda 2

1 Faculty of Transport, Warsaw University of Technology, Koszykowa 75, 00-662 Warsaw, Poland;
[email protected]
2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Vehicles and Transportation, Military University of
Technology (WAT), Street gen. Sylwestra Kaliskiego 2, 00-908 Warsaw, Poland;
[email protected] (J.J.); [email protected] (M.Ż.)
3 Department of Automotive Engineering and Transport, Faculty of Mechatronics and Mechanical Engineering,
Kielce University of Technology, Ave. Tysiaclecia
˛ Państwa Polskiego 7, 25-314 Kielce, Poland;
[email protected] (R.S.J.); [email protected] (E.M.S.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: The electrification of road transport is developing dynamically around the world. Many
automotive companies are introducing electric vehicles to the market, and their popularity is con-
stantly growing. The increasing popularity of electric vehicles is caused by individual countries’
governments encouraging people to switch to electric vehicles and their lower operating costs. In
2022, the number of electric vehicles in China will exceed 10 million. Europe and the USA rank
second and third in global electric car stock, respectively. The number of available electric vehicle
models is constantly growing, remaining approximately 2.5 times smaller than the case of vehicles
with an internal combustion engine. Among others, a significant limitation to the popularity of
electric cars is users’ fear of range and the density of the charging infrastructure network. This
paper presents the objectives regarding public areas and charging stations around the European
Union’s comprehensive and core transport network. It is worth noting that the vehicle and charging
point’s charging connectors vary depending on the geographical region. Therefore, the currently
used charging connectors for different regions are presented. Charging time depends significantly
Citation: Guzek, M.; Jackowski, J.;
on the charging current, the power of the charging point, and the devices installed in the vehicle.
Jurecki, R.S.; Szumska, E.M.;
The paper analyzes the limitations of charging power resulting from the onboard charger’s power
Zdanowicz, P.; Żmuda, M. Electric
and the charging point’s power. It presents the charging time of selected electric vehicles. The
Vehicles—An Overview of Current
Issues—Part 2—Infrastructure and second aspect that is also the subject of user concerns and discussed in this article is issues related to
Road Safety. Energies 2024, 17, 495. the safety of electric vehicles. General safety indicators of such vehicles based on Euro-NCAP tests
https://doi.org/10.3390/en17020495 are characterized. Attention was also paid to more detailed problems related to active and passive
safety and functional safety analyses. The issue of the fire hazard of electric vehicles was discussed
Academic Editor: Chunhua Liu
together with modern experiences regarding post-accident procedures in the event of fires.
Received: 14 September 2023
Revised: 20 October 2023 Keywords: electric drive; electric vehicle; EV safety; fire safety; recharging points; recharging infrastructure
Accepted: 15 January 2024
Published: 19 January 2024

1. Introduction
The use of electric drive-in motor vehicles is not a new idea. The pioneer of electric
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors. vehicles was Thomas Devenport, who, in 1834, built a small car powered by a voltaic
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. battery [1]. The development of the lead-acid battery in 1859 by Gaston Planté and the
This article is an open access article
construction of the generator in 1866 by Warner von Siemens significantly impacted the
distributed under the terms and
development of motor vehicles. The first efficient electric vehicle was a tricycle developed
conditions of the Creative Commons
by Percy and Ayton in 1882, powered by batteries weighing about 45 kg. The operation
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
of electric vehicles at that time, compared to steam vehicles, revealed several advantages,
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
the most important of which include quiet operation, ease of operation and driving, good
4.0/).

Energies 2024, 17, 495. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17020495 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2024, 17, 495 2 of 29

dynamics, ease of installing the engine (with smaller dimensions compared to steam
vehicles), and simplification of the drive system. At the end of the 19th century, electric
carriages and small two-seater electric vehicles with a range of about 48 km appeared in
some European cities. In 1898, an electric vehicle set a new speed record of 63.2 km/h.
Electric vehicles of the time did not replace horse-drawn vehicles. The main reason was the
short range of vehicles, high production costs, and the need to charge batteries with a vast
mass frequently.
Electrically powered vehicles are gaining an increasing share of the passenger and
commercial vehicle market. Electric vehicles include battery electric cars (BEV), vehicles in
which an internal combustion engine works with an electric drive (HEV—hybrid electric
vehicles, PHEV—plug-in hybrid electric vehicles), or vehicles equipped with fuel cells or
electrochemical batteries (FCLE). The electric drive technology faces many challenges, but
its future can be optimistic. New electric vehicle drive system technologies can significantly
affect intelligent and sustainable transport development and reduce energy consumption
and exhaust emissions under various road conditions [2–4].
This study presents the electric drives used in motor vehicles. Both the advantages of
these drives and the risks arising at the stages of production, operation, and recycling of
the car are indicated.
The study was divided into two parts. In Part 1, the environmental impact of EVs was
assessed. Attention was focused on the entire life cycle of the vehicle, i.e., from obtaining
materials through the production of assemblies and the vehicle, its operation, and disposal.
The production processes of electric and conventional vehicles were compared mainly in
terms of CO2 emissions. In addition, attempts were made to answer the question of how
ecological is an electric vehicle. In response to this question, an analysis of the share of
individual energy sources in electricity production was made, and an analysis of the energy
mix was carried out for the countries of the European Union. Issues related to the recycling
of EV batteries and the possibility of their reuse were discussed.
The article presented here is the 2nd part of a study with the general title “EV cars—an
overview of current issues”, which deals with other issues: infrastructure and road safety.
Section 2 presents data on the number of EVs worldwide and detailed data from
the EU. Indicators for the share of electric cars among the total number of passenger
cars were determined. Commonly used types of connectors for charging electric vehicles,
cases of connections, and charging modes were presented. Limitations on AC charging
resulting from the onboard charger and charging point were analyzed. Data on the charging
infrastructure along the trans-European transport network are presented.
Section 3 deals with the safety of electric vehicles. Scientific papers and selected
international regulations were analyzed. An attempt was made to find an answer to the
question of whether electric vehicles are more likely to catch fire than their conventional
counterparts. Current problems related to the safety of high-voltage accumulator batteries
were pointed out. Issues related to the procedure in the event of an electric vehicle fire and
reviews of the solutions used by manufacturers and fire services that facilitate extinguishing
an electric vehicle are also presented.

2. Infrastructure and its Availability across Countries

2.1. Statistical Data on the Number of Electric Vehicles Worldwide and in the EU
The Electric Vehicles Initiative (EVI) is one of many global initiatives that is dedicated to
accelerating the adoption and deployment of electric vehicles worldwide. Sixteen countries
have joined EVI: Canada, Chile, China, Finland, France, Germany, India, Japan, the Nether-
lands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and
the United States (countries with a co-chair status are underlined) [5,6]. The European
Commission is also involved in the activities of the EVI. The EVI publishes an annual
report on the current status of electric vehicles compared to historical data, and presents
forecasts for the coming years. EVI provides two free online tools: Global EV Data Explorer
(electric vehicle statistics and forecasts) and Global EV Policy Explorer (policy statistics to
 forecasts for the coming years. EVI provides two free online tools: Global EV Data Ex-
Energies 2024, 17, 495 3 of 29
plorer (electric vehicle statistics and forecasts) and Global EV Policy Explorer (policy sta-
tistics to support the deployment of electric vehicles). According to the Global EV Outlook
2023 [6], over 26 million
supportelectric light-duty
the deployment vehicles
of electric (ELDVs)
vehicles). were
According to theon theEV
Global road in 2022
Outlook 2023 [6],
(Figure 1), up 60% relative
over 26to 2021electric
million and more thanvehicles
light-duty five times
(ELDVs)thewere
stock
on in
the2018.
road inAdditionally,
2022 (Figure 1), up
global battery electric60% relative to 2021 and more than five times the stock in 2018. Additionally, global battery
vehicles (BEVs) make up a significant share of total sales compared
electric vehicles (BEVs) make up a significant share of total sales compared to plug-in
to plug-in hybrid electric
hybridvehicles (PHEVs).
electric vehicles (PHEVs).

Figure 1. Global electricFigure

car stock in selected
1. Global regions,
electric car stock in2010–2022 License:
selected regions, CC BY
2010–2022 4.0 [6].
License: CCNotes: BEVNotes:
BY 4.0 [6]. =
BEV = battery electric vehicle; PHEV = plug-in hybrid electric vehicle. Electric
battery electric vehicle; PHEV = plug-in hybrid electric vehicle. Electric car stock in this figure refers to car stock in this figure
refers to In
passenger light-duty vehicles. passenger light-duty
“Europe”, vehicles.Union
European In “Europe”, European
countries, Union countries,
Norway, the United Norway, the United
Kingdom,
Kingdom, Iceland, Israel, Switzerland, and Turkey. Main markets in “Other” include Australia,
Iceland, Israel, Switzerland, and Turkey. Main markets in “Other” include Australia, Brazil, Canada,
Brazil, Canada, Chile, Mexico, India, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, New Zealand, South Africa, Korea,
Chile, Mexico, India, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, New Zealand, South Africa, Korea, and Thailand.
and Thailand.

Since 2017, the shareSince 2017, thein

of ELDVs share
Chinaof ELDVs in China
has been has been constantly
constantly on theIn
on the rise. rise. In 2022,
2022, therethere
were more than 10 million BEVs in China, more than the total number of these vehicles
were more than 10 million BEVs in China, more than the total number of these vehicles in
in use worldwide in 2020. Europe is the second largest market for electric vehicles. The
use worldwide in 2020.UnitedEurope is the
States ranks third.second largest market for electric vehicles. The
United States ranks third. In China in 2022, 4.4 million BEVs and 1.5 million PHEVs were sold in the ELDV
segment, which accounted
In China in 2022, 4.4 million BEVs and for nearly
1.5 60% of all new
million PHEVs EV registrations
were sold worldwide
in the [6].
ELDV In 2022,
the share of electric cars among total domestic car sales reached 29% in China, reaching its
segment, which accounted for nearly
2025 national target of 60%
a 20%of allshare
sales newforEV registrations
so-called new energy worldwide
vehicles (NEVs [6].= BEVs,
In
2022, the share of electric
PHEVs cars
andamong total domestic
fuel cell electric vehicles). car sales reached 29% in China, reach-
In the EVI annual
ing its 2025 national target of a 20% sales share report, Europe
for accounts
so-called for new
the European
energyUnion countries,
vehicles (NEVsNorway,
=
United Kingdom, Iceland, Israel, Switzerland, and Turkey [6,7]. The EV share of new
BEVs, PHEVs and fuel cell electric vehicles).
passenger car sales in 2022 reached 21% and 29% in EU-27 and Europe, respectively. Back in
In the EVI annual2018,report, Europe
the EV share accounts
was only 1.9% andfor2.3%,
therespectively
European[6].Union countries,
A significant increaseNor-
in sales
way, United Kingdom, Iceland,EVs
of passenger Israel, Switzerland,
has been and2020,
observed since Turkeywhen[6,7].
750,000The EVand
BEVs share of new
630,000 PHEVs
passenger car sales in 2022 reached 21% and 29% in EU-27 and Europe, respectively. Back A
were sold. In 2022, these figures increased to 1.6 million BEVs and 1.0 million PHEVs.
total of 800,000 BEVs and 190,000 PHEVs were sold in the USA in 2022, which accounted
in 2018, the EV shareforwas
a 7.7%only
share1.9%
of theand
total2.3%,
sales ofrespectively
new passenger [6]. A significant increase in
cars [6].
sales of passenger EVs has been observed
The number of EV models sinceavailable
2020, when was also 750,000
growingBEVs(Figureand 2); 630,000
there were
500 different models in 2022, four times the number
PHEVs were sold. In 2022, these figures increased to 1.6 million BEVs and 1.0 million than in 2016 [6]. This trend reflects
PHEVs. A total of 800,000 BEVs and 190,000 PHEVs were sold in the USA in 2022, which
accounted for a 7.7% share of the total sales of new passenger cars [6].
The number of EV models available was also growing (Figure 2); there were 500 differ-
ent models in 2022, four times the number than in 2016 [6]. This trend reflects the level of
 Energies 2024, 17, 495
REVIEW 4 4of
of 29
30

the level of maturity of the EV market and the manufacturers’ response to the growing
customer demand and national and international regulations. The number of internal
(SUVs) from among thecombustion
availableengine
EVs and(ICE) ICE passenger
vehicle cars.steadily
models has been Electric two- and
decreasing since three-wheel-
2016, but is still
ers prevail only in emerging markets and developing economies [6]. As forecastedoften
several times higher than the number of EV models. Globally, consumers most in [6],
chooseEV
large vehicles (SUVs) from among the available EVs and ICE passenger cars. Electric two-
sales are projected to reach approx. 20–30 million by 2025 and at least twice that number by
and three-wheelers prevail only in emerging markets and developing economies [6]. As
2030. forecasted in [6], EV sales are projected to reach approx. 20–30 million by 2025 and at least
twice that number by 2030.

(a) (b)
Figure 2. Car model availability by model
Figure 2. Car powertrain, (a)
availability by2010–2022.
powertrain, (a)(b) Breakdown
2010–2022. of available
(b) Breakdown carscars
of available by
by powertrain and segment in 2022 (right); license: CC BY 4.0 [6].
powertrain and segment in 2022 (right); license: CC BY 4.0 [6]. Notes: Small cars include A and B Notes: Small cars include
A and B segments. Medium cars include C and D segments. Crossovers are a type of sports
segments. Medium cars include C and D segments. Crossovers are a type of sports utility vehicle
utility vehicle (SUV) built on a passenger car platform. Large cars include E and F segments and
(SUV) built on a passenger car platform.
multi-purpose vehicles.Large cars include E and F segments and multi-purpose
vehicles.
The construction and density of the EV charging infrastructure per EV registered in
the given country significantly restricts the popularity of electric vehicles. At the same
The construction and density
time, the numberof andthe EV
share charging
of electric infrastructure
vehicles vary significantlyper EVcountries
across registered in
(refer to
the given country significantly
Figure 3) andrestricts theclosely
are apparently popularity
correlatedof
withelectric vehicles.
governmental Atthethe
policies, same
wealth of
potential customers, EV range, and the diversity and availability of EV service and charging
time, the number and share of electric vehicles vary significantly across countries (refer to
infrastructure (refer to Table 1).
Figure 3) and are apparently
Tableclosely correlated
1 lists the with governmental
number of passenger EVs and the totalpolicies,
number ofthecarswealth
(TPCs) inof
Europe. Places where the EV to TPC ratio exceeds 1% are marked
potential customers, EV range, and the diversity and availability of EV service and charg- orange. Norway is the
European leader in passenger electric vehicles by stock share.
ing infrastructure (refer to Table 1).
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Energies 2024, 17, 495 5 of 29

United Kingdom
Turkey
Switzerland
Sweden
Spain
Slovenia
Slovakia
Romania
Portugal
Poland
Norway
Netherlands
Malta
Luxembourg
Lithuania
Liechtenstein
Latvia
Italy
Ireland
Iceland
Hungary
Greece
Germany
France
Finland
Estonia
Denmark
Czech Republic
Cyprus
Croatia
Bulgaria
Belgium
Austria

0 200,000 400,000 600,000 800,000 1,000,000

PHEV BEV
Figure 3. Number of BEV and PHEV passenger cars (M1&N1) in selected European countries in 2022
Figure 3. [8]).
(data from Number of BEV and PHEV passenger cars (M1&N1) in selected European countrie
2022 (data from [8]).

Table 1. Total EVs (M1&N1) and passenger cars in selected European countries in 2022 (data form

BEVs/TPCs PHEVs/TPCs EVs/T

Kraj BEVs PHEVs EVs TPCs
[%] [%] [%
Austria 117,919 42,289 160,208 5,677,614 2.08 0.74 2.8
Belgium 96,983 183,122 280,105 6,868,895 1.41 2.67 4.0
Bulgaria 3142 1897 5039 3,162,164 0.10 0.06 0.1
Energies 2024, 17, 495 6 of 29

Table 1. Total EVs (M1&N1) and passenger cars in selected European countries in 2022 (data form [8]).

BEVs/TPCs PHEVs/TPCs EVs/TPCs

Kraj BEVs PHEVs EVs TPCs
[%] [%] [%]
Austria 117,919 42,289 160,208 5,677,614 2.08 0.74 2.82
Belgium 96,983 183,122 280,105 6,868,895 1.41 2.67 4.08
Bulgaria 3142 1897 5039 3,162,164 0.10 0.06 0.16
Croatia 4150 1634 5784 2,009,447 0.21 0.08 0.29
Cyprus 566 662 1228 711,874 0.08 0.09 0.17
CzechRepublic 14,798 8720 23,518 6,904,104 0.21 0.13 0.34
Denmark 10,1457 98,187 199,644 3,163,631 3.21 3.10 6.31
Estonia 3024 644 3668 962,463 0.31 0.07 0.38
Finland 49,287 106,276 155,563 4,084,584 1.21 2.60 3.81
France 761,494 412,693 1,174,187 45,527,439 1.67 0.91 2.58
Germany 1,034,947 932,152 1,967,099 52,000,325 1.99 1.79 3.78
Greece 6434 12,283 18,717 6,600,530 0.10 0.19 0.29
Hungary 16,856 14,669 31,525 4,622,570 0.36 0.32 0.68
Iceland 18,292 20,700 38,992 307,460 5.95 6.73 12.68
Ireland 37,940 25,523 63,463 2,766,430 1.37 0.92 2.29
Italy 185,086 184,142 369,228 44,256,433 0.42 0.42 0.84
Latvia 2130 569 2699 837,435 0.25 0.07 0.32
Liechtenstein 374 64 438 33,881 1.10 0.19 1.29
Lithuania 7561 4949 12,510 1,729,529 0.44 0.29 0.73
Luxembourg 15,328 12,834 28,162 490,142 3.13 2.62 5.75
Malta 2762 2719 5481 355,789 0.78 0.76 1.54
Netherlands 341,988 187,074 529,062 9,950,843 3.44 1.88 5.32
Norway 533,911 188,029 721,940 3,596,234 14.85 5.23 20.08
Poland 27,564 26,416 53,980 29,584,756 0.09 0.09 0.18
Portugal 71,607 59,738 131,345 7,064,476 1.01 0.85 1.86
Romania 23,644 8329 31,973 8,702,434 0.27 0.10 0.37
Slovakia 4705 4215 8920 2,831,779 0.17 0.15 0.32
Slovenia 7914 1546 9460 1,299,361 0.61 0.12 0.73
Spain 118,100 135,008 253,108 29,006,565 0.41 0.47 0.88
Sweden 223,677 276,580 500,257 5,635,658 3.97 4.91 8.88
Switzerland 128,158 72,982 201,140 5,236,879 2.45 1.39 3.84
Turkey 14,217 2346 16,563 18,819,314 0.08 0.01 0.09
United
663,761 431,060 1,094,821 37,251,580 1.78 1.16 2.94
Kingdom
EU 27 3,281,063 2,744,870 6,025,933 286,807,270 1.14 0.96 2.10
Legend:
..... —countries where EV to TPC ratio exceeds 1%,
..... —union of countries where EV to TPC ratio exceeds 1%.

2.2. General Characteristics of Home EV Chargers and Public EV Recharging Stations

There are several ways to charge EV batteries. Based on the charging method, there
are inductive and conductive charging. Due to the movement of the vehicle, charging
takes place when the vehicle is stationary (stationary charging stations) or while it is
moving (electric road systems—ERS). Stationary charging stations will be discussed later.
ERS solutions are installed near the roadway or directly on it. Several pilot programs of
conductive ERS can be found [9]. The advantage of this solution is the ability to charge the
vehicle while it is moving, which allows the use of a smaller battery. Reducing the weight
of the battery translates into no restrictions on the load capacity of vehicles (especially
important for trucks).
EV batteries can be charged with alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC) [10].
Regrettably, stationary station EVs connectors vary by geographic region and even by
model, which makes it impossible to charge an EV at any recharging point across the world.
Currently, the following types of EV charging connectors are available (Figure 4) [11–17]:
• Type 1—single-phase AC charging (250 V, 32 A) connector popular mainly in the USA
and Japan;
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 30

Energies 2024, 17, 495

• Type 1—single-phase AC charging (250 V, 32 A) connector popular mainly in7 of 29
the
USA and Japan;
• Type 1 Combo (combined charging system—CCS 1)—DC charging, Type 1 (AC) con-
• Type 1extended
nector Combo (combined chargingdirect
with two additional system—CCS 1)—DC
current (DC) charging,
contacts; Type 1 con-
this charging (AC)
connector extended with two
nector is popular mainly in the USA; additional direct current (DC) contacts; this charging
• connector
Type is popular mainly
2—single-phase in the USA;
AC charging (250 V, 13 A or 20 A or 32 A or 63 A or 70 A) or
• three-phase (480 V, 13 A or 20 A or 32(250
Type 2—single-phase AC charging A orV,
6313
A)Aconnector
or 20 A or 32 A or
popular 63 A or
mainly 70 A) or
in Europe;
• three-phase (480 V, 13 A or 20 A or 32 A or 63 A) connector popular
Type 2 Combo (CCS 2)—DC charging, Type 2 (AC) connector extended with mainly in Europe;
two
• Type 2 Combo (CCS 2)—DC charging, Type 2 (AC) connector extended
additional direct current (DC) contacts, short-term charging power up to 500 kW; this with two
additionalisdirect
connector current
popular (DC)
mainly incontacts,
Europe; short-term charging power up to 500 kW; this
• Type 3—single-phase (250 V, 16Europe;
connector is popular mainly in A or 32 A) or three-phase (480 V, 32 A or 63 A) AC
• Type 3—single-phase
charging, currently not(250
usedV,and
16 A or 32 A)
replaced inor three-phase
Europe by Type(480 V, 32 A or 63 A) AC
2/Combo,
charging, currently not used and replaced in Europe by Type 2/Combo,
• CHadeMO—DC charging, bi-directional energy flow (implementation of the V2G—
• CHadeMO—DC charging, bi-directional energy flow (implementation of the V2G—vehicle
vehicle to grid standard), charging standard used in various means of transport, out-
to grid standard), charging standard used in various means of transport, output power
put power for wheeled vehicles: 10 kW ÷ 400 kW (150 V ÷ 1000 V), the latest
for wheeled vehicles: 10 kW ÷ 400 kW (150 V ÷ 1000 V), the latest CHAdeMO (3.0)
CHAdeMO (3.0) “ChaoJi” protocol provides for charging at up to 900 kW (600 A ×
“ChaoJi” protocol provides for charging at up to 900 kW (600 A × 1.5 kV), developed
1.5 kV), developed jointly by CHAdeMO and the China Electricity Council (CEC);
jointly by CHAdeMO and the China Electricity Council (CEC); this connection is
this connection is prevalent in Japan;
prevalent in Japan;
• GB/T—connector popular mainly in China;
• GB/T—connector popular mainly in China;
• Tesla—a proprietary standard of EV connectors used by Tesla; the same connector is
• Tesla—a proprietary standard of EV connectors used by Tesla; the same connector is
used for AC and DC charging; since the end of 2018, vehicles introduced to the EU
used for AC and DC charging; since the end of 2018, vehicles introduced to the EU
market are equipped with the European CCS 2 socket.
market are equipped with the European CCS 2 socket.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

(e) (f) (g) (h)

Figure 4. Types of electric vehicle plugs [18–22]: (a) Type 1; (b) Type 2; (c) GB/T (AC); (d) Tesla inlet
Figure 4. Types of electric vehicle plugs [18–22]: (a) Type 1; (b) Type 2; (c) GB/T (AC); (d) Tesla inlet
(USA); (e) CCS 1; (f) CCS 2; (g) GB/T (DC); (h) CHadeMO.
(USA); (e) CCS 1; (f) CCS 2; (g) GB/T (DC); (h) CHadeMO.

According
Accordingtotothe
theinternational
international standard
standard[23], thethe
[23], following methods
following are used
methods for con-
are used for
necting an EV to the power grid for charging (Figure
connecting an EV to the power grid for charging (Figure 5): 5):
•• Case
CaseA—a
A—acable
cableisispermanently
permanently connected
connected toto the
the vehicle;
vehicle;
•• Case B—a cable that is detachable at both
Case B—a cable that is detachable at both ends;ends;
•• Case
Case C—a
C—a cable
cable that
that is
is permanently
permanently connected
connected to to the
the EV
EV recharging
recharging station.
station.
Energies 2024, 17, 495 8 of8 29
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW of 30

Figure 5. Cases of connections (based on [23]): (a) case A; (b) case B; (c) case C.
Figure 5. Cases of connections (based on [23]): (a) case A; (b) case B; (c) case C.

The methods of charging electric cars are described in detail in [23]; the following
The methods of charging electric cars are described in detail in [23]; the following
solutions are listed (Figure
solutions are6):
listed (Figure 6):
• Mode 1—charging
• Modefrom a standard
1—charging single-phase
from a standard AC socket
single-phase (not
AC socket (notmore than250
more than 250 V,A)
V, 16
16 A) or three-phase AC socket
or three-phase (not(not
AC socket more than
more than480 V, 16
480 V, 16A)A) without
without an additional
an additional protection
protection device; device;
• Mode 2—charging from a standard single-phase AC socket (not more than 250 V, 32
• Mode 2—charging from a standard single-phase AC socket (not more than 250 V, 32 A)
A) or three-phase AC socket (not more than 480 V, 32 A) with an additional protection
or three-phase AC socket (not more than 480 V, 32 A) with an additional protection
device (e.g., in-cable control box, ICCB) placed between the power socket and the EV
device (e.g., in-cable controland
(e.g., control box, ICCB) devices);
protection placed between the power socket and the EV
(e.g., control• andMode
protection
3—chargingdevices);
using a power supply device with an AC output dedicated to EV
• Mode 3—charging usingwith
charging a power supply
appropriate devicedevices;
protective with antheAC output
device mustdedicated
be equipped to with
EV a
grounding wire;
charging with appropriate protective devices; the device must be equipped with a
• Mode 4—charging using a power supply device with a DC output dedicated to EV
grounding wire;
charging with appropriate protective devices; the device must be equipped with a
• Mode 4—charging using a power supply device with a DC output dedicated to EV
grounding wire.
charging with • appropriate
Mode 1 charging protective
is currentlydevices; the device
not supported by vehiclemust be equipped
manufacturers. In thiswith
mode,ave-
grounding wire.hicles are charged without additional protection and the leads connected to the electrical
• Mode 1 charging is currently
outlet are alwaysnotlive.supported
Charging is by
slow vehicle manufacturers.
and limited In this
to domestic electric mode,
installations.
vehicles are charged without additional protection and the leads connected to[23].
Mode 1 charging is banned in the United States, Israel and the United Kingdom the
• Mode 2 uses the electric vehicle supply equipment (EVSE), which supplies AC to the
electrical outlet are always live. Charging is slow and limited to domestic electric
EV onboard charger (OBC). The OBC converts the AC main current into DC and
installations. Mode 1 charging is banned in the United States, Israel and the United
sends it to the battery. Mode 2 in the United States of America and Canada is limited
Kingdom [23]. to 250 V. In Switzerland, mode 2 charging is limited to 16 A and 250 V (in single-
• Mode 2 uses thephaseelectric vehicle
systems). Some supply equipment
European countries(EVSE), whichcurrent
apply charging supplies AC to during
limitations the
EV onboard charger (OBC).
charging The
(using OBC converts
charging the AC with
devices equipped maina current
household into DCfor
plug) and sends
more than 2
h. Modes 1 and 2 are prohibited to use in public places in Italy.
it to the battery. Mode 2 in the United States of America and Canada is limited to 250 V. No voltage and cur-
rent limits are set in international standard for modes 3 and 4.
In Switzerland, mode 2 charging is limited to 16 A and 250 V (in single-phase systems).
Some European countries apply charging current limitations during charging (using
charging devices equipped with a household plug) for more than 2 h. Modes 1 and
2 are prohibited to use in public places in Italy. No voltage and current limits are set in
international standard for modes 3 and 4.
The EV charging speed depends on the specification of the OBC, the recharging point
and the cable used. Table 2 lists the parameters of the most common OBC and the power of
home EV recharging points. The OBC with the highest power (22 kW) reduces the charging
time and is the most universal solution, i.e., recharging points with lower power can be
freely used (which means that there are no restrictions on the electrical installation of the
recharging point—the number of phases or the current).
Energies 2024, 17, 495 Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 299 of 30

Figure
Figure 6. Charging 6. Charging
modes (based modes (based
on [23]): on [23]):
(a) mode 1; (a)
(b)mode
mode1;2;(b)(c)mode
mode2; (c) mode
3; (d) 3; (d)4.mode 4.
mode

Table 2. AC chargingThe EV charging

power speed depends
of EVs, including the powerson theofspecification
the recharging of the OBC,
point andtheOBCrecharging
[24–27]. point
and the cable used. Table 2 lists the parameters of the most common OBC and the power
of home EV recharging points. The OBC OnboardwithCharger
the highest power (22 kW) reduces the
charging time and 3.7 is
kWthe most universal7.4 kWsolution, i.e., 11
recharging
kW points 22with
kWlower power
can be freely used (which meansone-phase,
one-phase, that there are no three-phase,
restrictions on the three-phase,
electrical installation
of the recharging16 A
point—the number 32ofA phases or the 16 A
current). 32 A
2.3 kW
Table 2. AC charging
one-phase, 2.3 kW (a) of EVs, including
power 2.3 kW (a)the powers2.3 of kW (a)
the recharging point
2.3 kWand(a)
OBC [24–27].
10 A
Onboard Charger
3.7 kW
(b) 3.7 kW (a) 7.4 kW 11 kW 22 kW
one-phase, 3.7 kW 3.7 kW 3.7 kW (a) (1) 3.7 kW (a)
one-phase, one-phase, three-phase, 16 three-phase, 32
Charging Point

16 A
7.4 kW 16 A 32 A A A
one-phase, 2.3 kW 3.7 kW (d) 7.4 kW (b) 3.7 kW (c) (2) 7.4 kW (a)
32 A one-phase, 2.3 kW (a) 2.3 kW (a) 2.3 kW (a) 2.3 kW (a)
11 kW 10 A
three-phase, 3.7 kW 3.7 kW (d) 3.7 kW (c) (3) 11 kW (b) 11 kW (a)
16 A one-phase, 3.7 kW (b) 3.7 kW (a) 3.7 kW (a) (1) 3.7 kW (a)
22 kW
Charging Point

16 A
three-phase, 3.7 kW (d) 7.4 kW (d) (4) 11 kW (d) 22 kW (b)
7.4 kW
32 A
one-phase, 3.7 kW (d) 7.4 kW (b) 3.7 kW (c) (2) 7.4 kW (a)
Legend: 32 A
(a) - limitations related to the recharging point,
11 kW
(b) - no restrictions,
three-phase, 3.7 kW (d) 3.7 kW (c) (3) 11 kW (b) 11 kW (a)
(c) - limitations related to the recharging point and the OBC,
16 A
(d) - OBC-related limitations
22 kW (the vehicle cannot charge faster),
(1) - on-board charger that only accepts
three-phase, single-phase
3.7 kW (d) charging,
7.4 which is11
kW (d) (4) a limitation
kW (d) attributed
22 kW (b)
to the AC recharging point: 1 ∗ 230 V ∗ 16 A ≈ 3.7 kW,
32 A
(2) - on-board charger that only accepts single-phase charging and a 16 A current due to the
Legend:
its OBC limitations: 1 ∗ 230 V ∗ 16 A ≈ 3.7 kW,
(3) - on-board charger that only accepts a single phase offered by a three-phase recharging
point, which has the ability to supply AC at 16 A: 1 ∗ 230 V ∗ 16 A ≈ 3.7 kW,
(4) - on-board charger that only accepts a single phase offered by a three-phase recharging
station, which has the ability to supply AC at 32 A: 1 ∗ 230 V ∗ 32 A ≈ 7.4 kW.
 (4) - on-board charger that only accepts a single phase offered by a three-phase recharging st
tion, which has the ability to supply AC at 32 A: 1 ∗ 230 V ∗ 32 A ≈ 7.4 kW.

The location of charging stations, especially in cities and suburban areas, requ
Energies 2024, 17, 495 10 of 29
many factors to be taken into account, which include [28] the cyclical variability and l
of the charging point, demand control, optimal power flow, vehicle characteristics, ow
satisfaction, charging
The location behavior,
of charging energy
stations, network
especially costs,
in cities regulation
and suburban of energy
areas, prices acco
requires
ing to the
many timetoof
factors be its useinto
taken onaccount,
the market,
whichand charging
include [28] thespeed.
cyclicalThe aboveand
variability factors,
load includ
mainly the charging
of the charging speed, control,
point, demand charging behavior
optimal power of vehicle
flow, vehicleowners, and charging
characteristics, owner a la
satisfaction, charging behavior, energy network costs, regulation of energy
number of electric vehicles, will cause problems with energy quality and harmonic disprices according
to the time of its use on the market, and charging speed. The above factors, including mainly
tions, which cause a load on electrical network devices [29].
the charging speed, charging behavior of vehicle owners, and charging a large number of
Thevehicles,
electric requirements
will causeand the with
problems stateenergy
of the charging
quality infrastructure
and harmonic around the
distortions, which
transport network will be discussed below.
cause a load on electrical network devices [29].
The requirements and the state of the charging infrastructure around the EU transport
network will be discussed
2.3. Distribution below. Points/Recharging Stations in the European Union
of EV Recharging
2.3.The development
Distribution of charging
of EV Recharging infrastructure
Points/Recharging is in
Stations crucial in facilitating
the European Union the widespr
use of TheEVs.development
The number of publicinfrastructure
of charging AC and DCisrecharging points isthe
crucial in facilitating shown in Figures 7
widespread
8. use
Theofdata
EVs. are
The presented according
number of public AC andtoDCthe categorization
recharging points is of the in
shown regulation for8.the dep
Figures 7 and
The data
ment are presented
of alternative according
fuels to the categorization
infrastructure (AFIR). of the regulation forAC
Medium-speed the recharging
deployment points
of alternative fuels infrastructure (AFIR). Medium-speed AC recharging points are the most
the most common type of public EV recharging stations. Fast and ultra-fast-level 1 pre
common type of public EV recharging stations. Fast and ultra-fast-level 1 prevail among
among DC recharging
DC recharging points. points.

500,000
Total number of publicly accessible AC

450,000
400,000
350,000
recharging points

300,000
250,000
200,000
150,000
100,000
50,000
0
2020 2021 2022 2023
Fast
FastAC
ACrecharging point,
recharging point,triple-phase
triple-phase(P(P> >22
22kW)
kW)
Medium-speed
Medium-speedAC
ACrecharging
rechargingpoint,
point,triple-phase
triple-phase(7.4
(7.4kW
kW≤≤PP≤≤22
22kW)
kW)
Slow
SlowAC
ACrecharging point,
recharging single-phase
point, (P(P< <7.4
single-phase 7.4kW)
kW)

Figure 7. Total number of publicly accessible AC recharging points in EU-27, according to the AFIR
Figure 7. Total number of publicly accessible AC recharging points in EU-27, according to the
categorization [8].
AFIR categorization [8].
Guidelines for the development of the Trans-European Transport Network (TEN-T)
with recharging points are set out in [30]. By the end of 2025 and 2030, the recharging
pool power is planned to reach 300 kW and 600 kW for light-duty vehicles and 1400 kW
and 3500 kW for heavy-duty vehicles, respectively (Table 3). The power output offered by
recharging stations for light-duty vehicles and heavy-duty vehicles is scheduled to reach
150 kW and 350 kW, respectively.
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of
Energies 2024, 17, 495 11 of 29

70,000

Total number of publicly accessible DC

60,000
50,000

recharging points
40,000
30,000
20,000
10,000
0
2020 2021 2022 2023
Level
Level2 2- Ultra-fast
- Ultra-fastDC
DCrecharging point
recharging (P(P
point ≥ 350kW)
≥ 350 kW)

Level
Level1 1- Ultra-fast
- Ultra-fastDC
DCrecharging point
recharging (150kW
point ≤ P≤ <P 350kW)
(150 kW < 350 kW)

Fast
FastDC
DCrecharging point
recharging (50kW
point ≤ P≤ <150kW)
(50 kW P <150 kW)

Slow
SlowDC
DCrecharging point
recharging (P(P
point < 50kW)
< 50 kW)

Figure 8. Total number of publicly accessible DC recharging points in EU-27, according to the AFIR
Figure 8. Total number of publicly accessible DC recharging points in EU-27, according to the
categorization [8].
AFIR categorization [8].
Table 3. Objectives regarding publicly accessible recharging pools and recharging stations (based
Guidelines for the development of the Trans-European Transport Network
on [30]). (TEN-
with recharging points are set out in [30]. By the end of 2025 and 2030, the recharging po
Minimum Power Output (2)
power is planned to
Transportation reach(1)300
Distance alongkW
the and 600 kW for light-duty vehicles and (4) 1400 kW an
Recharging Stations
3500 kW for heavy-duty
Network TEN-Tvehicles,
Network respectively (Table
Recharging Pools 3). The power output offered by r
(3)
(Number × Power)
charging stations for light-duty vehicles and heavy-duty vehicles is scheduled to rea
Light-duty vehicles
150 kW and 350 kW, respectively. 2025 2025
300 kW 1 × 150 kW
Core network 60 km
600 kW 2030 2 × 150 kW 2030
Table 3. Objectives
Comprehensive regarding publicly accessible recharging
300 kW 2030 pools and 1recharging stations (based o
× 150 kW 2030
[30]). network 60 km 2035 2035
600 kW 2 × 150 kW
Heavy-duty vehicles
Minimum Power Output (2)
Transportation Distance (1) along 1400 kW 1 × 350 kW 2025 2025
Core network 60 km
3500 kW 2030 Recharging Stations (4
2 × 350 kW 2030
Network the TEN-T Network Recharging Pools (3)
Comprehensive 1400 kW 2030 1 × 350(Number
kW 2030 × Power)
100 km 2035
network Light-duty 3500 vehicles
kW 2 × 350 kW 2035
Legend: 300 kW 2025 1 × 150 kW 2025
(1)
Core network - maximum60distance km between recharging pools 2030 in each direction of travel,
(2) - theoretical maximum output power600 kW among individual2recharging
distributed × 150 kW 2030
Comprehensivepools, 300 kW 2030 1 × 150 kW 2030
(3) 60recharging
- at least one km station per location, 2035
(4)network 600 kW
- recharging station(s) with individual output power,
2 × 150 kW 2035
2025 - reaching the target byHeavy-duty
31 December 2025,vehicles
2030 - reaching the target by 31 December1400 2030, kW 2025 1 × 350 kW 2025
Core
2035 network - reaching 60 the km
target by 31 December 2035,
Comprehensive transport network—is a transport network 3500 forkW ensuring accessibility 2and
2030 × 350 kW 2030
Comprehensive
connectivity of all EU regions [31], 1400 kW 2030 1 × 350 kW 2030
Core network—the transport 100 km consists of those parts of the2035
network comprehensive network that
network 3500 kW
are of the highest strategic importance for achieving the objectives for the development of
2 × 350 kW 2035
Legend:
the TEN-T.
(1) - maximum distance between recharging pools in each direction of travel,
(2) - theoretical maximum output power distributed among individual recharging pools,
(3) - at least one recharging station per location,
(4) - recharging station(s) with individual output power,
2025 - reaching the target by 31 December 2025,
2030 - reaching the target by 31 December 2030,
Energies 2024, 17, 495 12 of 29

Table 4 lists data from an interactive TENtec map [32], which is the information system
of the European Commission used to coordinate and support the TEN-T policy. It provides
information on the locations and addresses of recharging stations, access type (public or
semi-public), and connectors (plug type, power in kW, and power type—AC or DC). To
analyze the development of EV charging infrastructure, the following filter categories can
be used: power (50 kW ≤ p < 150 kW, 150 kW ≤ p < 350 kW, p ≥ 350 kW), connector
type (Type 2, CCS, CHAdeMO, Tesla, or other), accessibility (public, semi-public), and
buffer zones around TEN-T roads (1 km, 2 km, and 8 km). Data from the interactive
map [32] presented in Table 4 were classified into two main categories, i.e., 1 km and 8 km
buffer zones around TEN-T roads were analyzed. Within each category, subcategories were
analyzed that included charging connectors for the European market (Type 2 and CCS)
and three different levels of recharging point power, while the type of connector was not
considered. Colors indicate the five countries with the highest number of recharging points
in the analyzed subcategories. Yellow and orange designate the countries with the highest
number of recharging points in the analyzed subcategory within the 1 km and 8 km buffer
zones, respectively.
Table 5 compares three ratios for passenger EVs and recharging points. The number
of recharging points is taken from Table 4 for an 8 km buffer zone along the TEN-T; the
number of passenger EVs is taken form Table 1. The capacity of BEV batteries is typically
higher than that of PHEVs; hence, the BEV charging time also depends on the power of the
recharging point. Ratio 3 was designed to reflect the number of passenger BEVs in relation
to recharging points offering a more efficient CCS type connector.
Energies 2024, 17, 495 13 of 29

Table 4. Recharging points by connector type and power category (data from [32]).

Buffer zones around TEN-T roads of public and semi-public e-charging points
1 km 8 km
Kraj Type 2 CCS 50 kW ≤ p < 150 kW 150 kW ≤ p < 350 kW p ≥ 350 kW Type 2 CCS 50 kW ≤ p < 150 kW 150 kW ≤ p < 350 kW p ≥ 350 kW
Austria 2251 961 270 526 132 9873 1888 652 956 146
Belgium 7475 890 158 614 68 28,695 1646 447 976 101
Bulgaria 187 161 69 52 31 618 311 142 82 49
Croatia 153 143 78 46 10 506 240 132 64 20
Cyprys 92 10 4 6 0 173 13 5 6 0
Czechia 540 340 233 77 20 2079 832 647 147 20
Denmark 2573 750 106 596 48 11,201 1240 231 945 48
Estonia 145 46 28 14 4 206 57 34 19 4
Finland 2262 1015 265 704 22 6211 1519 565 899 26
France 12,913 6376 1400 3733 715 40,446 10,429 2865 5591 769
Germany 6620 6045 827 4545 589 46,860 11,947 2584 8032 862
Greece 484 54 18 31 0 1053 65 20 37 0
Hungary 409 181 83 69 20 1993 415 166 121 20
Ireland 500 174 58 85 30 1818 287 151 104 30
Italy 4808 2068 707 1192 124 23,159 4250 2110 1749 239
Latvia 150 83 62 8 2 282 142 106 21 2
Lithuania 362 122 85 28 8 774 190 142 32 8
Luxembourg 178 32 0 12 20 923 57 6 19 32
Malta 72 0 0 0 0 96 0 0 0 0
The
Netherlands 25,594 2028 323 1616 66 108,362 2846 572 2051 83
Poland 538 390 266 49 32 2442 947 632 135 35
Portugal 818 359 276 89 26 4211 1231 1024 242 26
Romania 662 383 214 54 16 1362 704 392 97 28
Slovakia 426 217 121 66 7 1231 505 327 113 9
Slovenia 314 149 68 34 31 1121 202 100 36 32
Spain 6048 1792 996 583 127 17,594 3357 2064 882 144
Sweden 7325 2350 477 1700 182 20,065 3015 741 2069 220
Legend:
- five countries with the highest number of recharging points in the analyzed subcategories in 1 km and 8 km buffer zone: ..... —type 2, ..... —CCS, ..... —50 kW ≤ p < 150 kW, ..... —150 kW ≤ p < 350 kW,
..... —p ≥ 350 kW,
- one country with the highest number of recharging points in the analyzed subcategories: ..... —in 1 km buffer zone, ..... —in 8 km buffer zone.
Energies 2024, 17, 495 14 of 29

Table 5. EVs per recharging point ratio along the TEN-T.

Country Ratio 1 Ratio 2 Ratio 3 Country Ratio 1 Ratio 2 Ratio 3

Austria 10.0 3.6 62.5 Italy 6.8 6.7 43.5
Belgium 3.2 6.0 58.9 Latvia 5.0 1.3 15.0
Bulgaria 3.4 2.0 10.1 Lithuania 7.8 5.1 39.8
Croatia 5.6 2.2 17.3 Luxembourg 15.6 13.1 268.9
Cyprus 3.0 3.6 43.5 Malta 28.8 28.3 NaN
Czech
5.1 3.0 17.8 Netherlands 3.1 1.7 120.2
Republic
Denmark 8.2 7.9 81.8 Poland 8.1 7.8 29.1
Estonia 11.5 2.4 53.1 Portugal 13.2 11.0 58.2
Finland 6.4 13.7 32.4 Romania 11.4 4.0 33.6
France 15.0 8.1 73.0 Slovakia 2.7 2.4 9.3
Germany 17.6 15.9 86.6 Slovenia 6.0 1.2 39.2
Greece 5.8 11 99.0 Spain 5.6 6.4 35.2
Hungary 7.0 6.1 40.6 Sweden 9.7 12.0 74.2
Ireland 18.0 12.1 132.2 EU 27 9.0 7.4 60.6

Legend:
- Ratio 1—BEV/(Type 2 + CCS),
- Ratio 2—PHEV/(Type 2 + CCS),
- Ratio 3—BEV/CCS. UE 27—mean value for each ratio,
..... —countries where the number of passenger BEVs or PHEVs exceeded 100,000,
..... —top five EU countries with the highest number of passenger EVs.

France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands and Sweden are among the top five EU
countries with the highest number of passenger EVs (marked in green in Table 5). Other
countries where the number of passenger BEVs or PHEVs exceeded 100,000 are marked
in orange. Ratio 3, to some extent, reflects the development of the fast EV charging
infrastructure along the TEN-T with the ever-increasing number of electric vehicles. The
value of this ratio for EU-27 was strongly influenced by countries with more than 100 EVs
per recharging point. As for charging points equipped with Type 2 and CCS connectors,
there are approx. 17 EVs per recharging point in Germany (the country with the highest
number of EVs), and as for CCS recharging points, there are approximately 86 EVs per
recharging point. Interesting results were obtained for the Netherlands, where there is a
significant development of the charging infrastructure equipped with Type 2 connectors
and a much smaller share of points equipped with CCS connectors.

2.4. EV Charging Time

The EV charging time depends on the charging method (AC or DC), type of recharging
points (public or private), battery capacity, and OBC. With publicly accessible chargers,
specifically DC chargers, an EV battery can be recharged faster compared to a private/home
recharging point. Table 6 summarizes the charging time of selected EVs using AC and
DC recharging points. The initial and final state of charge (SoC) are set at 20% and 80%,
respectively. Charging the EVs at a DC recharging point takes about 0.5 h, and the EV
charging time at the DC recharging point mainly depends on the vehicle specifications.
For example, the battery capacity of Tesla 3 and Renault Zoe is similar, but the average
charging power of Tesla 3 is more than twice as high as that of Renault, which translates
into shorter charging times. Charging times at AC recharging points are longer because
they are limited by the OBC and the power of the recharging point. The charging time
attributed to OBC-related limitations is marked in orange. EVs with a charging time of
more than 10 h are marked grey. A 10 h charging period is based on the assumption that
EVs are not used from 8 PM to 6 AM and can be then connected to the AC recharging point.
Energies 2024, 17, 495 15 of 29

Table 6 lists the estimated distance that can be driven with a battery charged to SoC of 60%.
The choice of the charging method and the power of the recharging point depend on the
vehicle use model, e.g., commuting, etc.

Table 6. Charging time of selected EVs with AC and DC recharging points (data for EVs [25]).

Time for AC Charging * [h:min] by Charging DC Charging

Battery OBC (AC Energy Con- Point of Power Power [kW] Time for DC Driving
EV Capacity Charging) sumption Charging * Distance ***
[kWh] [kW] [Wh/km] 2.3 3.7 7.4 11.0 22.0 [h:min] [km]
Max. ** Ave.
kW kW kW kW kW
Dacia
26.8 7.4 152 6:59 4:21 2:10 2:10 2:10 34 29 0:33 105
Spring
VW ID.5 76.6 11.0 179 19:58 12:25 6:12 4:10 4:10 143 125 0:22 256
Kia Niro
64.8 11.0 168 16:54 10:30 5:15 3:31 3:31 80 70 0:33 231
EV
Audi Q4 76.6 11.0 189 19:58 12:25 6:12 4:10 4:10 143 125 0:22 243
e-tron
Cupra Born 58.0 11.0 166 15:07 9:24 4:42 3:09 3:09 124 82 0:25 209
Hyundai
Kona 39.2 11.0 157 10:13 6:21 3:10 2:08 2:08 44 37 0:38 149
Electric
Tesla 3 57.5 11.0 142 15:00 9:19 4:39 3:08 3:08 170 100 0:21 242
Renault 54.7 22.0 165 14:16 8:52 4:26 2:58 1:29 46 41 0:48 198
Zoe
Legend:
* estimated charging time from 20% to 80% of battery capacity, ..... — AC charging above 10 h,
** EV limitations, ..... — limitation due to the OBC.
*** estimated driving distance for 60% battery consumption,

The times presented in Table 6 assume full efficiency of the charging point. However,
it should be noted that the failure of charging station components may lead to a reduction
in the charging power available to the EV or its complete loss [33]. The available power of
the charging point also decreases when charging more EVs (i.e., using all available charging
point connectors). Limiting the available charging power will translate into the declared
charging time and customer (EV driver) satisfaction.

3. Safety of EVs
Electric vehicles have their supporters and opponents. Supporters mainly present
advantages, while opponents focus on disadvantages and potential threats. The media
plays an important role here, publicizing every collision or accident involving an electric
vehicle. Reporting immediately after a collision or accident occurs subjectively provides
information about potential causes, reducing or increasing fears about the widespread use
of electric vehicles. The global introduction of electric vehicles requires research in various
areas, including electrical network safety road and vehicle safety (including fire safety).
Research about road transport safety for various types of vehicles (including the
purpose and number of users) and an assessment of the quality of road infrastructure
will enable a detailed risk analysis of the effects of introducing electric vehicles (to draw
targeted and confirmed conclusions). Selected issues related to vehicle safety are presented
below, including fire hazards.

3.1. Review of EV Safety Issues

Before being allowed to operate, all vehicle models must pass tests, the effect of which
is to check whether they meet the minimum level of safety (type-approval tests). Their
specificity may differ slightly from the area of use, resulting from the legal regulations in
a given country. The basic ones may be those resulting from the UN (UNECE) technical
regulations applied to the broad automotive sector, addressing the safety and environmental
performance of wheeled vehicles, their subsystems and parts (see [34]). It is also worth
paying attention to the regulations dedicated to cars equipped with electric drives, such
as UN ECE R100 or the American FMVSS 305. A comparison of legal rules in different
economic areas is provided in studies [35,36]. Additionally, in [37], we find an overview of
various EV safety issues. It compares, among others, the main differences and similarities
of regulations in 7 regions (USA, EU, Japan, China, India, South Korea, and Australia),
 Energies 2024, 17, 495 16 of 29

differences in the safety issues of EVs and ICEVs (with an indication of the risks associated
with the electrical installation).
Tests based on regulations enforce compliance with a certain level of safety by each
type of vehicle. Still, they do not provide information that would allow for a clear and
unambiguous comparison of the safety level of cars. Here, various consumer tests can
come in handy, such as x-NCAP (New Car Assessment Programme), which dates back
to the late 1970s (US-NCAP). These tests allow objective, quantitative, and qualitative
assessments of the safety level of cars according to specific procedures (mainly crash tests)
and car equipment with systems that increase their safety. With the wider prevalence of
EVs, the results of safety tests and such vehicles began to appear. Specific aspects of EV cars
are taken into account in research procedures (see [38] for information on the differences
in research methodology in the field of electrical safety between different organizations
(US-NCAP, Euro-NCAP, Japan-NCAP, and C-NCAP)).
Here, Euro-NCAP tests [39] were used for comparison. Figure 9 presents the results of
291 trials from 2017–2023, of which 48 concerned vehicles equipped with an electric motor
(BEV or HEV version). These results indicate that (at the level of averaged indicators) there
are no grounds to conclude that electric cars are less safe for road users (drivers, passengers,
and other users), and in the category of vehicle equipment with additional systems that
improve safety, there is even a visible advantage of EVs over ICEVs. In the following years,
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEWthe average rating increased, precisely in the category of additional safety systems 17 andof 30
protection of unprotected road users. The improvement in passive safety is somewhat
less pronounced.

(a) (b)
Figure 9. Euro-NCAP car safety assessment: (a) EVs vs. ICEVs; (b) EV rating trends. 5*—percentage
Figure 9. Euro-NCAP car safety assessment: (a) EVs vs. ICEVs; (b) EV rating trends. 5*—percentage
of vehicles with the highest overall rating (5 stars). AOP—adult occupant protection. ChOP—child
of vehicles with the highest overall rating (5 stars). AOP—adult occupant protection. ChOP—child
occupant protection. VRU—vulnerable road user protection. SA—safety assist (evaluation of driver-
occupant protection. VRU—vulnerable road user protection. SA—safety assist (evaluation of driver-
assistance and crash-avoidance technologies).
assistance and crash-avoidance technologies).

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theimpact
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structure are are discussed
discussed to
to minimize accelerations and the risk of the battery pack
minimize accelerations and the risk of the battery pack entering the safety zoneentering the safety zone of of
thethe
vehicle (cabin) using the tests proposed in FMVSS 305. In [43], simulation methods (also
finite element analysis) analyze the impact of the body structure of a small EV for tests
used in Euro-NCAP. In [44], a similar analysis is presented for ATV vehicles (all-terrain
vehicles). In [45], the authors (using Euro-NCAP tests) formulate recommendations for
Energies 2024, 17, 495 17 of 29

vehicle (cabin) using the tests proposed in FMVSS 305. In [43], simulation methods (also
finite element analysis) analyze the impact of the body structure of a small EV for tests used
in Euro-NCAP. In [44], a similar analysis is presented for ATV vehicles (all-terrain vehicles).
In [45], the authors (using Euro-NCAP tests) formulate recommendations for the design of
electric lightweight vehicles to give best-in-class occupant protection. In [46], comparative
studies (using simulation methods) of passive safety in terms of the effectiveness of several
rear seat restraint configurations, with a focus on the restraint performance of a real-
time adaptive (RTA) retractor system, are presented. It has been shown that there are no
significant differences in occupant protection between ICEVs and EVs. Similar (simulation)
methods were used in [47,48] to examine the structure corresponding to an EV car for a
frontal impact regarding energy absorption. The benefits of using advanced high-strength
steels (AHSS) in such vehicles have been pointed out [47].
In [49], the conditions of EV safety tests are analyzed in terms of protecting people
inside the vehicle in frontal, side, and rear collisions, and specific aspects for such vehicles
in the electrical aspect are indicated. Similar issues are considered in [50–52]. The work [53]
also paid attention not only to the technical side of crash tests for EV assessments but
also to the safety of employees and research infrastructure, proposing a set of appropriate
procedures for this purpose.
In [54], the assistance systems used in EVs, which mainly work for active safety, are
reviewed. The sensors, algorithms and systems using them in ADAS (advanced driver
assistance systems) were indicated. In [52], the concept of ACC (adaptive cruise control) for
EVs is considered not only in terms of safety but also in energy consumption optimization.
In a similar context (safety vs. energy consumption), additional solutions are proposed,
such as a driver assistance system when driving in mountainous terrain—see [55]. In [56],
the subject of the implementation of basic ABS/ESC safety systems in light EVs was dealt
with, taking into account the issues of energy recovery during braking. The functioning of
the primary system supporting active safety, which is ABS, was dealt with in works [57] for
BEVs and [58] for HEVs. In both cases, attention was paid to the advantages of using RBS
(regenerative brake system) on the safety of the braking process.
In [59], the authors addressed the subject of EV motion dynamics and stability in
the post-crash motion phase with the use of active safety systems (the paper considers
steering angle and wheel torque control to maintain sufficiently small values of yaw
movements—yaw angle and yaw velocity). Many similar publications propose or analyze
vehicle control systems to assist or replace the driver in dangerous situations (e.g., [60–62],
where EV control models are proposed to maintain vehicle stability in regular traffic).
In [63], an EV with motors placed in wheel hubs is analyzed, and the benefits of such a
solution without negative impacts on safety and comfort are indicated.
Paper [64] analyzes the problem famous in the media related to the fact that EVs
are relatively quiet compared to ICEVs, which may be dangerous to pedestrians (lower
informativeness of the EV). The solution used is an additive noise component. Findings
suggest that although mean detection distances trend higher for vehicles with this additive
noise component, they are not significantly different from traditional EVs at speeds of
10 kph. Moreover, all EVs were detected at significantly shorter distances relative to the
ICE vehicle. However, these differences became indistinguishable at an approach speed of
20 kph, likely due to the additional road noise produced by tires at higher travel speeds.
The same issue is the subject of [65], where attention is focused on properly selecting the
additional sound generated by the EV.
Interesting studies are presented in [66]. Using simulation studies of complex models
of tire-road surface contact, they suggest that an improvement in road traffic safety on
wet surfaces can be expected with the popularization of EVs. They justify this with a
lower probability of aquaplaning (even approximately 50%) and a two-fold reduction in
the number of accidents related to this phenomenon if all cars were electric. The authors
associate this effect primarily with the greater weight of EVs (here—as a confirmation,
Energies 2024, 17, 495 18 of 29

the data provided in [36] can be quoted—the average weight of newly registered cars in
Germany in 2019 was approx. 1550 kg compared to 1445 kg in 2007).
A slightly different safety issue considered in the literature is the safety of the electri-
cal installation itself, including the one “outside the vehicle” (charging stations). In the
paper [67], the causes of events related to the functioning of the EV charging system (such
as battery explosion/ignition, overcharging, short circuits, and leaks) at the charging point
are analyzed. A similar problem is dealt with in [68–70].
Another area is functional safety analysis. Here, an example can be the work [68] in
which such an analysis of motor control systems was carried out, and a three-level safety
monitoring system was proposed for the control system of a 380 V drive unit. A similar
issue is analyzed in [71]. In [72,73], car interference and electromagnetic compatibility
(EMC) were taken up. In [74,75], the concepts of functional analysis of HEV vehicle safety
are presented. In [76,77], attention is focused on the design of vehicle control systems and
their systems. The functional safety of a BMS (battery management system) is discussed
in [36,78]. Other examples of this type of analysis of EVs and their assemblies can be found,
for instance, in [79–81].
In [82], an attempt was made to systematize the safety hazards associated with Evs
(BEVs and HEVs) at a general level, dividing them into four areas: vehicle electrical systems,
system failures, battery charging or discharging processes, and the skills and knowledge
of personnel operating such vehicles. Based on a review of the literature on each of the
aspects mentioned above, they indicated the factors shaping the safety and risks associated
with the operation of EVs.
In the context of the safety of EVs, it is also worth paying attention to aspects other
than those mentioned above. According to the information provided in [83], based on data
from insurance companies, EV cars are relatively more often involved in road accidents
than their conventional counterparts. The data provided in [83] indicate that drivers of
EVs are involved in collisions up to 50% more often than drivers of internal combustion
vehicles. The authors attribute this to the different traction properties of EV cars, to which
drivers have not yet adapted their skills and awareness (e.g., very high torque values at low
speeds leading to excessive acceleration and loss of stability). This effect can be considered
temporary and related not so much to the vehicle as to its user. However, another aspect
can be pointed out. Although the Euro-NCAP test results cited above do not indicate a
differentiation in the level of safety, it can be assumed that in the case of a collision between
two vehicles of a similar class, ICEVs and EVs, the damage (material and health) may
be lower in the case of EVs, which is related to the mass incompatibility of both vehicles
(significantly higher weight of the EV car). The data in [83] confirm this. Interesting
information is also provided by [36]. The ADAC (Allgemeiner Deutscher Automobil-Club)
data presented there shows a solid upward trend in vehicle electrical system failures, which
accounted for over 50% of all recorded vehicle failures in 2019.

3.2. Problems in Cases of Accidents, including Fire

Tests, such as the previously cited NCAP, are general safety assessment methods that
do not highlight some new risks associated with using predominantly powerful battery
packs (LIBs). Media reports of spectacular fires of electric vehicles lead to some fear among
users about the high risk of such an effect. So the question is, are electric cars really
more at risk of fire? Here, we can use the analyzes presented in [84], in which data from
the American governmental agencies NTSB (National Transportation Safety Board), BTS
(Bureau of Transportation Statistics), and the Recalls.gov website were used. The data
(Table 7) indicate that the largest number of fires is in the case of conventional vehicles,
which is, of course, related to the actual quantitative dominance of such cars. However, if
we relate this data to the sales of new vehicles, it turns out that the car fire rate is the highest
for HEVs, roughly twice as low for ICEVs. For BEV cars, it is the lowest and about 60 times
lower than conventional vehicles. Similar qualitative conclusions can also be found in other
Energies 2024, 17, 495 19 of 29

sources (e.g., in [85], the so-called fire risk coefficient for ICEVs of 0.04 was defined for
Poland, with the corresponding one for BEV/HEV cars at the level of 0.03, see also [83]).

Table 7. Car fire statistics [84].

Car Type Fire Number (Total) Fire Number per 100k Sales
HEV 16,051 3474.5
ICEV 199,533 1529.9
EV 52 25.1

In [84], service calls related to fire hazards were also analyzed. Both in the cases of
BEVs and HEVs, they mainly concerned faults related to batteries, unlike ICEVs, where the
calls mainly concerned problems with fuel leaks, electrical shorts, and anti-lock braking
systems (ABS).
Such studies indicate that in the case of an EV, the risk of fire is lower, and if an event
occurs, it is primarily related to its battery (see, e.g., [86]). Experience shows that fires of
lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) in electric cars are much more difficult to extinguish than fires
in conventional cars (see also [87]). This topic is the subject of many analyses and studies
found in the literature.
In [88], there is an extensive review of recent battery fires in EVs, as well as the
related fire-safety issues and fire-protection strategies. In [89], failures of EV batteries were
critically reviewed. The leading causes of failure are a too low voltage (including a single
cell—see [86]), battery ageing, and just thermal runaway (TR). In the latter case, problems
related to overcharging, improper heat dissipation, and an excessive increase in internal
resistance are pointed out. In [90], the issues of battery integration and its management
systems regarding efficiency, reliability, and safety are considered. The limits of the safe
use of LIBs are indicated in terms of the problems mentioned above.
The authors of [91] proposed an interesting real-time battery management system
(BMS) for electric vehicles. The Internet of Things (IoT) was used to monitor and regulate
the discharge/charge process of the batteries to extend their life and reduce the risk of
damage and possible fire. Another project of a system based on the Internet of Things for
detecting the dangerous temperature of electric vehicles and early warning of the threat
during their charging is also presented in [92].
In [93], the TR process is analyzed. In addition to the problematic, sudden in-
crease in temperature, dangerous chemical reactions occurring during this process are
also indicated, including the formation of a large amount of gases (carbon oxides and
ethene) and carbonates in the electrolyte. Various reasons are given that can lead to
thermal runaway and, as a result, a fire, which should be considered when creating pro-
tections that reduce the risk of the phenomenon (see, e.g., [94]). In [95], three mecha-
nisms of TR formation were indicated—mechanical (as a result of, e.g., collision), electrical
(e.g., overcharging and resulting short circuits) and thermal (associated with improper
battery management—incorrect cooling and thermal impact of the environment). A com-
prehensive safety management strategy is also presented here. The problem of the thermal
stability of LIBs is also the subject of the analysis in [96]. The authors of [97] modelled the
TR phenomenon and performed a series of simulation studies for LIBs. Particular attention
was paid here to the highly flammable and toxic gases that accompany this process and
simultaneously lead to its escalation by the additional heating of the adjacent cells. It was
emphasized that an appropriate insulation system and a properly designed degassing
system could significantly delay and even prevent the TR phenomenon.
There are also works related to forecasting the occurrence of dangerous phenomena
(e.g., fire hazards). An example of this can be [98], where typical battery fault diagnosis
methods are presented (with their advantages and disadvantages) and a proposal for an
alternative real-time fault diagnosis and isolation using the normalized discrete wavelet
decomposition. The aforementioned work [93] proposed an early warning system for
the risk of LIB failure in electric vehicles. Connectors available in the car were used for
Energies 2024, 17, 495 20 of 29

comprehensive monitoring of EV batteries. Cloud computing technology was used for

both data synchronization and distribution.
The authors of [99] analyze the TR process and identify critical time points of failure
signals based on standardly recorded battery operation parameters (voltage, cell tempera-
ture, etc.). It has been found that the cause of the fire is often a battery internal short circuit
(ISC) resulting from overcharging the battery (even by only 10%). For early detection of
an ISC online, a method based on the voltage difference of individual cells is proposed
here, which is simple and reliable to be implemented in a typical BMS. The detection of
LIB insulation shorts in electric vehicles was also discussed in [100]. Relative entropy was
used here as a measure of voltage drop disturbances. It has been shown that such a short
can be identified from the cloud server level, and this concept is superior to the correlation
coefficient method. The weighted entropy method (EWM) in conjunction with the fuzzy
analytical hierarchical process (FAHP) and the game theory was also proposed in [101] as a
way to assess the inconsistency of parameters (voltage, temperature, internal resistance,
and amount of electricity) of individual battery cells and resulting from this fire hazard.
An interesting proposal for detecting thermal anomalies and, as a result, identifying
problematic batteries that may eventually succumb to TR and fire is presented in [102]. The
authors of this paper propose the use of a method comparing the similarity of time courses
of temperature. Based on their shapes, the measurement results are continuously grouped
into clusters, and the anomaly is detected by monitoring deviations in the clusters. Unlike
model-based and other advanced approaches, the proposed concept is robust to data loss
and does not require extensive reference data for various packet configurations. Preliminary
experimental results have shown that this method can not only be more accurate than
an onboard BMS but can also detect unforeseen anomalies at an early stage (even 90 min
before the BMS).
A quick and timely prediction of the occurrence of TR is essential but hampered by
the small amount of battery health information available (only voltage and temperature)
and the high degree of complexity of the factors affecting the actual performance of electric
vehicles (environment, driving behavior, weather, etc.). To solve this problem, the authors
of paper [103] (see also [104]) combined several data-based methods and proposed to
perform the TR forecast in two stages. The first step is to predict the temperature using
a machine learning algorithm using a gradient-enhancing structure (XGBoost). In the
second step, abnormalities are detected using principal component analysis (PCA) and
density-based spatial clustering of applications with noise (DBSCAN). XGBoost is modified
and trained with data from real electric vehicles to account for factors found in various
operating conditions. The test results indicate that the method allows for an accurate 5 min
temperature forecast and enables a 35 min TR forecast.
Paper [105] presents research on the process of a battery fire depending on external
heating and the battery’s SoC (state of charge), indicating the very high impact of the
degree of charge on this process. The fire formation process is also the subject of research
in [106–110].
In the work [111], attention was paid to the quality of production of batteries and
their components, and thus the critical roles of producers and suppliers. The authors of
the article [112] presented a case study of the recall of thousands of GM and Hyundai
electric cars from the market due to malfunctions in the operation of LG Chem batteries,
posing risks of fire and explosion. A very important issue is raised here: EV manufacturers
and battery suppliers, instead of finding the cause of dangerous events, usually limit
themselves to implementing subsequent software updates in the controller as the primary
countermeasure. This, of course, results from the desire to avoid substantial financial losses
related to the withdrawal of BEVs/HEVs from the market. Modifying the software in the
battery controller, at best, only reduces the probability of failure but does not eliminate the
safety risk.
A slightly different problem, according to the authors of the paper [113], is the risks
resulting from errors during the operation of BEVs/HEVs, especially immediately after
Energies 2024, 17, 495 21 of 29

a road accident or even a collision. A high short-circuit current can cause a fire not only
during the transport of a damaged vehicle and repair but also in later operation. Fortunately,
no serious incidents of this type are recorded, despite the potential threats. However, with
the increase in the number of vehicles and the aging of cars, repair activities are becoming
more frequent, which may result in a deterioration of statistics.
A completely separate issue is the fire hazards of EVs in closed facilities. In [114], the
potential danger in standard indoor car parks was considered, e.g., when charging electric
vehicles. Through appropriate simulations, it was investigated how a fire, even in a single
electric vehicle, can lead to temperatures above 300 ◦ C, where steel begins to lose its ability
to effectively carry static loads and the structural integrity and stability of the garage is
compromised. Based on the analysis carried out here, however, it has been shown that
electric vehicles do not pose a more significant threat to people than the classic ICEVs.
A comprehensive review of literature sources on the problems, strategies and stan-
dards of LIB testing, as well as concerns regarding their safety, is presented in [115]. Many
practical answers to questions related to LIB safety can also be found in articles [116,117]
and report [118]. The specifics of LIB testing in crash test conditions are discussed
in works [119–121]. The first two indicate the importance of the crash pulse test. In
contrast, [121] shows the great importance of the geometric location of the LIB in the vehi-
cle on the effects of a collision (here, simulation tests of a collision with a pole were used).
An effective solution to problems with BEV/HEV fires can be the use of graphene
batteries. According to the information contained in [122], they are non-flammable and
have a high level of safety that can be achieved. At the same time, they store more
energy, charge faster, have a longer life, and do not harm the environment, like their
lithium-ion counterparts.
As mentioned, lithium-ion battery fires are much more difficult to extinguish than
conventional car fires. Batteries are essentially their own fuel source, can burn for hours,
and are extremely difficult for firefighters to cool down. Even if an electric vehicle fire
appears to have been extinguished, it may flare up again, which is why it is so important
for firefighting services to carry out extinguishing operations in a skillful manner.
EVs catch fire less often than ICEVs, but the duration and intensity of fires can make
them much more difficult to extinguish due to the use of lithium-ion batteries (a comparison
of vehicle fires with LIBs and ICEVs can be found, e.g., in [123]). Lithium-ion batteries are
very difficult to maintain at low temperatures. Even if the batteries appear to be off for
24 h, they can generate enough heat to ignite again.
Lithium-ion high-voltage (HV) battery fires, however, are somewhat less of a threat
to EV/HEV travelers than those that may be involved in ICEVs. The point here is the
dynamics of fire development, which in the case of such energy storage tanks is much lower
than, for example, large petrol tanks. Current regulations and standards (according to [116])
require the HV cell failure alarm to be generated by the vehicle’s on-board warning system
at least 5 min before a full fire. This is enough time for all people to leave the vehicle (even
a bus). Of course, the problem becomes much more serious in the event of a road accident
or collision. Then, the alarm systems may not work at all, and the time from the event to
the fire may be much shorter. In addition, the occupants of the vehicle may be trapped in it.
As a result, most manufacturers aim to design HV batteries to resist fire release for 1 h or
more. Then, waiting for the rescue services and releasing the injured should end earlier.
According to one source [124], the average duration of firefighting operations in
electric vehicle fires in recent years has been approx. 1.5 h. However, there are known
cases where a car fire lasted more than 4.5 h, and the longest one in Poland required the
continuous intervention of firefighting services for 21 h [125].
When fighting EV/HEV fires, the most effective way to cool HV batteries is to place the
entire vehicle in a suitable container with water or foam. As shown in [126], approximately
0.63 m3 /kWh of water or 0.74 m3 /kWh of foam should be used to control the fire. Another
way to control the fire more easily is to use a special firefighting cloth. The situation is
greatly simplified when the car has the so-called “fireman access”, i.e., a valve in the battery
Energies 2024, 17, 495 22 of 29

housing to which water is pumped. For example, Renault has such a solution, where
according to the manufacturer, the fire can be controlled in 5 min [124]. For buses, it is
proposed to use automatic systems to extinguish batteries after the BMS detects a fire hazard.
In the work [127], for example, the high efficiency of the extinguishing agent in the form of
perfluorohexanone, injected under pressure into the battery housing, was demonstrated.
Specific safety tips for drivers and passengers involved in EV/HEV accidents can be
found in the literature. To prevent additional hazards and reduce the risk of serious injury,
the U.S. Fire Administration (see [128]) recommends, among other things, that all first
responders be informed that the vehicle is electric; assume that the vehicle is fully powered,
even after an accident; roll down the windows before turning off the engine; remove the
ignition key and secure it at a distance of at least approximately 5 m from the vehicle; do
not touch the battery, exposed electrical components, engine compartment or any wires
under the engine cover; and keep a safe distance from any electric vehicle that has been
seriously damaged.
According to the authors of paper [129], it is important to check whether the battery
in a burning EV/HEV is on fire or not. Self-intensifying exothermic processes in the battery
can lead to the release of toxic substances in the form of hydrocarbons (HCs), carbon
monoxide (CO), and especially hydrogen fluoride (HF). These substances are dangerous to
humans not only when inhaled but also when in contact. If the hydrocarbons are released
by opening the cell, they can ignite immediately or, even worse, accumulate in the open
space and ignite later. If the mixture of these gases is above the explosive threshold, any
spark from the HV system can lead to a flame out and explosion when the system does
not have a dedicated venting mechanism. Of course, carbon monoxide can lead to the
suffocation of vehicle occupants and emergency services if they do not use respiratory
masks; HF is a very toxic, corrosive and highly reactive substance, causing serious damage
to health and even death, see also [130].
In the case of post-accident hybrid and electric vehicles that have not yet been repaired,
it is recommended (see [128]) to contact an authorized service center or vehicle manufac-
turer (persons without appropriate training should not attempt to repair a damaged electric
vehicle); report any fluid leaks, gurgling, sparks or smoke coming from the HV battery;
not store a severely damaged electric vehicle inside a building or less than 15 m from any
flammable materials; and note that damage to the EV/HEV HV system may result in the
delayed release of toxic fumes or flammable gases.
The NTSB (USA) [118] identified two major issues related to EV/HEV crash safety.
The first is the inadequacy of EV/HEV manufacturers’ guidelines for emergency responses
to reduce the risk to emergency services (firemen and roadside assistance) posed by lithium-
ion battery fires. The second problem is gaps in safety standards and research related
to high-voltage lithium-ion batteries involved in high-speed and high-severity crashes.
The NTSB, based on its own findings, issues safety recommendations not only to the
National Highway Traffic Safety Administration but also to manufacturers of EVs/HEVs
with high-voltage lithium-ion batteries and to six professional organizations that represent
or conduct training programs for emergency services. The report [118] formulated several
dozen detailed conclusions in the field of fire safety, the content of which largely coincides
with the previously described problems and recommendations for dealing with failure of
the HV system and/or battery. It was also noted that manufacturers do not always provide
adequate information on risk mitigation procedures. It has been pointed out that the
existing standards deal with damage caused by high-voltage lithium-ion battery systems
in crashes, but they do not take into account serious accidents at high speed, resulting in
damage to the batteries. Report [118] also includes comments on extinguishing agents. In
short, water or other standard means should be used; the demand for water is approx.
10 m3 , but there are cases of a need to use even 76 m3 ; too little water can lead not only to
insufficient cooling, but also to toxic gas emissions; prolonged and continuous application
of water to the local area leads to faster extinguishing of the fire; and water should be
applied even when no flame is visible.
Energies 2024, 17, 495 23 of 29

In turn, the authors of the paper [131], based on fire tests in road tunnels with the
participation of vehicles with lithium-ion batteries, point out that sometimes the rate of
heat release from an EV can be higher than that of an ICEV, depending on the extent
to which the battery is involved in the fire (see also [130]). Attention was also drawn
to the ineffectiveness of alternative methods of extinguishing fires using fire blankets in
the event of a battery fire, the beneficial effects of using a fire lance to inject the water
directly into the battery housing (the fire can be put out in a very short time with a small
amount of water, but the use of such a lance requires close approach to the vehicle and well-
trained firefighters), and the possibility of contamination of the site (here see also [132]).
In the context of EV fires in tunnels, on the one hand, the need to introduce significant
changes to the safety standards for such infrastructure elements due to EVs was noticed,
but on the other—a higher risk of damage to tunnels in fires of electric trucks (due to
higher temperatures).

4. Conclusions
The continuous increase in the popularity of EVs in all countries and the information
about the future limitation of registration of cars with internal combustion engines in EU
countries means that electric motors are now treated as the primary type of drive in future
vehicles. Various incentives and financial subsidies applied by governments to facilitate
the purchase of EVs stimulate the growth of sales of these cars and contribute to increasing
their share in the automotive market. Many publications have been written about the
indisputable advantages of the electric drive. However, considering local conditions, some
problems may arise during their use.
The aim of this work, which discusses issues related to EVs and their use in many
aspects, is to indicate both the benefits and some risks resulting from using these vehicles.
The work was divided into two parts. The first one (Part 1—environmental protection)
indicated ecological issues related to the entire life cycle of an EV, including recycling. In
the second part presented here (Part 2—infrastructure and road safety), the attention was
focused on two broad areas: infrastructure and the issue of EV safety.
In 2022, the total number of ELDVs in the world exceeded 26 million and has increased
five-fold in the last 5 years. Following the dynamic increase in the number of electric cars,
the development of their charging infrastructure must keep up with the need to ensure
the appropriate density of its distribution on roads and to shorten the time of charging the
EV battery. However, the variety of solutions used in EVs is not conducive to ensuring
an appropriate density of charging stations; unfortunately, the connectors fitted to an EVs
vary depending on the geographic region and car model, which excludes the possibility of
charging the EV’s battery at any charging point in the world.
Moreover, the charging time of EVs depends on the charging method (AC or DC),
location of the charging point (public or private), battery capacity, and OBC.
Public chargers (mainly DC) allow faster charging of the vehicle battery compared
to a private/home charging point, but as shown (Table 6), charging an EV at a DC fast
charging point takes about 0.5 h, assuming the initial and the final SoC are 20% and 80%,
respectively. Compared to the refueling time of an ICEV car (which is several minutes), this
is still too much and significantly extends the journey time of the BEV.
The main general problems of EV safety issues are chemical and electrical risks (in-
cluding those leading to vehicle fires). Regarding the overall level of EV safety, EV cars
are in no way inferior to classic ICEVs. Data from safety assessment tests (Euro-NCAP)
make this clear. The rating indices for vehicles with both types of energy sources are
similar. In the case of additional safety-enhancing equipment (driver assistance systems
and crash-avoidance technologies), they are even higher for EVs.
Research on the occurrence of car fires also quite clearly indicates that the risk of such
an effect in the case of EVs is lower than in the case of ICEVs. On the other hand, the
course of the thermal runaway phenomenon and the duration of a high-voltage battery
Energies 2024, 17, 495 24 of 29

fire are slightly different than in the case of ICEV fires, and the extinguishing process is
more complicated.
Since the beginning of the broader appearance of the EV (BEV or HEV), a lot of research
has been carried out in the field of safety in various areas of engineering knowledge:
passive safety, active safety, post-accident safety, vehicle control systems, battery design
and management, battery operation, firefighting procedures, material science, etc. This
provides the basis for further development and improvement of EV safety.
It seems (based on available publications) that we currently do not have a complete,
multi-faceted review of the risks associated with the appearance of EVs on the roads. The
rapid introduction of electric vehicles requires an urgent need to research to assess the
effects from the risk point of view separately for different types of vehicles, depending
on their purpose, number of users, and road infrastructure. Research with a broad risk
analysis is needed here, allowing for identifying well-documented threats related to the
operation of EVs, including fire hazards.
Finally, it should be noted that the observations formulated in this work are based
mainly on conclusions developed in numerous research works. They do not fully exhaust
the problems mentioned and require further research to confirm them fully. However, they
constitute a synthetic review of current issues that are the subject of research and scientific
activity in the field of EVs.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation, formal analysis, Investigation,

writing—original draft preparation, writing—review and editing, visualization: M.G., J.J., R.S.J.,
E.M.S., P.Z. and M.Ż. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: Data are contained within the manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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