sustainability

Article
Development of a Rapid Inspection Driving Cycle for Battery
Electric Vehicles Based on Operational Safety
Zhipeng Jiao , Jian Ma *, Xuan Zhao, Kai Zhang, Dean Meng and Xuebo Li

School of Automobile, Chang’an University, Xi’an 710064, China; [email protected] (Z.J.);

[email protected] (X.Z.); [email protected] (K.Z.); [email protected] (D.M.);
[email protected] (X.L.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: The aim of this paper is to solve the problem for battery electric vehicles of low-precision
and time-consuming inspection. A novel method of driving cycle development for battery electric
vehicles’ operational safety is proposed in this paper. First, three inspection items are proposed based
on relevant testing standards. The inspection calculation method of operational safety is developed
based on the acceleration changing rate. Then the multi-cycle inspection method with the stable
pedal mode is developed, and the Gauss filtering algorithm is applied for data preprocessing. A rapid
inspection driving cycle construction method based on support vector machine is proposed, and a
driving cycle is built with a total time of 204 s by fusing and splicing kinematic fragments. Finally, the
proposed inspection calculation method is used to validate the operational safety inspection items by
tracking the established rapid inspection driving cycle based on the test bench. The results shown are
those that qualified the range of acceleration changing rate for driving stability [−0.35, −0.04]. The
range for gliding smoothness is [0.05, 0.09]. The range for braking coordination is [−0.04, 0.095]. The
maximum RMSE between the constructed rapid inspection segments is 9%, and the maximum RMSE
between the tested driving segments is 6%. Test results meet design requirements. The thresholds
Citation: Jiao, Z.; Ma, J.; Zhao, X.;
for operational safety inspection items are evaluated based on the test results. We set less than 0.5
Zhang, K.; Meng, D.; Li, X.
as the safety threshold for driving stability. During the experiment, gliding was less than 0.1 as the
Development of a Rapid Inspection
Driving Cycle for Battery Electric
safety threshold for gliding comfort, and during braking it was less than 0.1 as the safety threshold
Vehicles Based on Operational Safety. for vehicle braking coordination.
Sustainability 2022, 14, 5079. https://
doi.org/10.3390/su14095079 Keywords: battery electric vehicles; operational safety; driving cycle; rapid inspection; support
vector machine
Academic Editors: Jiankun Peng,
Fengyan Yi, Dawei Pi and Yue Wang

Received: 23 March 2022

Accepted: 18 April 2022 1. Introduction
Published: 23 April 2022 As one of the best approaches for environment failure and air pollution, the new
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
energy vehicle industry has been highly valued and vigorously developed by various
with regard to jurisdictional claims in countries [1–3]. China’s reasonable number of new energy vehicles reached 5 million in
published maps and institutional affil- 2020 and will reach 17 million in 2030. Therefore, the development of new energy vehicles
iations. is regarded as a national development strategy [4–6].
Currently, in the study of electric vehicle driving range, battery energy management
and vehicle operational safety are increasing; the driving cycle is commonly used to inspect
electric vehicle driving range, battery states estimation, and energy management [7–9].
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. Several researchers proposed various applicable transient driving cycles in specific areas
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. or on specific vehicles [10]. For example. the US Federal Test Procedure (FTP)-75 tests
This article is an open access article the fuel economy of vehicles in highway driving [11]. Japan’s driving cycle is mainly
distributed under the terms and
used to certify vehicle emissions and fuel consumption [12]. Depending on the duration
conditions of the Creative Commons
of the driving cycle in different regions, Berzi et al. [13] proposed an electric vehicle
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
driving cycle for detecting energy consumption and efficiency evaluation based on the
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
current traffic development in the city of Florence. Hung et al. [14] developed an optimal
4.0/).

Sustainability 2022, 14, 5079. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14095079 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2022, 14, 5079 2 of 16

Hong Kong urban driving cycle using vehicle performance values, vehicle velocity, and
acceleration distribution to test and evaluate vehicle emission, which was easy to follow
and could be substituted for other cycles. Zhao et al. [15,16] proposed a representative
system construction method for urban driving cycle for battery electric vehicles in a case
study in Xi’an city, which compared the driving range and energy consumption under
different driving cycles, and the results showed that this driving cycle can effectively reduce
energy consumption. In addition, other researchers have proposed different methods for
the construction of the actual driving cycle. For example, Shi et al. [17] chose typical road
driving cycles in Hefei, China, and defined 12 characteristic parameters to evaluate the
constructed cycle. Shi et al. [18] designed driving cycles in Changchun, China by Markov
property and laid a theoretical foundation for designing driving cycles and ECO driving
(Economical and Ecological). Jing et al. [19] used linear discriminant analysis to construct a
driving cycle in Tianjin, China. A new methodology was offered for building driving cycles
and referenced value to related research; Wang et al. [20] analyzed driving characteristics
and developed the driving cycles in 11 typical Chinese cities including Beijing and Shanghai.
In addition, they proposed some important factors that lead to the significant differences
in vehicle driving patterns among the cities. Peng et al. [21] gathered 18 buses’ routes;
constructed a cyclic condition in Fuzhou, China; and developed a 1227 s speed-time
series. These driving cycles exhibited more dynamic driving characteristics and could more
accurately verify the energy consumption, power battery health status, and driving range of
electric vehicles. The actual driving cycle is generally divided into four different kinematic
fragments, including idling, accelerating, cruising, and decelerating [22]. The driving
cycle velocity varies with the time changing and can only represent transient conditions
in a special area and a specifically measured single sequence of defined length [23,24].
Therefore, the electric vehicle cannot follow the driving cycle and it cannot detect the safety
hazards of the electric vehicle.
In response to the problem that transient driving cycles cannot be realistically followed,
most of the official recognized electric vehicle range cycle testing in China uses the New
European Driving Cycle (NEDC) [25]. Vehicle Mass Analysis System (VMAS) is commonly
used for testing pollutant emissions, fuel consumption, and vehicle certification of fuel-
powered passenger cars [26,27]. These characteristics of two driving cycles are because
of a modal cycle consisting of a series of speed-time data, which are followed in the
chassis dynamometer when testing the vehicle, usually for less than 30 min. Both the
area-specific transient driving cycles and the official standard driving cycles have the
following disadvantages.
(1) Long cycle times. For example, the total durations of the NEDC, World Light Vehicle
Test Cycle (WLTC), and China Light-Duty Vehicle Test Cycle-Passenger (CLTC-P)
are 1180 s, 1800 s, and 1800 s. In addition, the amount of data and the complex
combinations are difficult to find in real life.
(2) The driving cycle inspection items are single and cannot complete the practical opera-
tion test, especially the dynamic test of electric vehicle operational safety.
The test of other components of electric vehicles is mainly reflected in the diagnosis of
power battery, such as high and fast battery temperatures, charging, and discharging [28].
Diagnosis of these components is mainly done by sensor detection of limited characteristic
parameters for faults, however, simultaneous sensor faults can be diagnosed as battery
faults [29,30].
In summary, much of the current research work on electric vehicles is focused on
developing a standard driving cycle, testing the energy consumption of the vehicle, or
detecting hidden dangers in key electric vehicle components. However, there is very little
research into the operational safety testing of electric vehicles, and there is still a gap based
on the driving cycle for the operational safety testing of electric vehicles.
The intention of this paper is to solve the above problems. A novel method of develop-
ing a driving cycle is proposed based on the rapid inspection of operational safety, which
could detect whether the electric vehicle operational safety system is abnormal in a short
 Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 17
Sustainability 2022, 14, 5079 3 of 16

a short time and ensures the safety of the vehicle driving. The main contributions of our
time and ensures the safety of the vehicle driving. The main contributions of our work are
work are as follows.
as follows.
(1) We innovatively propose three inspection items according to the operational safety
(1) ofWenational
innovatively propose
standards. three inspection
Meanwhile, items calculation
an inspection according to the operational
method safety
of operational
of national standards. Meanwhile, an inspection
safety is developed based on the acceleration changing rate.calculation method of operational
safety
(2) The is developed
multi-cycle based on
inspection the acceleration
method changing
with the stable pedal rate.
mode is developed and col-
(2) lects
The multi-cycle inspection
sufficient driving data method
by OBD.with
Gaussthefiltering
stable pedal mode
algorithm is is developed
applied and
for data
collects sufficient
preprocessing. Thedriving
supportdata by OBD.
vector machineGauss filteringtoalgorithm
is adopted construct is
theapplied for data
rapid inspec-
preprocessing.
tion The support vector machine is adopted to construct the rapid inspec-
driving cycle.
tion driving
(3) Validation ofcycle.
the developed rapid driving cycle on the test bench. The thresholds for
(3) gliding
Validation of the
safety, developed
driving safety,rapid driving safety
and braking cycle on arethe test bench.
evaluated Theon
based thresholds for
the test re-
gliding
sults. safety, driving safety, and braking safety are evaluated based on the test results.
The methodology
methodologyisisillustrated
illustrated in in
thethe form
form of a of a flow
flow chart chart as shown
as shown in 1.
in Figure Figure
Com- 1.
Compared to other
pared to other driving
driving cycles,cycles, thisfocuses
this cycle cycle focuses
more onmore on operational
operational safety
safety than than on
on driving
driving range
range and and consumption,
energy energy consumption,
and couldandquickly
could quickly detect operational
detect operational safety hidden
safety hidden dan-
dangers for electric
gers for electric vehicles
vehicles in a in a short
short time.time.

Inspection items Driving cycle Construction

Accident National Determine Divide the kinematic

segments Candidate driving cycles
causes standards inspection items

Select SVM algorithm splice and

Test scheme solve nonlinear
regression curve reconstruction
Determine Determine Select test
test site test route vehicle
RMSE of each Cycle construction
Determine test Determine test regression curve ≤10%
Test method collection method equipment

Data processing Driving cycle verification

Determine interpolation Denoise and smooth Following test

Test method
algorithm the raw data equipment

Safty inspection Divide the Set safety threshold Test data analysis
method kinematic segments

Figure 1. Methodology
Figure Methodology for
for the
the development
developmentof
ofthe
thedriving
drivingcycle.
cycle.

2.
2. Electric Vehicle Inspection Items
In recent years, abnormal
abnormal acceleration
accelerationand andbraking
brakingfailure
failureofofelectric
electricvehicles
vehicleshavehave
frequently
frequently led to traffic accidents.
accidents. The The intervention
interventionofofbraking
brakingenergy
energyrecovery
recoverystrategy
strategy
during
during the
thebraking
brakingprocess
processhas hasled
ledtotomutation
mutationininspeed,
speed,which
whichcan
caneasily
easilycause
causeaccidents
accidents for
the driver. Since 2005, China has distributed a series of standards for testing
for the driver. Since 2005, China has distributed a series of standards for testing the oper- the operational
safety
ationalperformance of motor
safety performance vehicles
of motor and electric
vehicles vehicles.
and electric For example:
vehicles. For example:GB21670-2008,
GB21670-
GBT
2008,12543-2009, GBT 18385-2005,
GBT 12543-2009, GBT 18385-2005,GBT GBT 35179-2017, and GB
35179-2017, and38900-2020,
GB 38900-2020,which werewere
which strict
testing standards
strict testing for thefor
standards acceleration performance
the acceleration and braking
performance performance
and braking of the vehicles,
performance of the
as shownas
vehicles, inshown
Table 1.in Table 1.
According to the testing requirements of national standards on the safety of electric
Table 1. National
vehicles testinggliding
in this paper, standards.
safety, driving safety, and braking safety were determined as
the inspection items, respectively, which were directly related to operational safety. The
Standard Test Content Testing Significance Testing Indicator
main characteristics of the three inspection items are as follows:
Technical requirements
Driving stability is an important indicator to the
Test evaluate driving safety during the driving
abnormal
ofGB21670-2008 and
electric vehicles. If testing
there ismethods for in the acceleration of the Braking
a large jitter time and
vehicle within a short
braking systems
passenger car braking
period, it will be very easy to cause a traffic performance average deceleration
accident, in addition to bringing a certain
amount of discomfort to systems the driver and passengers. Therefore, driving stability is set as
the inspection item in Acceleration
this paper. The indicator Test theforabnormal
gliding safety during of thevariation
gliding is
Coefficient
GB/T12543-2009
the gliding comfort. performance
This is because if the acceleration
vehicle jitters during the gliding process, it
test of velocity
performance
will lead to a slow or sharp down drop in velocity, which is very likely to cause traffic
accidents. Therefore, gliding comfort is set as the inspection item. Braking coordination of
Sustainability 2022, 14, 5079 4 of 16

electromechanical braking and regenerative braking is proposed as an important indicator

to evaluate braking safety during the braking of an electric vehicle. When the coordination
between electromechanical braking and regenerative braking is poor in the braking process,
it will affect the braking performance. Therefore, the braking coordination is set as the
inspection item.

Table 1. National testing standards.

Standard Test Content Testing Significance Testing Indicator

Technical requirements and testing
Test the abnormal braking Braking time and
GB21670-2008 methods for passenger car
systems performance average deceleration
braking systems
Acceleration performance test methods Test the abnormal Coefficient of variation
GB/T12543-2009
for motor vehicle acceleration performance of velocity
Electric vehicles power performance Test the abnormal acceleration The arithmetic square root of
GB/T18385-2005
test methods performance of electric vehicles acceleration time
Requirements and test methods for Test the abnormal braking Coefficient of variation of
QC/T 1089-2017 regenerative braking systems in systems performance of mean fully
electric vehicles electric vehicles developed deceleration
Items and methods for safety Regulation of motor vehicle safety Different tests,
GB 38900-2020
technology inspection of motor vehicles technology inspection different indicators

3. Test Scheme
3.1. Test Site and Route Selection
The determination of the test route during the development of a conventional driving
cycle requires the designation of an urban road in a certain area. However, the rapid
inspection driving cycle is on a straight driving road to test in this paper. We do not
need to consider road types, traffic flow, time periods, economic differences, and central
business district. Therefore, the test route is chosen on the straight runway of the Chang’an
University Internet of Vehicles and Intelligent Vehicles Test Field, in which the straight
runway length is 1.1 km and the slope of the test route is 0◦ . So, there is no effect of vehicle
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 17
slope resistance. The test site and route are shown in Figure 2.

Figure2.
Figure 2. Chang’an
Chang’an University
University internet
internetof
ofvehicles
vehiclesand
andintelligent
intelligentvehicles
vehiclestest
testfield.
field.

3.2.
3.2. Data
Data Collection
Collection and
and Test
TestMethod
Method
We
Weselected
selectedaabattery
batteryelectric
electricvehicle
vehicleas
asthe
thetest
testvehicle,
vehicle,which
which had
had more
morethanthan 22,000
22,000
in
in the
the market
market and
and was
was aa representative
representativesmall
smallfamily
familycar
car among
among the
the battery
battery electric
electric vehicle
vehicle
in
in this
this paper.
paper.The
Thetechnical
technicalparameters
parametersofofthe
thetest
testvehicle
vehicleare
aregiven
givenininTable
Table2.2.

Table 2. Technical parameters of the test vehicle.

Parameter Symbol Value Unit

Curb weight me 1580 Kg
Wheelbase L 2660 mm
 Sustainability 2022, 14, 5079 5 of 16

Table 2. Technical parameters of the test vehicle.

Parameter Symbol Value Unit

Curb weight me 1580 Kg
Wheelbase L 2660 mm
Vehicle body height h 1510 mm
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW Maximum speed umax 150 km/h 6 of 17
Motor rated power Pe 110 kW
Motor peak power Pemax 135 kW
Motor rated torque Te 350 Nm
three modes
Motorofrated
brakespeed
pedal opening of 30%,ne 60%, and 90%4000
respectively. Finally,
rpmthe accel-
Motor
eration and deceleration Temax
peak torquevalues under different pedal modes350were calculated. Nm
The results
are shownMotor peak speed
in Figure 3. nemax 7500 rpm
Motor Maximum efficiency η 96 %
The results showed that the maximum acceleration for 30% accelerator pedal opening
Battery capacity Q 52.5 kWh
was 1.45 m/s2discharge
Battery , the maximum
depth acceleration D
for 60% accelerator80pedal opening was%2.66 m/s ,
2

and theNominal
maximum acceleration
driving range for 90% accelerator
S pedal opening
410 was 3.83 m/s km
2. The max-
imum deceleration
Nominal for 30% brake pedal opening
energy consumption q was 1.36 m/s
13.12, the maximum deceleration
kWh/100 km
for 60% brake pedal opening was 2.98 m/s2, and the maximum deceleration for 90% brake
pedal opening
According wasto4.45
them/s
2. Therefore, 30% accelerator/brake pedal opening satisfies the
NEDC, full section suburban cycle maximum acceleration was
design requirements
≤1.5 m/s 2 , suburban in this
cycle paper.
maximumThe accelerator andwas
deceleration brake ≥−pedal
1.0 m/smode were set
2 , urban at 30%
cycle accel-
pedal opening. 2
eration was ≥0.15 m/s , and urban cycle deceleration was ≤−0.15 m/s [25]. So, the 2
Based on the
acceleration setof
range pedal opening, the segment
the acceleration test method
wasdesigned
confirmed in in
this[0.15
paper m/swas divided
2 , 1.5 m/s2 ],
into
the deceleration range of deceleration segment was [−1.5 m/s , −0.15 m/s ], andthe
two parts. The first step was designed to accelerate the vehicle2 to 65 km/h 2with the
30% accelerator
maximum pedal
speed was opening
65 km/h. andTo then released
precisely the accelerator
determine pedal
the range of gliding to the amin-
acceleration, limit
imum steady
device speedtoby
was used thethe
lock driver in vehicle SOCpedal
accelerator/brake between 20 andThe
opening. 80%. The drove
driver secondthe steptest
was in thetosame
vehicle 65 km/hvehicle
withstate,
threethe driverofaccelerated
modes acceleratorthe vehicle
pedal to 65ofkm/h
opening 30%,with
60%,the and30%90%
accelerator pedal
respectively, thenopening,
braked then released
to 0 with threethe accelerator
modes pedal
of brake toopening
pedal take the of vehicle
30%, 60%,gliding
and
to90%
60 km/h, and braked
respectively. the vehicle
Finally, to 0 km/hand
the acceleration with the 30% brake
deceleration pedal
values opening.
under The pedal
different test
was repeated
modes wereseveral times
calculated. Theuntil it met
results arethe test requirements.
shown in Figure 3.

3.5 Min Acceleration

Max Acceleration
3
Acceleration (m/s2)

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Accelerator pedal opening
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure3. 3.
Acceleration/deceleration values
Acceleration/deceleration at different
values pedalpedal
at different openings: (a) Acceleration
openings: underunder
(a) Acceleration dif-
ferent accelerator pedal openings; (b) Deceleration under the different braking pedal openings.
different accelerator pedal openings; (b) Deceleration under the different braking pedal openings.

The
The methods of data collection
results showed include the
that the maximum chase car method,
acceleration on-board measurement
for 30% accelerator pedal opening
method,
was 1.45and
m/sa 2combination
, the maximum of both in the urban
acceleration for 60% driving cycle pedal
accelerator [31]. The chasewas
opening car 2.66 m/s2 ,
method
means themaximum
and the driver randomly follows
acceleration for the
90%target vehiclepedal
accelerator on a predetermined
opening was 3.83 route, 2
m/sand if the
. The max-
imumvehicle
target deceleration
drives forout30% brake
of the testpedal opening
area or behaves was 1.36 m/s2 , the
abnormally, the maximum
test vehicledeceleration
will find
for 60%target
braketopedal opening was 2.98 m/s 2 , and the maximum deceleration for 90% brake
another follow [32]. The on-board measurement method installs a global position
pedal opening was 2
4.45 m/sdiagnosis
. Therefore, 30%on accelerator/brake
system (GPS) and on-board (OBD) the test vehicle pedal opening
to record satisfiesin-
its driving the
formation along a predetermined route to obtain reliable data with high cost [33,34]. To
develop the rapid inspection driving cycle, this paper used data from real vehicle testing
at specific speeds under real driving. So, it was an inspection driving cycle for operational
safety, which did not require tracking measurements on urban vehicles. Therefore, on-
Sustainability 2022, 14, 5079 6 of 16

design requirements in this paper. The accelerator and brake pedal mode were set at 30%
pedal opening.
Based on the set pedal opening, the test method designed in this paper was divided
into two parts. The first step was designed to accelerate the vehicle to 65 km/h with the 30%
accelerator pedal opening and then released the accelerator pedal gliding to the minimum
steady speed by the driver in vehicle SOC between 20 and 80%. The second step was in the
same vehicle state, the driver accelerated the vehicle to 65 km/h with the 30% accelerator
pedal opening, then released the accelerator pedal to take the vehicle gliding to 60 km/h,
and braked the vehicle to 0 km/h with the 30% brake pedal opening. The test was repeated
several times until it met the test requirements.
The methods of data collection include the chase car method, on-board measurement
method, and a combination of both in the urban driving cycle [31]. The chase car method
means the driver randomly follows the target vehicle on a predetermined route, and if
the target vehicle drives out of the test area or behaves abnormally, the test vehicle will
find another target to follow [32]. The on-board measurement method installs a global
position system (GPS) and on-board diagnosis (OBD) on the test vehicle to record its driving
information along a predetermined route to obtain reliable data with high cost [33,34]. To
develop the rapid inspection driving cycle, this paper used data from real vehicle testing at
specific speeds under real driving. So, it was an inspection driving cycle for operational
safety, which did not require tracking measurements on urban vehicles. Therefore, on-
board measurements were used to collect real-time data on driving in this paper. The GPS
was used to collect the speed and time of the test vehicle to modify the OBD data, which
was stored in real time on the PC. At the same time, this was undertaken to increase the
validity and effectiveness of the test data and avoid spike data in the acceleration signal.
Considering the OBD-collected data within the effective frequency range, the sampling
frequency was set at 20 Hz in this paper. The test equipment is shown in Figure 4. In
addition, the test was operated by one professional driver throughout to eliminate data
jitter caused by different drivers.

Figure 4. Test equipment.

4. Data Processing
The main function of data processing is to confirm velocity time series as well as to
remove noise and duplicate data from the original data. This process had two steps. The
first step was to interpolate the original data with a polynomial interpolation algorithm
for 10 ms. The sampling frequency of OBD to collect the data was sampled at 20 Hz and
after a single data collection test, the test results showed that the time interval between
the collected data was 10 ms. So, the original data was interpolated at 10 ms. Due to the
limitations of the OBD collection data, the collected velocity and time samples will have
stopped repetitive data and therefore need to be interpolated to obtain a new speed–time
Sustainability 2022, 14, 5079 7 of 16

relationship. The second step was to smooth the original data. The original data collected by
the sensor often show burrs or sudden changes in the data, due to the driving environmental
disturbances and buildings, and some disturbances in the driving environment can also
affect the test data. A Gaussian smoothing algorithm was introduced to filter and denoise
the data. Gaussian smoothing is a linear smoothing filter, which has a softer smoothing
effect and better edge retention than mean filtering. The original and denoising data for
the driving-gliding state speed is shown in Figure 5. According to the data results, the
Sustainability 2022,
Sustainability 2022, 14,
14, x
x FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 8 of
8 of 17
17
minimum speed of the braking energy recovery is 8 km/h. The driving-braking state speed
is shown in Figure 6.

Figure
Figure 5.
5. Driving-gliding
Driving-gliding state
state speed.
speed.

Figure 6.
Figure Driving-braking state
6. Driving-braking state speed.
speed.
Figure 6. Driving-braking state speed.
The motion data
The data was divided
divided intothree
three different kinematic
kinematic segments,including
including driv-
The motion
motion data was was divided intointo three different
different kinematic segments,
segments, including driv-
driv-
ing
ing segments, gliding segments, and braking segments after data processing. To increase
ing segments,
segments, gliding
gliding segments,
segments, andand braking
braking segments
segments afterafter data
data processing.
processing. ToTo increase
increase
the accuracy of
the of testing thethe operational safety
safety of the
the electric vehicle,
vehicle, the three
three different
the accuracy
accuracy of testing
testing the operational
operational safety of of the electric
electric vehicle, the
the three different
different
kinematic segments were combined with the idling and cruising kinematic segments in the
kinematic segments
kinematic segments werewere combined
combined withwith the
the idling
idling and
and cruising
cruising kinematic
kinematic segments
segments in in
construction of the rapid inspection driving cycle.
the construction
the construction of of the
the rapid
rapid inspection
inspection driving
driving cycle.
cycle.
To effectively inspect the safety of the driving, gliding, and braking according to the
To
To effectively
effectively inspect the
the safety
inspectsafety safety of the
the driving,
of items,
driving, gliding, and
and braking
gliding,mutation
braking according
according to
to the
the
determined operational testing the velocity in speed during the
determined
determined operational safety testing items, the velocity mutation in speed during the
operational safety testing items, the velocity mutation in speed during the
sliding
sliding time
time window
window was was purposed
purposed as as an
an evaluation
evaluation index.
index. Acceleration
Acceleration can
can be
be used
used asas
an important
an important feature
feature toto evaluate
evaluate velocity
velocity mutation,
mutation, but but asas acceleration
acceleration only
only reflects
reflects the
the
velocity variation
velocity variation during
during the
the whole
whole process,
process, it
it cannot
cannot characterize
characterize its
its operational
operational stability.
stability.
Therefore,
Therefore, the first derivative of the acceleration in the sliding time window for each kin-
the first derivative of the acceleration in the sliding time window for each kin-
Sustainability 2022, 14, 5079 8 of 16

sliding time window was purposed as an evaluation index. Acceleration can be used as
an important feature to evaluate velocity mutation, but as acceleration only reflects the
velocity variation during the whole process, it cannot characterize its operational stability.
Therefore, the first derivative of the acceleration in the sliding time window for each
kinematic segment, i.e., the acceleration changing rate, is used as an indicator to evaluate
its safety in this paper.
After testing the experimental data, t was used as the sliding time window, and the ∆t
was determined as the velocity sampling interval according to the data sampling frequency.
The acceleration calculation formula was established for all velocity segments, which can
be written as:
V (i + ∆t) − V (i )
a (i ) = (1)
t
Based on the acceleration results obtained, we selected t as the sliding time window,
and determined the ∆t as the acceleration sampling interval. Finally, the acceleration chang-
ing rate was established for all kinematic segments, as shown in the following equation:

a(i + ∆t) − a(i )

∆a(i ) = (2)
t
where: i = (1, 2, 3, · · · , n − ∆t).

5. Driving Cycle Construction

The construction of a rapid inspection driving cycle is crucial for testing the operational
safety of electric vehicles, and the nonlinear classification of speed–time directly affects the
test result. The support vector machine (SVM) algorithm is an effective method for solving
nonlinear pattern recognition and is mainly used to solve classification and regression
problems. The support vector machine was referenced to solve the problem of regression
curves for the rapid driving cycle kinematic segments in this paper. The core idea of the
regression problem requires sample data to construct bounded training sets, which can be
represented as (Xi ,Yi ) (i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n). Where n is the number of samples, X is the input
parameter, and Y is the output parameter. Regression aims to find the optimal function
f ( x ), which can be written as follows:

f ( x ) = hw, x i + b, b ∈ R (3)

where h, i is the dot product; ω is the parameter vector; and b is the bias vector.
The dot product of two numbered sets that satisfy the Mercer condition can be approx-
imated by a kernel function to reduce the complexity of the calculation in reproducing the
kernel Hilbert space.
K ( x i , x j ) = φ ( x i ), φ ( x j ) (4)
For the centralization of experimental datasets, the Gaussian radial basis kernel func-
tion has good generalization ability and good local data fitting ability [35]. So, the Gaussian
radial basis kernel function was chosen as the kernel function of the support vector machine,
which is as follows:
k x − x k2
K ( xi , x ) = exp(− i 2 ) (5)
2σ
where σ is the dot product. We set ω as a parameter vector, and ξ i and ξ i ∗ as slack variables.
The optimization problems will recast as follows:

1
1
min kw k2 + C ∑ (ξ i + ξ i ∗ ) (6)
w 2
i =1

 Yi − wφ( xi ) − b ≤ ε + ξ i
s.t. −Yi + wφ( xi ) + b ≤ ε + ξ i ∗ , i = 1, 2, · · · , I, C > 0 (7)
ξ i ≥ 0, ξ i ∗ ≥ 0

 of the data sample [36].
To take the validity of the regression fitting data, we set up the root mean square
error (RMSE) to indicate the curve dispersion, which is shown as follows:

1 n
Sustainability 2022, 14, 5079 E RMSE =  ( y i − f ( xi )) 2 × 100%
n i =1 9 of(8)
16

where yi is the regression value, and f (xi ) is the true value.

whereA Csupport
is the penalty coefficient
vector machine and C needs
algorithm to betogreater
was used regressthan 0; ε is an
the original insensitive
driving cycle
coefficient to control the width of the regression function for the region of insensitivity
curve. The results showed that the RMSE was less than 10%, therefore, the candidate driv- of
the data sample [36].
ing cycles were acceptable.
To
Totake the validity
further establishofathe regressionelectric
completely fitting data, weoperation
vehicle set up thesafety
root mean
rapidsquare error
inspection
(RMSE) to indicate the curve dispersion, which is shown as follows:
driving cycle and improve the accuracy of the inspection, three kinematic segments of
driving, gliding, and braking segment s were set. The kinematic segments are shown in
1 n kinematic segment
Figure 7. The total duration of the
RMSE ∑ (yi − f (xi ))2 × 100%was 11.3 s, the gliding kin-
= driving
n
(8)
ematic segment was 14.8 s, and the braking i =1 kinematic segment was 12.2 s. The different
kinematic segments were spliced together through the idling and cruising segments, so
where yi iscould
the driver the regression
have sufficient and f ( xi ) istime
value,preparation the true value.and follow each segment of the
to switch
A support vector machine algorithm was
driving cycle. According to the time of NEDC, the timeused to regress theand
of idling original driving
cruising cycle
segments
curve. The results showed that the RMSE was less than 10%, therefore, the candidate
was set at 10 s. According to the minimum braking energy recovery speed of 10 km/h for
driving cycles were acceptable.
the inspection items, the speed of the cruising segments was set at 10 km/h in this paper.
To further establish a completely electric vehicle operation safety rapid inspection
The driving kinematic segments were divided into 0–65 km/h and 10–65 km/h, where
driving cycle and improve the accuracy of the inspection, three kinematic segments of
the 10–65 km/h segment was the vehicle driving to 65 km/h and then for gliding inspec-
driving, gliding, and braking segment were set. The kinematic segments are shown in
tion. The gliding kinematic segments were divided into 65–60 km/h and 60–10 km/h,
Figure 7. The total duration of the driving kinematic segment was 11.3 s, the gliding
where 65–60 km/h took the vehicle speed decline to the inspection speed and also pro-
kinematic segment was 14.8 s, and the braking kinematic segment was 12.2 s. The different
vided preparation time for the driver to the next stage of the driving operation. The 10–65
kinematic segments were spliced together through the idling and cruising segments, so
km/h driving segment and 65–60 km/h gliding segment are shown in Figure 8. The idling
the driver could have sufficient preparation time to switch and follow each segment of the
was for the driver to adjust the driving state, so the waiting segment was set 5 s before the
driving cycle. According to the time of NEDC, the time of idling and cruising segments
inspection started. The rapid inspection driving cycle of the electric vehicle was con-
was set at 10 s. According to the minimum braking energy recovery speed of 10 km/h for
structed
the by splice
inspection and
items, thereconstruction between
speed of the cruising the kinematic
segments was setsegments.
at 10 km/hThe developed
in this paper.
rapid inspection driving cycle is shown in Figure 9.

Figure 7. Different kinematic segment speeds.

Figure 7. Different kinematic segment speeds.
The driving kinematic segments were divided into 0–65 km/h and 10–65 km/h, where
the 10–65 km/h segment was the vehicle driving to 65 km/h and then for gliding inspection.
The gliding kinematic segments were divided into 65–60 km/h and 60–10 km/h, where
65–60 km/h took the vehicle speed decline to the inspection speed and also provided
preparation time for the driver to the next stage of the driving operation. The 10–65 km/h
driving segment and 65–60 km/h gliding segment are shown in Figure 8. The idling was for
the driver to adjust the driving state, so the waiting segment was set 5 s before the inspection
started. The rapid inspection driving cycle of the electric vehicle was constructed by splice
and reconstruction between the kinematic segments. The developed rapid inspection
driving cycle is shown in Figure 9.
Sustainability2022,
Sustainability
Sustainability 2022,14,
2022, 14,5079
14, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 11 of
10
11 of 16
of 17
17

Figure 8.
Figure
Figure 8. The
8. The 10–65 km/h driving
10–65 km/h
km/h driving segment
drivingsegment and
segmentand 60–65
and60–65 km/h
60–65 km/h gliding
km/hgliding segment.
glidingsegment.
segment.

Figure 9.
Figure 9. Rapid
Rapid inspection
inspection driving
driving cycle.
cycle.

As can
As can be
can beseen
be seenfrom
seen fromFigure
from Figure9,9,
Figure 9,the
thetotal
the totalduration
total durationofof
duration ofthetherapid
the rapid
rapid inspection
inspection
inspection driving
driving
driving cycle
cycle
cycleis
is
204204
s. s.
ThereTherewere were
three three
0–65 0–65
km/h km/h
driving driving
segments segments
for for
inspecting
is 204 s. There were three 0–65 km/h driving segments for inspecting the safety of the inspecting
the the
safety safety
of the of
drivingthe
driving stability
stability
driving stability of the
of the electric
of thevehicle,
electricthree
electric vehicle,
vehicle,65–10three
km/h
three 65–10
65–10 km/hsegments
gliding
km/h gliding segments
gliding segments for the
the inspec-
for the inspection
for inspec-
of the
tion
safetyofofthe
the safety
gliding of the
comfortgliding
of comfort
the electric of the
vehicle, electric
three vehicle,
60–0
tion of the safety of the gliding comfort of the electric vehicle, three 60–0 km/h braking km/hthree 60–0
braking km/h braking
segments for
segments
the for
inspection
segments the
for the inspection
ofinspection of
the safety of the the safety
thesafety
braking of the braking
coordination
of the coordination
of the electric
braking coordination of the electric
vehicle,
of the and
electric vehicle,
three
vehicle,
and three
65–60
and three
km/h 65–60
gliding
65–60 km/h
km/h glidingand
segments
gliding segments and three
three idling
segments and three idlingThe
segments.
idling segments. The gliding
gliding segment
segments. The gliding segment
wassegment
only set
wasthis
for
was only
only setvehicle,
test
set for this
for thiswhich
test vehicle,
test vehicle, which
cannot which cannot
restrictcannot
the glidingrestrict
time
restrict thefor
the gliding
different
gliding time
time for different
different
vehicles.
for Comparedvehi-
vehi-
cles.
to the Compared
NEDC, this to the
model NEDC,
avoided this
the model
problems avoided
of
cles. Compared to the NEDC, this model avoided the problems of a high numbera the
high problems
number of of a
parked high number
vehicles, longof
of
parked
duration, vehicles,
and long
speed duration,
instability. and
This speed
driving instability.
cycle This
provides
parked vehicles, long duration, and speed instability. This driving cycle provides a solu- driving
a cycle
solution provides
for accurate a solu-
and
rapid
tion inspection
tion for
for accurate of
accurate and
and the operational
rapid
rapid inspection
inspection safety
of of electric
of the
the operational
operationalvehicles.
safety of
safety of electric
electric vehicles.
vehicles.
Based
Based on the
Based on the analysis analysis
analysis of of the
of the testing
the testing
testing data,data,
data, the the sliding
the sliding
sliding time time window
time window
window was was
0.50.5
was 0.5 s. Since
s. Since
s. Since the
the
the sampling
sampling frequency
frequency was was
20 20
Hz, Hz,
the the
speed speed
samplingsamplinginterval
sampling frequency was 20 Hz, the speed sampling interval Δ t was 50. The range of ac- Δ t
interval was∆t was
50. 50.
The The
range range
of ac-
of acceleration
celeration changingchangingrate rate
was was
[−0.35 [ − 0.35,
−0.04] −
for 0.04]
the for the
driving driving
segment,
celeration changing rate was [−0.35 −0.04] for the driving segment, the range of accelera- segment,
the range the
of range
accelera- of
acceleration
tion changing changing
rate for rate
the for
gliding the gliding
segment segment
was [0.05 was
0.09],
tion changing rate for the gliding segment was [0.05 0.09], and the range of acceleration [0.05,
and 0.09],
the and
range ofthe range
acceleration of
acceleration
changing ratechanging
for the rate for segment
braking the braking was segment
[−0.04 was [−
0.095]. 0.04, 0.095].
Results are Results
shown in are shown
Figure 10.
changing rate for the braking segment was [−0.04 0.095]. Results are shown in Figure 10.
in Figure 10.
Sustainability 2022,
Sustainability 14,14,x 5079
2022, FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 16 12

Figure 10. Acceleration changing rate for different segments.

Figure 10. Acceleration changing rate for different segments.
As shown in Figure 10, the driving segment has the largest range of acceleration
changing
As rate.
shown As the
in vehicle
Figureaccelerates from 0 to segment
10, the driving 65 km/h, thehasvelocity difference
the largest becomes
range of accelera
progressively smaller under the sliding time window, which
changing rate. As the vehicle accelerates from 0 to 65 km/h, the velocity causes the result to be a differ
negative value. The trend of gradual flattening of the increasing velocity with a stable pedal
becomes progressively smaller under the sliding time window , which causes the re
opening is verified, and the qualified range of driving stability for the driving segment
to[−
is be0.35,
a negative
−0.04]. The value. Theinterval
second trend of rangegradual flattening
of acceleration of the rate
changing increasing velocity w
is a braking
stable pedal
segment. When opening is verified,
the vehicle enters the and the qualified
braking state fromrange of driving
gliding, stability for the dri
the electromechanical
segment
brake startsisto[−0.35 −0.04].
intervene The second
to completely stop.interval range
The velocity of acceleration
difference in the slidingchanging
time rate
window
brakingrange becomesWhen
segment. larger, so
thethevehicle
acceleration changing
enters the rate fluctuates
braking statemore,
fromwhilegliding,
there is no sudden change.
electromechanical brake The qualified
starts range oftobraking
to intervene coordination
completely for the
stop. The brakingdifferenc
velocity
segment is [−0.04, 0.095]. The gliding segment has the smallest range of acceleration
the sliding time window range becomes larger, so the acceleration changing
changing rate, which is mainly due to the intervention of the regenerative braking during
fluctuates
the more, The
gliding process. while there
external is no factors
dominant sudden change.reduction
of velocity The qualified
are reduced,range
and of bra
coordination
the vehicle can findfor the braking
stability segment
in gliding. The is [−0.04 range
qualified 0.095].of The gliding segment
the changing has the sma
rate for gliding
range of acceleration
smoothness for the glidingchanging rate, 0.09].
segment is [0.05, which is mainly due to the intervention of
regenerative braking during the gliding process. The external dominant factors of velo
6. Driving Cycle Verification
reduction are reduced, and the vehicle can find stability in gliding. The qualified rang
To verify the representativeness and typicality of the developed driving cycle, driving
the changing rate for gliding smoothness for the gliding segment is [0.05 0.09].
stability, gliding comfort, and braking coordination were detected for inspection based
on the established operational safety test calculation method. The test vehicle was used
6. follow
to Driving theCycle Verification
rapid driving cycle on a testing bench in Chang’an university Automotive
Performance Test Laboratory, which is shown
To verify the representativeness in Figure
and 11. The
typicality of vehicle inertia anddriving
the developed loading cycle, d
force were matched before following the rapid driving cycle. Therefore, the bench could
ing stability, gliding comfort, and braking coordination were detected for inspec
simulate the road test. The maximum permissible error range for the rapid driving cycle
based on
velocity and the established
following operational
velocity is [−2 km/h,safety test calculation
2 km/h]. method.
If the following The
velocity test vehicle
exceeds
used
the to follow
maximum the rapid error
permissible driving cycle
range, theon a testing
following testbench
data isinconsidered
Chang’aninefficient.
university Auto
tive Performance
Simultaneously, Test Laboratory,
the driver which
selected the same is shown person
professional in Figure 11. The
to operate thevehicle
electric inertia
vehicle
loading and obtained
force wereamatched
large number of efficiency
before following data
theafter
rapidfollowing
driving thecycle.
test. Therefore, the be
could simulate the road test. The maximum permissible error range for the rapid dri
cycle velocity and following velocity is [−2 km/h 2 km/h]. If the following velocity exc
the maximum permissible error range, the following test data is considered ineffic
Simultaneously, the driver selected the same professional person to operate the ele
vehicle and obtained a large number of efficiency data after following the test.
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Sustainability 2022, 14, 5079 12 of 16
13

Figure11.11.
Figure Bench
Bench tracking
tracking test. test.

Based on the analysis of the following test data, six driving segments were selected for
Based on the analysis of the following test data, six driving segments were sele
calculation and obtained the range of the acceleration changing rate. The results showed
for calculation
the maximum driving andacceleration
obtained the rangerate
changing ofwasthe−acceleration changingdriving
0.49, and the minimum rate. The re
showed the
acceleration maximum
changing driving
rate was −0.03.acceleration
The maximum changing rateacceleration
RMSE in the was −0.49,changing
and the minim
driving
rate betweenacceleration changing
the constructed rapid rate was −0.03.
inspection drivingThe maximum
segments and theRMSE
tested in the accelera
driving
segments
changingwas 9%.
rate The maximum
between RMSE in the
the constructed acceleration
rapid inspectionchanging
drivingratesegments
between theand the te
tested driving segments was 6%. Then, the range of acceleration changing
driving segments was 9%. The maximum RMSE in the acceleration changing rate betw rate of the six
gliding segments was calculated. The result showed the maximum gliding acceleration
the tested driving segments was 6%. Then, the range of acceleration changing rate o
changing rate was 0.13, and the minimum gliding acceleration changing rate was 0.03.
six gliding
The maximum segments
RMSE inwas the calculated.
acceleration The resultrate
changing showed
between thethe
maximum
constructedgliding
rapid accelera
changinggliding
inspection rate was 0.13, and
segments thetested
and the minimumglidinggliding
segments acceleration
was 2.7%. The changing
maximum rate was
The maximum
RMSE RMSE inchanging
in the acceleration the acceleration
rate betweenchanging rategliding
the tested between the constructed
segments was 4%. rapi
The errors results
spection glidingwere shown inand
segments Tablethe3. Finally,
tested the range of
gliding the acceleration
segments changing
was 2.7%. The maxim
rate of six braking segments was calculated. The result showed a maximum braking
RMSE in the acceleration changing rate between the tested gliding segments was 4%
acceleration changing rate of 0.1 and a minimum braking acceleration changing rate of
errors results were shown in Table 3. Finally, the range of the acceleration changing
0.02. The maximum RMSE in the acceleration changing rate between the constructed rapid
of six braking
inspection segments
braking segmentswas and calculated. The result
the tested braking showed
segments a maximum
was 6.9%. The maximumbraking acce
tion changing
RMSE rate of changing
in the acceleration 0.1 and rate
a minimum
between the braking acceleration
tested braking segmentschanging
was 3.4%.rate
The of 0.02.
test
maximum RMSE in the acceleration changing rate between the constructedinrapid ins
results were valid and errors are in the calculated permissible range, which is shown
Figure 12.
tion braking segments and the tested braking segments was 6.9%. The maximum R
in the acceleration changing rate between the tested braking segments was 3.4%. The
Table 3. The analysis of test results.
results were valid and errors are in the calculated permissible range, which is show
Figure 12.
The Qualified Range The Tested Range of
The RMSE between
The RMSE between
Kinematic Segments the Qualified and
of Stability Stability the Tested Results
Tested Results
Table 3. The analysis of test results.
driving segment [−0.35, −0.04] [−0.49, −0.03] 9% 6%
gliding segment [0.05, 0.09] The Qualified
[0.03, 0.13] The Tested2.7% The RMSE between4% The RMS
braking segment [−Kinematic
0.04, 0.095] [0.02, 0.1] 6.9% 3.4%
Range of Range of the Qualified and between t
Segments
Stability Stability Tested Results Tested Resu
driving
[−0.35 −0.04] [−0.49 −0.03] 9% 6%
segment
gliding
[0.05 0.09] [0.03 0.13] 2.7% 4%
segment
braking
[−0.04 0.095] [0.02 0.1] 6.9% 3.4%
segment
 on the sudden change of speed and the operability of the driver, the rapid condition de-
signed in this paper has a low speed and a small pedal opening, which is conducive to the
following test. On the other hand, we chose a professional driver to operate the vehicle,
Sustainability 2022, 14, 5079 13 of 16
and after several simulation tests, it followed the rapid driving cycle well, and the speed
error reached the minimum.
0.14
Min Acceleration changing rate
Max Acceleration changing rate
0.12

0.1

0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02

0
1 2 3 4 5 6
Gliding segment
(a) (b)

(c)
Figure
Figure12.12.
TheTheresults ofof
results the following
the following test:
test:(a)(a)
driving segment
driving test
segment testresults;
results;(b)
(b)gliding
glidingsegment
segment test
test results;
results; (c)(c) braking
braking segment
segment testtest results.
results.

TheIn testing
order toresults
bettershowed
reflect that the proposed
the results of the rapid inspection
following method
test, this paper wasis very
built from
effective
both theinconstruction
verifying theofoperational safety of
the rapid driving the electric
cycle and thevehicle.
following Thetest.
changing
On therate oneofhand,
each acceleration
based was within
on the sudden changeaof small
speed range
and of
thevariation,
operability which
of thecould characterize
driver, the
the rapid condition
safety of theindriving,
designed this papergliding,
has aand
lowbraking
speed and movement. The maximum
a small pedal changing
opening, which rate of to
is conducive
acceleration
the following during
test. driving at less
On the other thanwe
hand, 0.5chose
is the asafety threshold
professional for driving
driver to operatestability.
the vehicle,
The
andmaximum changing
after several rate oftests,
simulation acceleration
it followedduring gliding
the rapid is lesscycle
driving than well,
0.1 asand
the the
safety
speed
threshold for gliding
error reached comfort. The maximum changing rate of acceleration during brak-
the minimum.
Thethan
ing is less testing results
0.1 as showed
the safety that the
threshold forproposed rapid inspection
vehicle braking coordination. method was very
effective in verifying the operational safety of the electric vehicle. The changing rate of each
7.acceleration
Conclusionswas within a small range of variation, which could characterize the safety of
theThe
driving, gliding,safety
operational and braking movement.
of the electric vehicle Theismaximum
the core inchanging ratesafety,
full vehicle of acceleration
and ac-
curate inspection of its safety hazard is a premise for ensuring the operational maximum
during driving at less than 0.5 is the safety threshold for driving stability. The safety of
changing
electric rate of
vehicles. acceleration
However, thereduring glidingofisrelevant
is no testing less than 0.1 as
items the safety
according to threshold
specific fol- for
gliding comfort. The maximum changing rate of acceleration during
low-on testing cycles in traditional electric vehicle operation safety inspection. To resolvebraking is less than
0.1issue,
this as theansafety threshold
in-depth for vehicle
analysis brakingsafety
of operational coordination.
inspection technology at home and
abroad, a rapid inspection method was proposed for electric vehicle operational safety.
7. Conclusions
According to the inspection results, the conclusion is as follows:
The operational safety of the electric vehicle is the core in full vehicle safety, and
accurate inspection of its safety hazard is a premise for ensuring the operational safety
of electric vehicles. However, there is no testing of relevant items according to specific
follow-on testing cycles in traditional electric vehicle operation safety inspection. To resolve
this issue, an in-depth analysis of operational safety inspection technology at home and
abroad, a rapid inspection method was proposed for electric vehicle operational safety.
According to the inspection results, the conclusion is as follows:
Sustainability 2022, 14, 5079 14 of 16

(1) According to the existing electric vehicles inspection methods and means, combined
with the relevant standards for electric vehicles and the accident causes, the electric ve-
hicle safety inspection items were identified, which included gliding comfort, driving
stability, and braking coordination. Then, an acceleration changing rate was purposed
as an items inspection method based on the identified inspection items. Using the
basic theory of the driving cycle, the accelerator/brake pedal opening, acceleration,
and velocity were selected as test parameters. Then, a multi-cycle operational safety
test method was proposed with stable pedal mode and set several accelerator/braking
cycle tests were set to obtain the operational safety test data.
(2) Advanced filtering algorithms were used to remove burrs and duplicate data from
the collected data. A support vector machine was used for regression cycles and
fused with a spliced rapid inspection driving cycle with a total time of 204 s for
electric vehicles. Then the range of three kinematic segments stability was determined.
Finally, this rapid inspection driving cycle was verified on the testing bench. The
verification results showed that the maximum driving acceleration changing rate error
was 9%. The maximum tested driving acceleration changing rate error was 6%, and
the maximum verification gliding acceleration changing rate error was 2.7%. The
maximum tested gliding acceleration changing rate error was 4%, and the maximum
verification braking acceleration changing rate error was 6.9%. The maximum tested
braking acceleration changing rate error was 3.4%. All three inspection items had a
good calculation effect. The safety thresholds for driving acceleration changing rate
were less than 0.5, the gliding acceleration changing rate was less than 0.1, and the
braking acceleration changing rate was less than 0.1.
(3) A rapid inspection driving cycle was established for the operational safety of electric
vehicles, which provided some technical support for the “annual inspection” of electric
vehicles. However, there are also certain limitations. For example, there are many
models of electric vehicles with widely varying braking strategies. A single driver
and changing different drivers may increase the calculation error. Therefore, further
analysis can be performed for different braking energy recovery strategies, different
vehicles and multi-cycle following correction.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Z.J. and J.M.; methodology, X.Z.; software, K.Z.; valida-
tion, Z.J.; formal analysis, Z.J.; investigation, X.L.; resources, J.M.; data curation, Z.J.; writing—original
draft preparation, Z.J. and X.L.; writing—review and editing, J.M.; visualization, X.Z.; supervision,
K.Z.; project administration, D.M.; funding acquisition, J.M. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the National Key Research and Development Program of
China (2020YFB1600604), in part by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (52172362,
52002034), Major Science and Technology Projects of Shaanxi Province (2020ZDZX06-01-01); in part
by the Fok Yingdong Young Teachers Fund Project (171103); and in part by the Key Research and
Development Program of Shaanxi (2020ZDLGY16-01, 2020ZDLGY16-02, 2021ZDLGY12-01); and in
part by the Natural Science Foundation of Shaanxi Province (2022JQ494), Fundamental Research
Funds for the Central Universities, CHD (300102222108).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Sustainability 2022, 14, 5079 15 of 16

Abbreviations

FTP-75 Federal Test Procedure-75

ECO Economical and Ecological
NEDC New European Driving Cycle
VMAS Vehicle Mass Analysis System
WLTC World Light Vehicle Test Cycle
CLTC-P China Light-Duty Vehicle Test Cycle-Passenger
GPS Global Position System
OBD On-Board Diagnosis
t sliding time window
∆t velocity sampling interval
a acceleration
∆a acceleration changing rate
SVM Support Vector Machine
b bias vector
h, i dot product
w parameter vector
Df ( x ) E optimal function
φ ( x i ), φ ( x j ) kernel function
∗
ξi , ξi slack variable
C penalty coefficient
ε insensitive coefficient
RMSE Root Mean Square Error
yi regression value
f ( xi ) true value

References
1. Du, J.; Ouyang, D. Progress of Chinese electric vehicles industrialization in 2015: A review. Appl. Energy 2017, 188, 529–546.
[CrossRef]
2. Palmer, K.; Tate, J.E.; Wadud, Z.; Nellthorp, J. Total cost of ownership and market share for hybrid and electric vehicles in the UK,
US and Japan. Appl. Energy 2018, 209, 108–119. [CrossRef]
3. Du, Z.; Lin, B.; Guan, C. Development path of electric vehicles in China under environmental and energy security constraints.
Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2019, 143, 17–26.
4. Dong, F.; Liu, Y. Policy evolution and effect evaluation of new-energy vehicle industry in China. Resour. Policy 2020, 67, 101655.
[CrossRef]
5. Li, Y.; Zhang, Q.; Liu, B.; McLellan, B.; Gao, Y.; Tang, Y. Substitution effect of New-Energy Vehicle Credit Program and Corporate
Average Fuel Consumption Regulation for Green-car Subsidy. Energy 2018, 152, 223–236. [CrossRef]
6. Wang, Z.; Dong, X. Determinants and policy implications of residents’ new energy vehicle purchases: The evidence from China.
Nat. Hazards 2016, 82, 155–173. [CrossRef]
7. Yi, F.; Lu, D.; Wang, X.; Pan, C.; Tao, Y.; Zhou, J.; Zhao, C. Energy Management Strategy for Hybrid Energy Storage Electric
Vehicles Based on Pontryagin’s Minimum Principle Considering Battery Degradation. Sustainability 2022, 14, 1214. [CrossRef]
8. Brady, J.; O’Mahony, M. Development of a driving cycle to evaluate the energy economy of electric vehicles in urban areas. Appl.
Energy 2016, 177, 165–178. [CrossRef]
9. Liu, X.; Ma, J.; Zhao, X.; Zhang, Y.; Zhang, K.; He, Y. Integrated Component Optimization and Energy Management for Plug-In
Hybrid Electric Buses. Processes 2019, 7, 477. [CrossRef]
10. Mayakuntla, S.K.; Verma, A. A novel methodology for construction of driving cycles for Indian cities. Transp. Res. Part D Transp.
Environ. 2018, 65, 725–735. [CrossRef]
11. Mersky, A.C.; Samaras, C. Fuel economy testing of autonomous vehicles. Transp. Res. Part C Emerg. Technol. 2016, 65, 31–48.
[CrossRef]
12. Tsai, J.-H.; Chiang, H.-L.; Hsu, Y.-C.; Peng, B.-J.; Hung, R.-F. Development of a local real world driving cycle for motorcycles for
emission factor measurements. Atmos. Environ. 2005, 39, 6631–6641. [CrossRef]
13. Berzi, L.; Delogu, M.; Pierini, M. Development of driving cycles for electric vehicles in the context of the city of Florence. Transp.
Res. Part D Transp. Environ. 2016, 47, 299–322. [CrossRef]
14. Hung, W.T.; Tong, H.Y.; Lee, C.; Ha, K.; Pao, L.Y. Development of a practical driving cycle construction methodology: A case
study in Hong Kong. Transp. Res. Part D Transp. Environ. 2007, 12, 115–128. [CrossRef]
15. Zhao, X.; Zhao, X.; Yu, Q.; Ye, Y.; Yu, M. Development of a representative urban driving cycle construction methodology for
electric vehicles: A case study in Xi’an. Transp. Res. Part D Transp. Environ. 2020, 81, 102279. [CrossRef]
Sustainability 2022, 14, 5079 16 of 16

16. Zhao, X.; Ye, Y.; Ma, J.; Shi, P.; Chen, H. Construction of electric vehicle driving cycle for studying electric vehicle energy
consumption and equivalent emissions. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2020, 27, 37395–37409. [CrossRef]
17. Shi, Q.; Zheng, Y.; Wang, R.; Li, Y. The study of a new method of driving cycles construction. Procedia Eng. 2011, 16, 79–87.
[CrossRef]
18. Shi, S.; Lin, N.; Zhang, Y.; Cheng, J.; Huang, C.; Liu, L.; Lu, B. Research on Markov property analysis of driving cycles and its
application. Transp. Res. Part D Transp. Environ. 2016, 47, 171–181. [CrossRef]
19. Jing, Z.; Wang, G.; Zhang, S.; Qiu, C. Building Tianjin driving cycle based on linear discriminant analysis. Transp. Res. Part D
Transp. Environ. 2017, 53, 78–87. [CrossRef]
20. Wang, Q.; Huo, H.; He, K.; Yao, Z.; Zhang, Q. Characterization of vehicle driving patterns and development of driving cycles in
Chinese cities. Transp. Res. Part D Transp. Environ. 2008, 13, 289–297. [CrossRef]
21. Peng, Y.; Zhuang, Y.; Yang, H. Development of a representative driving cycle for urban buses based on the k-means cluster
method. Clust. Comput. 2018, 2, 1–10.
22. Wang, L.; Ma, J.; Zhao, X.; Li, X. Development of a Typical Urban Driving Cycle for Battery Electric Vehicles Based on Kernel
Principal Component Analysis and Random Forest. IEEE Access 2021, 9, 15053–15065. [CrossRef]
23. Lai, J.; Yu, L.; Song, G.; Guo, P.; Chen, X. Development of City-Specific Driving Cycles for Transit Buses Based on VSP Distributions:
Case of Beijing. J. Transp. Eng. 2013, 139, 749–757. [CrossRef]
24. Nesamani, K.; Subramanian, K. Development of a driving cycle for intra-city buses in Chennai, India. Atmos. Environ. 2011, 45,
5469–5476. [CrossRef]
25. Shim, B.J.; Park, K.S.; Koo, J.M.; Jin, S.H. Work and speed based engine operation condition analysis for new European driving
cycle (NEDC). J. Mech. Sci. Technol. 2014, 28, 755–761. [CrossRef]
26. Zhang, X.; Liu, F.; Cai, F.; Dong, G.; Liu, J. Research on Influencing Factors on Errors of Vehicle Fuel Consumption Measured by
Carbon Balance Method Based on VMAS. J. Highw. Transp. Res. Dev. 2012, 6, 84–88. [CrossRef]
27. Wang, M.; Jin, B.; Li, S. Study on Emission Limits under VMAS for In-use Vehicles in Zhengzhou. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2019, 42,
214–220.
28. Kang, Y.; Duan, B.; Zhou, Z.; Shang, Y.; Zhang, C. Online multi-fault detection and diagnosis for battery packs in electric vehicles.
Appl. Energy 2020, 259, 114170. [CrossRef]
29. Feng, X.; Weng, C.; Ouyang, M.; Sun, J. Online internal short circuit detection for a large format lithium ion battery. Appl. Energy
2016, 161, 168–180. [CrossRef]
30. Xia, B.; Mi, C. A fault-tolerant voltage measurement method for series connected battery packs. J. Power Sources 2016, 308, 83–96.
[CrossRef]
31. Ho, S.; Wong, Y.; Chang, W. Developing Singapore Driving Cycle for passenger cars to estimate fuel consumption and vehicular
emissions. Atmos. Environ. 2014, 97, 353–362. [CrossRef]
32. Yu, Z.; Shi, S.; Wang, S.; Mu, Y.; Li, W.; Xu, C.; Zhang, M. Statistical inference-based research on sampling time of vehicle driving
cycle experiments. Transp. Res. Part D Transp. Environ. 2017, 54, 114–141. [CrossRef]
33. Arun, N.; Mahesh, S.; Ramadurai, G.; Nagendra, S.S. Development of driving cycles for passenger cars and motorcycles in
Chennai, India. Sustain. Cities Soc. 2017, 32, 508–512. [CrossRef]
34. Wang, Y.; Fujimoto, H.; Hara, S. Driving Force Distribution and Control for EV With Four In-Wheel Motors: A Case Study of
Acceleration on Split-Friction Surfaces. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 2017, 64, 3380–3388. [CrossRef]
35. Tian, H.; Li, A.; Li, X. SOC estimation of lithium-ion batteries for electric vehicles based on multimode ensemble SVR. J. Power
Electron. 2021, 21, 1365–1373. [CrossRef]
36. Lu, J.; Zhang, Z.; Wu, Z.Q. Prediction of Surface Roughness for Compacted Graphite Cast Iron Based on Support Vector Machine.
Surf. Technol. 2020, 49, 350–357.