Geophysical exploration and remote sensing

are most suited or not appropriate at all. An extremely gen- mapping with magnetometry. Coincidence of anomalies can
eral guide to the possible usefulness of the various methods help to increase confidence in the interpretation. The infor-
is given in Table 45.1. However, in many cases it is advisable mation given in Table 45.1 should not be used prescriptively
to use more than one method to reduce possible ambiguity in for survey design or specification purposes. To increase the
the interpretation and to respond to different physico-chemical benefit of any geophysical survey, the design and specification
characteristics within the same environment. For example, should be prepared by an experienced and suitably qualified
in the investigation of a former landfill, electrical resistivity EGA. A guide to the physical properties of materials and the
tomography is an ideal method to sense the conductive waste corresponding geophysical techniques sensitive to those prop-
and possible leachate plumes migrating away through the base erties is given in Table 45.2.
and/or sides. The resistivity results would respond predomi-
nantly to the electrical properties of the fluids present rather 45.3. Surface geophysics
than to the lithological boundaries, for which the seismic There are four groups of geophysical techniques in common
refraction method might be better suited. Consequently, these usage, and each of these is described briefly in turn. While the
two techniques are both applicable and are complementary. emphasis is on the use of these methods over the ground (or
Similarly, in environmental investigations over brownfield water) surface, some techniques can also be readily deployed
sites, a common pairing of techniques is electro-magnetic in airborne and/or down-hole modes. Most commonly, 1D
Depth to bedrock

Leachate plumes

Buried artefacts/
Buried channels

Mine workings/
Fractured zones

Brownfield site

UXO detection
and migration
investigations
Natural cavity

Groundwater
displacement
Stratigraphy

adits/shafts

exploration
Lithology

detection

mapping
Landfill
Fault

USTs
Geophysical methods

Potential field methods

  Gravity 1 0 0 0 2 2 4 4 1 3 0 1 0 1
  Magnetics 0 0 0 0 2 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 4 3
Electrical methods
   Resistivity – sounding 4 3 3 2 2 3 2 2 4 4 4 0 0 1
   Resistivity – tomography 3 2 2 4 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 2 0 3
   Induced polarisation 2 2 3 1 1 2 0 0 3 3 2 2 0 0
  Self-potential 0 0 0 2 2 1 1 1 4 4 3 2 0 0
Electro-magnetic methods
  FEM 2 2 2 4 2 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3
  TEM 2 2 2 3 2 3 1 1 3 3 3 1 4 1
  VLF 0 0 0 1 1 1 2 2 3 3 0 1 0 0
   Ground penetrating radar 2 3 1 2 3 2 3 3 2 2 0 2 3 4
Seismic methods
  Refraction 4 3 2 3 4 4 1 1 2 4 0 1 0 1
   Surface wave profiling 3 4 3 4 3 3 2 2 2 4 0 2 0 1
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  MASW 4 3 2 3 4 4 1 1 2 4 0 1 0 1
   Reflection – land 2 2 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 2 0 0 0 1
   Reflection – over water 4 4 2 2 4 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2
Key: 0 = Not considered applicable or untried; 1 = limited use; 2 = used, or could be used, but not the best approach, or has limitations; 3 = excellent potential but not fully
developed; 4 = generally considered an excellent approach, and techniques well developed.
Applicability of techniques is dependent upon a range of parameters, including physical/chemical contrast with host material, target dimensions, scale of survey and intended
depth penetration, site suitability, site dimensions and access, surface topography and material type, local noise. It is always best to select the method(s) on a site-specific basis
and with respect to the nature of the targets being sought. It is emphasised that this table is a very general guide only and actual suitability of a technique to a site may vary from
the values indicated above. Always seek advice from a professional geophysicist.
FEM, frequency-domain electro-magnetic; MASW, multi-channel analysis of surface waves; TEM, time-domain electro-magnetic; UST, underground storage tanks; UXO,
unexploded ordnance; VLF, very low frequency.
Table 45.1 Suitability of geophysical methods for a range of shallow engineering applications (Data taken from McCann et al., 1997)

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ICE Manual of Geotechnical Engineering Volume 1 : Geotechnical Engineering Principles, Problematic Soils and Site Investigation, edited by Tim Chapman, et al., ICE Publishing, 2023.
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 Site investigation

Mineral exploration/

Mapping of leachate

Forensic geophysics
Regional geological

Archaeogeophysics
and contamination
subsurface cavities

Location of buried
Hydrogeological
Engineering site

Environmental
investigations

investigations

investigations

metal objects
development
Hydrocarbon

Detection of
exploration

plumes
studies
Dependent physical
Geophysical methods property

Potential field methods

  Gravity Density P P s s s s s ! ! s !
  Magnetics Susceptibility P P P s P ! m ! P P !
Electrical methods
  Resistivity Resistivity m m P P P P P P s P m
   Induced polarisation Resistivity; capacitance m m P m s s m m m m m
  Self-potential Potential difference ! ! P m s P m m m ! !
Electro-magnetic methods
  FEM Conductivity; inductance s P P P P P P P P P m
  TEM Conductivity; inductance P P P m s s ! m s ! !
  VLF Conductivity; inductance m m P m m s s s m m !
  Ground penetrating Dielectric permittivity; ! ! m P P P P s P P P
radar conductivity
Seismic methods
  Refraction Elastic modulus; density P P m P m s s ! ! ! !
   MASW/ground stiffness Elastic modulus; density ! ! ! P ! s m ! ! ! !
  Reflection Elastic modulus; density P P m s ! s m ! ! ! !
Key: P = Primary method; s = secondary method; m = may be used but not necessarily the best approach or has not been developed for this application; (!) = unsuitable.
FEM, frequency-domain electro-magnetic; MASW, multi-channel analysis of surface waves; TEM, time-domain electro-magnetic; VLF, very low frequency.
Table 45.2 Common geophysical methods, their dependent physical properties and their generalised main applications (Data taken from
Reynolds, 2011)

soundings and 2D profiles are acquired. Data from closely meters are capable of making measurements to an accuracy of
spaced 2D profiles can be incorporated into a 3D volume. For better than 5 µGal with a daily productivity rate of 50–80 sta-
specialist applications it is possible to acquire true 3D datasets tions per day, with typical anomaly amplitudes of several tens
by deploying a grid of detectors, all of which sense signals of µGal in engineering investigations (such as in void detec-
from a common source (3D resistivity and seismic reflec- tion) (1 µGal = 1 cm/s2). It is essential to be able to survey
tion surveys). Re-surveying profiles/grids after a significant each measurement point to an accuracy of better than ±0.1 m
period of time permits the acquisition of time-lapse surveys, horizontally and ±0.02 m vertically to achieve the best results.
by which it is possible to determine changes as a function of Given their heightened sensitivity, modern gravimeters pick
time. It is beyond the scope of this chapter to explain the prin- up noise and vibrations, including distant earthquakes, which
Copyright © 2023. ICE Publishing. All rights reserved.

ciples of operation in any detail; readers are directed to more can degrade the data quality and slow the survey rate. The
comprehensive sources of information (Milsom and Eriksen, instrument provides values of gravity measured over discrete
2011; Reynolds, 2011). time periods, typically 60 s at each measurement ‘station’.
The values are averaged either to give a mean figure over that
45.4. Potential field methods time period or until a designated standard deviation has been
45.4.1 Gravity achieved. It is essential also to establish a base station at which
The gravity method is sensitive to variations in the density of values of gravity are measured at intervals typically no greater
the ground, and gravimeters are designed to detect changes in than every 2 hours, depending upon the type and characteris-
the Earth’s gravity field. This is measured by determining the tics of the instrument being used. These base station values
changes in length of a spring resulting from the force exerted are used to derive the diurnal drift of the instrument, which
on a mass suspended on the spring. Modern microgravity has to be compensated during the data correction process.

660  www.icevirtuallibrary.com ICE Manual of Geotechnical Engineering, Second edition © 2024 Emerald Publishing Limited

ICE Manual of Geotechnical Engineering Volume 1 : Geotechnical Engineering Principles, Problematic Soils and Site Investigation, edited by Tim Chapman, et al., ICE Publishing, 2023.
ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/istructe/detail.action?docID=30716940.
Created from istructe on 2023-12-18 07:31:13.