Republic of the Philippines

UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES

University Town, Northern Samar, Philippines
Web: http://uep.edu.ph Email: [email protected]

ES 215c
(Geology for Civil Engineers)

WRITTEN REPORT
OF GROUP 3–
SOIL PROPERTIES

Submitted by:
(Group 3)
Andales, Jonabel B.
Apolonio, Emmanuel Y.
Espera, Kristel Mae G.
Lobos, Jemerito Jr. P.
Pajares, Tash Junard B.
BS Civil Engineering-2c

Submitted to:
Engr. Ric L. Gonzaga, MCE
Professor

September 11, 2024

 Republic of the Philippines
UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES
University Town, Northern Samar, Philippines
Web: http://uep.edu.ph Email: [email protected]

________________________________________________________________________________________
Reporters: JONABEL B. ANDALES
EMMANUEL Y. APOLONIO
KRISTEL MAE G. ESPERA
JEMERITO P. LOBOS JR.
TASH JUNARD B. PAJARES
Course/Section: BS CIVIL ENGINEERING – 2C
Subject: ES 215c (GEOLOGY FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS)
Professor: Engr. RIC L. GONZAGA, MCE

Geology for Civil Engineers:

SOIL PROPERTIES

OBJECTIVES:
1. Define soil and soil mechanics.
2. Find out the properties and composition of soil.
3. Determine the classifications and analysis of soil.

I – INTRODUCTION

The civil engineering structures like building, bridge, highway, tunnel, dam, tower, etc. are
founded below or on the surface of the earth. For their stability, suitable foundation soil is required.
To check the suitability of soil to be used as foundation or as construction materials, its properties are
required to be assessed.

II – DISCUSSION

IMPORTANCE OF SOIL ASSESSMENT

 Prevents adverse environmental impacts or structural failures.
 Provides essential information for design and construction techniques.
 Necessary for complex projects involving heavy structures like bridges, dams, and multi-
storey buildings.

SOIL MECHANICS
 Branch of soil physics and applied mechanics
 Describes the behavior of soils, a heterogeneous mixture of minerals, organic solids, and
other matter.
 It provides the theoretical basis for Geotechnical Engineering and Engineering Geology.
WHAT IS SOIL?
  Combination of minerals and organic elements in solid, gaseous, and aqueous forms.
 Consists of particle layers with different physical, mineralogical, and chemical properties.
 Formed from broken rocks altered by chemical and environmental effects, including weather
and erosion.

PROPERTIES OF SOIL
1. Geotechnical Properties

1.1 Specific Gravity

 Ratio of the mass of soil solids to the mass of an equal volume of water.
 Linked with mineralogy or chemical composition.
 Reflects the history of weathering.
 Important for soil mineral classification.
 Higher specific gravity indicates more strength for construction.
 Used in calculations of void ratio, porosity, degree of saturation, etc.

TYPICAL VALUES OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY (Bowles, 2012)

Type of Soil Specific Gravity
Organic Soil 1.00 – 2.60
Sand 2.65 – 2.67
Silty Sand 2.67 – 2.70
Inorganic Clay 2.70 – 2.80
Soil with Mica or Iron 2.70 – 3.00

1.2 Density Index

 Denity Index
 Ratio of the difference between the void ratio of a cohesionless soil in the loosest state and
any given void ratio to the difference between its void ratios in the loosest and the densest
states.

 Relative Index
 Arbitrary character of sandy deposit.
 Indicates how far the sand under investigation can be further densified beyond its natural
state.
 Helpful in compaction of coarse-grained soils and in evaluating the safe bearing capacity of
sandy soils.
Characteristics of Soils based on Relative Density
Relative Density (%) Soil Compactness Angel of Shearing Resistance
(0)
0 – 15 Very Loose < 28
15 – 35 Loose 28 – 30
35 – 65 Medium 30 – 36
65 – 85 Dense 36 – 41
85 – 100 Very Dense > 41

1.3 Consistency Limits

 Strength with which soil materials are held together or resistance to deformation and rupture.
 Importance of Consistency:
 Essential for various engineering projects.
 Construction of clay core in earth fill dams. - Construction of low permeability layers
covering polluted material deposits.
 Design of foundations, retaining walls, and slab bridges.
 Determining soil stability on slopes.

 Atterberg limits:
 Consistency of fine-grained soil influenced by water content.
 Water contents corresponding to these changes are called the Atterberg limits:
 Liquid Limit – Transition from liquid to plastic state.
 Plastic Limit – Transition from plastic to semi-solid state.
 Shrinkage Limit – Transition from semi-solid to solid state.

1.4 Particle Size Analysis

 Particle Size Distribution Curve
 Shows the distribution of different particle sizes. Helps identify if soil is well-graded or
poorly graded.

1.5 Compaction
 Soil Compaction
 Ground improvement technique involving the rearrangement of soil grains by applying
compaction energy.

1.6 Compressibility
 Compressibility is the degree to which a soil mass decreases in volume when supporting a
load. It is lowest in coarse-grained soils where particles are in contact with each other. It
increases as the proportion of small.
1.7 Permeability

 Rate of water flow through soil under hydraulic gradient.

 Percolation - Passage of moisture through soil pores.
 Pervious/Permeable - Soils allowing percolation.
 Impervious/Impermeable - Soils not allowing water passage.

 Soil Zones
 Saturated Zone - Below water table, 100% saturation.
 Capillary Zone - Just above water table, ≤ 100% saturation.

1.8 Shear Strength

 Shear Strength Soil

 Resistance to sliding under load.
 Highest in clean gravel soils; lowest in fine-grained organic soils.

 Factors Influence Shear trength

 Friction, particle interlocking, and possible cementation.

 Properties Affecting Shear Strength

 Consistency, mineralogy, grain size distribution, particle shape, initial void ratio, and
structural features.

 Granular Soil Parameters

 Correlated with particle size, uniformity, density, normal stress, and content of gravel and
fines.

 Stability
 Short-term stability - Unconsolidated undrained or consolidated undrained conditions.
 Long-term stability- Consolidated drained conditions.

2. Chemical Properties

2.1 Acidity of soil (pH)

 For construction works, highly acidic soil will affect the bitumen stability of roads and have
adverse effects on concrete strength.

2.2 Silicate Clay Presence

 The presence of silicate clay materials affects the chemical properties of soil mass.
 Clay particles have a large surface area and are the finest materials present in a soil mass.
  Clay particle increase the reactivity of a soil mass and affect the stability of the soil mass by
forming compounds with external materials.
2.3 Organic Matter in Soil
 The presence of silicate clay materials affects the chemical properties of soil mass.
 Clay particles have a large surface area and are the finest materials present in a soil mass.
 Clay particle increase the reactivity of a soil mass and affect the stability of the soil mass by
forming compounds with external materials.

SOIL CLASSIFICATION AND SOIL ANALYSIS

 Soil Classification
 Is like a language between engineers.
 Deals with the systematic categorization of soils based on distinguishing characteristics as
well as criteria that dictate choices in use.
 The Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) and the American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) (ASTM D3282-09) system are the
common classification systems we use in civil engineering practice.

Courtesy: Civi Engineering Home

 Soil Analysis
 Soil testing helps determine the type of foundation needed and influences various design and
construction decisions.
 The type of soil can affect the building's stability, durability, and overall safety, making soil
testing a critical step before any.

TYPES OF SOIL

 Chalk Courtesy: 123rf

 Also called lime-rich soils

 May be light or heavy but are largely made up of calcium carbonate and
are very alkaline.
  Chalk soils can be prone to erosion so be wary of hollows or caves.

 Gravel and Sand

 Dry compact gravel, or gravel and sand subsoils are usually adequate for
strip foundations.
 Sand holds together reasonably well when damp, compacted and uniform,
but trenches may collapse and so sheet piling is often used to retain the
ground in trenches until the concrete is poured.

 Clay
 They hold more water than sandy soils and are often high in nutrients
plants need.
 Clay is subject to movement due to expansion and shrinkage depending
on moisture content, so it is generally necessary to excavate foundations
to a depth where the moisture content of the clay remains stable.

 Firm Clay over Soft Clay

 A traditional strip foundation is sometimes acceptable but it is important
not to overriding as this may increase the stress on the softer clay beneath.

 Peat
 Peat and loose waterlogged sand are very poor subsoils.
 A reinforced raft foundation will likely be required.

 Filled Ground
 Where ground has previously been excavated and filled, it is generally
necessary to dig down to a level beneath the area of the fill.

III – APPLICATION OF SOIL TO CIVIL ENGINEERING PROBLEM

1. Foundation Design
 Bearing Capacity: Soil provides the base upon which buildings, roads, bridges, and other
structures rest. The strength of the soil determines the bearing capacity, influencing the type and
design of foundations.
 Settlement Analysis: Civil engineers evaluate the soil's potential for settlement, ensuring that
structures remain stable over time.
2. Earthworks and Embankments
 Roads and Highways: Soil is used in the construction of road embankments. Its compaction and
stability affect the performance and longevity of roads.
 Dams and Embankments: In hydraulic engineering, soil is compacted to form embankments for
dams, levees, and flood control structures. The soil’s permeability and strength are critical for
such applications.
3. Soil as a Construction Material
 Bricks and Blocks: Certain types of soils (like clay) are used in making bricks and blocks for
construction.
 Rammed Earth: Compacted soil is used in the construction of walls in some regions, especially
for low-cost housing.
4. Soil Stabilization
 Improving Weak Soils: In areas with weak or expansive soils, engineers use stabilization
techniques like adding lime, cement, or other admixtures to improve the soil’s properties,
making it suitable for construction.
5. Slope Stability and Landslide Prevention
 Soil properties influence the stability of slopes and hillsides. Engineers analyze soil
characteristics to design retaining walls, terraces, and drainage systems to prevent landslides and
erosion.

6. Soil in Pavement Design

 The design of pavements, including roads and airfields, depends on the soil's ability to support
loads. Soil testing and classification help in selecting the right materials and pavement thickness.

7. Drainage and Groundwater Management

 Soil permeability plays a key role in drainage and managing groundwater flow. Civil engineers
design drainage systems to prevent waterlogging and foundation weakening.
8. Geotechnical Engineering
 Soil Testing: Engineers conduct geotechnical investigations, such as soil boring and sampling, to
determine soil composition, shear strength, and compressibility.
 Slope Analysis: Geotechnical studies help assess soil stability for the construction of tunnels,
deep foundations, and other critical infrastructure.
9. Tunneling and Underground Structures
 Soil type impacts tunneling operations, where engineers evaluate soil's behavior under stress to
prevent collapse or excessive deformation.

10. Land Reclamation

 Soil is vital in land reclamation projects, such as converting wetlands, mining sites, or coastal
areas into usable land. Engineers assess soil properties to ensure reclaimed land can support
new infrastructure.

“In civil engineering, the ground beneath determines the success of everything built above.”
-anonymous
IV – CONCLUSION
Soil is a combination of minerals and organic elements that are in solid, gaseous, and aqueous
form. It consists of particle layers that are different from the original materials in their physical,
mineralogical, and chemical properties.
Soil Mechanics is a branch of soil physics and applied mechanics that describes the behavior
of soils. It differs from fluid mechanics and solid mechanics in the sense that soils consist of a
heterogeneous mixture of fluids (usually air and water) and particles (usually clay, silt, sand, and
gravel) but soil may also contain organic solids and other matter.
Properties of Soil in geotechnical and chemical properties: Geotechnical Properties: Specific
gravity, density index, consistency limit, particle size analysis, compaction, compressibility,
permeability, and shear strength. Chemical Properties: Acidity of soil, silicate clay presence, organic
matter in soil.
The Types of Soil are chalk, gravel and sand, clay, firm clay over soft, peat, and filled ground.
Soil is vital in civil engineering for foundation design, earthworks, and embankments,
affecting the stability and longevity of structures like buildings, roads, and dams. It serves as a
construction material (e.g., bricks) and can be stabilized with additives to improve its properties.
Proper soil analysis is crucial for slope stability, pavement design, drainage, and tunneling to prevent
issues like landslides and structural failures.

V – SELF – ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS/ TEST YOURSELF QUESTIONS

I – ENUMERATION (15 points)
1. At Least (6) Geotechnical Properties of Soil
2. (3) Chemical Properties of the Soil
3. (6) Types of Soil

II – ESSAY (5 points)
Why is it important to know the properties of Soil?

VI- REFERENCES

Bowles, Joseph E. Foundation Analysis and Design. McGraw-Hill, 1996

Brady, N. C. & Weil, R. R. The Nature and Properties of Soils, 14th ed. Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice Hall, 2008

Coduto, Donald P., et al. Geotechnical Engineering: Principles and Practices. Prentice Hall, 2011.

Das, Braja M. Principles of Geotechnical Engineering. Cengage Learning, 2010.

Holtz, Robert, D., Kovacs, Williams, D. An Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering. Englewoods
Cliffs, New Jersey; Prentice-Hall, 1981.

Oliveira, P. J. et al. Effect of organic matter in soft soils on the effectiveness of preloading for
foundations. 2017.

Schroeder, W.L., Dickenson, S.E, Warrington, Don, C. Soils in Construction. Fifth Edition. Upper
Saddle River, New Jersey; Prentice Hall, 2004.

Surendra Roy, Sanjeev Kumar Bhalla. Role of Geotechnical Properties of Soil on Civil
Engineering Structures. (PDF)
.