Introduction of Bio Statistics

A. The Mean
The mean is a number which summarizes all of the data, and is calculated by
adding up all of the values and then dividing their sum by the number of values.
Consider the 7 data of some Student X
Student X 0 30 60 70 80 120 120
Mean = Sum of all data/Number of data
= (0+30+60+70+80+120+120)/7
= 480/7
= 68.6

Formula for the Mean

X = ∑X /n or X = ∑fX /n or X = ∑fX / ∑f
Here, X represents any value
X represents the mean
n represents the number of values
∑ represent the sum
∑X represent the sum of the values
f represent the frequency of a particular value
∑f represent the sum of frequency
∑fx represent the sum of all values

B. The Median
The middle value of a data is called median and is represent by the symbol M
Consider the 7 data of some Student X
Student X 0 30 60 70 80 120 120
3 values below median 3 values above
Median M = 70

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 C. The Mode
The mode is another useful way of describing a distribution of values, and is
defined as the most frequently occurring value
Consider the 7 data of some Student X
Student X 0 30 60 70 80 120 120
mode
Here, the mode is 120, since it is the most frequently occurring value; we say that
the modal number.

D. The Standard Deviation

The standard deviation is a way of measuring all of the variation within a sample.
It represents the spread of data around the mean
It also represents the reliability of data
If the value of the standard deviation is smaller, then data are more reliable, if larger
then less reliable.
Formula for the Standard Deviation
2 2
S = √∑(x-x) /n or S = √∑f(x-x) / ∑f
Here, S represent standard deviation
X represents any value
X represents the mean
n represents the number of values
∑ represent the sum
f represents the frequency of a particular value
∑f represent the sum of frequency
E. The Standard Error
Standard error is useful for expressing how reliable an estimate of the mean is,
and for putting error bars on graphs.
Formula for the Standard Error

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 Here, S represent standard deviation
n represents the number of values
S represent the standard error
M

F. Four Statistical Tests

The four statistical tests are used
1. t-test
2. Chi-squared
3. Spearman’s rank correlation
4. Pearson’s linear correlation

1. t - test

When should a t-test be used?

t-test are valuable for testing the significance of differences between two means
or two sets of continuous, normally distributed data.
Formula for t- test

How are the degrees of freedom for t-test calculated?

(n -1) + (n -1)
1 2
st nd
n = number of data of 1 set, n = number of data of 2 set
1 2

Degrees of freedom is used to find out the critical value

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 Example of t – test

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 2. Chi-squared (χ2) test
When is chi-squared test used?
The chi-squared test allows the results of breeding experiments and ecological
sampling to be assessed.
It is used to compare the observed against the expected frequencies.
Formula for chi-squared (χ2) test
O= Observe value
E= Expected value
How are the degrees of freedom for chi-squared test calculated?
Number of categories -1, n-1

Example of chi-squared (χ2) test

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 3. Spearman’s rank correlation
When is Spearman’s rank coefficient used?
To correlate ordinal data, which can be ranked and is not continuous.
Spearman’s rank correlation formula

n is the number of pairs of items in the sample and

D is the difference between each pair of ranked measurements
How are the degrees of freedom for Spearman’s rank coefficient calculated?
Number of pairs of data -2
n-2

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 Example of Spearman’s rank correlation

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 4. Pearson’s linear correlation
When is Pearson’s linear coefficient used?
To correlate two sets of continuous, linear, and normally distributed data.
Pearson’s linear correlation formula
n = sample size (number of observations)
x, y = observations
How are the degrees of freedom for Pearson’s linear coefficient calculated?
Number of pairs of data -2 , n-2

Example of Pearson’s linear correlation

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 G. Simpson’s Index of Diversity
What does the calculated value in Simpson’s Index indicate?
It is between 0 and 1.
Closer to 1 indicates higher biodiversity and closer to 0 indicates lower biodiversity.
Simpson’s Index of Diversity (D) formula

n = number of individuals of each type present in the sample

N = the total number of all individuals of all types
Example of Simpson’s Index of Diversity

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 H. Plan Experiments and Investigations
Five components that should appear in a practical investigating plan.
1. Independent variable
2. Dependent variable
3. Control variable
4. Reliability
5. Safety precaution
1. What is the independent variable?
A variable that is varied in the practical investigation.
2. What is the dependent variable? What should be written about dependent
variables in a plan?
The variable that is measured in the practical investigation. Identify the dependent
variable. Describe how it is measured and the apparatus needed.
3. What is a controlled variable?
A variable that is kept constant in the practical investigation.

4. How can reliability be improved in a practical investigation?

Repeat the practical investigation at least 3-5 times and take a mean value. Identify
and exclude anomalies.
5. What should be written about safety in a practical investigating plan?
State a hazard and the level of risk. State a safety precaution to take.

I. Example of controlled variables

Six common controlled variables
Temperature, Time, pH, Mass, Volume and Concentration
What are the controlled variables for a practical investigating water
potential using plant tissue?
Time immersed in salt or sucrose solution.
Surface area of plant tissue.
Temperature.
Volume of salt or sucrose solution.

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 J. Some important procedures
What are some important procedures to setting up a potometer?
Make a slanted cut of the shoot underwater.
Make sure the apparatus is airtight.
Use syringe to adjust gas bubble position to starting point.
What are some important procedures to setting up a
respirometer?
Make sure the apparatus is airtight.
Air must be replaced between each set-up.
Outline the procedure to a chromatography practical.
Draw a pencil line on a piece of filter paper for the origin. Use a capillary tube to drop
the extract onto the origin. Dry and repeat. Dip in solvent (do not go above pencil
line). Cover solvent with bung to prevent evaporation. After running the solvent,
allow chromatography paper to dry and spray with dye.
Outline the procedure to random sampling.
Make a grid. Use a random number generator to obtain sets of coordinates. Place
quadrats at coordinates.
Outline the procedure to preparing a squash slide.
Obtain required sample by cutting with scalpel or peeling with forceps. Mount on a
slide and add stain if necessary. Squash by placing a cover slip on and pressing
down gently.
What reagents can be used to measure the rate of respiration and
photosynthesis?
Redox indicators.

Three ethical concerns in a practical

Minimise exposure to testing environments that may
cause stress.
Gain consent before testing.
Allow participants to stop during the practical.

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 How is a statistical conclusion written?
State calculated value is smaller/larger than critical value at p=0.05
There is a less/more than 5% probability that the results are due to chance alone
The results are/ are not statistically significant
What is the range of error bars?
+ / - 2 x standard error
How should graphs be analysed and described?
First, describe the overall trend seen in the graph. Then, move onto particular
features of the graph eg. peaks and troughs, data that does not fit the trend.
Quote data to support.
How can you show that the data is normally distributed?
By drawing a frequency histogram.
What are anomalous results?
Results that do not fit the general trend.
How is rate of reaction calculated from time?
Rate = 1/time
Why is percentage change calculated instead of actual change?
May not have the same starting value. Percentage change allows comparison by
showing the proportional change.
What is a source of error when measuring length and how can it be reduced?
Parallax errors. By using vernier calipers
How is biodiversity assessed?
Using Simpson’s index of biodiversity.

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