PARLIAMENTARY SYSTEM

The UK Parliament is bicameral, meaning it has two houses:

The House of Commons:
This is the primary legislative body. Its members, known as Members of Parliament (MPs), are
elected in general elections. The House of Commons5t⁶ is the elected lower chamber of
Parliament, with elections to 650 single-member constituencies held at least every five years
under the first-past-the-post system. By constitutional convention, all government ministers,
including the prime minister, are members of the House of Commons (MPs), or less commonly
the House of Lords, and are thereby accountable to the respective branches of the legislature.
Most Cabinet ministers are from the Commons, while junior ministers can be from either house.
The leader of this party becomes the Prime Minister.
The House of Lords:
This is the upper house, comprising appointed members, including life peers, bishops, and
hereditary peers. It reviews and suggests amendments to legislation proposed by the House of
Commons but cannot ultimately block bills. The House of Lords is the upper chamber of
Parliament, comprising two types of members. The most numerous are the Lords Temporal,
consisting mainly of life peers appointed by the sovereign on the advice of the prime minister,
plus up to 92 hereditary peers. The less numerous Lords Spiritual consist of up to 26 bishops of
the Church of England. Before the establishment of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom in
2009, the House of Lords performed judicial functions through the law lords.

The Prime Minister: The leader of the majority party in the House of Commons becomes the
Prime Minister. The Prime Minister is responsible for running the government and making major
policy decisions. They appoint members of the Cabinet and represent the UK internationally.
The Monarch: The UK is a constitutional monarchy, meaning the monarch (currently King
Charles III) has a ceremonial role. The monarch’s duties include opening and dissolving
Parliament, giving royal assent to bills passed by both houses, and performing ceremonial duties.
However, real political power is exercised by the elected government.
Elections: General elections are held at least every five years to elect MPs to the House of
Commons. The party with the majority of seats typically forms the government. If no party has a
clear majority, parties may form coalitions.
Legislative Process: For a bill to become law, it must be passed by both the House of Commons
and the House of Lords and receive royal assent from the monarch. The House of Commons has
the final say if there’s a disagreement.
Checks and Balances: The parliamentary system includes mechanisms to ensure that power is
not concentrated in one branch. The Prime Minister and the government are accountable to
Parliament and, indirectly, to the public. Parliamentary committees and opposition parties play
roles in scrutinizing and challenging the government's actions.
 SOVEREIGNTY
A. Parliamentary Sovereignty
 Definition and Principle
Parliamentary sovereignty is a cornerstone of the UK’s constitutional framework. It denotes the
principle that Parliament is the supreme legal authority in the country. This means:
Unrestricted Authority: The UK Parliament can create, amend, or repeal any law, and no other
institution or body can invalidate its legislation.
No Binding Limitations: Previous Parliaments cannot bind future Parliaments, meaning that
each Parliament is free to legislate as it sees fit.

 Historical Context
Historically, the notion of parliamentary sovereignty evolved from the constitutional struggles
between the monarchy and Parliament. Key events include:
The Glorious Revolution (1688): Established the principle that Parliament held ultimate
authority over the monarchy.
The Act of Settlement (1701) and The Parliament Acts (1911 and 1949): Further clarified and
reinforced Parliament’s supreme legislative authority.
 Constitutional Framework
Unwritten Constitution
The UK does not have a single, written constitution. Instead, its constitutional framework is
derived from:
Statute Law: Legislation passed by Parliament, such as the Human Rights Act 1998.
Common Law: Judicial precedents and interpretations established by court decisions.
Conventions: Established practices that, while not legally binding, guide political behavior (e.g.,
the Prime Minister’s appointment).
Works of Authority: Scholarly writings that provide insights into constitutional conventions and
principles.
 Evolution and Flexibility
The UK’s constitution is flexible and can evolve through:
Legislation: New laws or amendments to existing laws.
Judicial Interpretation: Courts interpreting and applying laws in new contexts.
Political Practice: Changes in political practices and conventions.
  Devolution
Devolution refers to the transfer of certain legislative powers from the central government to
regional governments. It does not diminish the sovereignty of the UK Parliament but
redistributes some powers.

Devolved Administrations
Scotland: The Scottish Parliament, established by the Scotland Act 1998, has significant powers
over areas such as education, health, and transportation. However, it cannot legislate on reserved
matters like foreign policy or defense.
Wales: The Senedd (Welsh Parliament) has varying powers, expanded through the Government
of Wales Acts (1998, 2006) and the Wales Act 2017. Its powers include areas like health and
education, but it remains limited in reserved areas.
Northern Ireland: The Northern Ireland Assembly, established by the Northern Ireland Act
1998, has authority over domestic matters such as health and education. However, its powers
have been subject to political negotiations and suspensions due to political disagreements.
 Impact on Sovereignty
Devolution introduces a layer of regional governance but does not alter the fundamental
principle of parliamentary sovereignty. The UK Parliament retains the power to legislate on
reserved matters and can, in theory, legislate to alter or dissolve devolved administrations.
 International Relations and Sovereignty
European Union Membership
Pre-Brexit: EU membership involved the UK adhering to EU laws and regulations, which some
perceived as a limitation on parliamentary sovereignty. EU laws took precedence over domestic
laws, and the UK was bound by EU treaties and regulations.
Brexit: The decision to leave the EU, formalized by the European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018,
was driven by a desire to reclaim legislative and regulatory control. The UK’s departure restored
full legislative sovereignty over areas previously governed by EU law.
International Treaties and Agreements
The UK is bound by international treaties and agreements, which it must incorporate into
domestic law through legislation. However, Parliament retains the authority to amend or
withdraw from these treaties, reflecting the ultimate sovereignty of the legislative body.
 Legal and Political Authority
Supreme Court
The UK Supreme Court is the highest court in the UK, interpreting laws and resolving disputes.
While its decisions are binding, they do not override parliamentary legislation. Instead, they
interpret and apply laws within the framework established by Parliament.
Accountability and Checks
Parliamentary sovereignty is balanced by mechanisms of accountability and scrutiny:
Parliamentary Committees: Scrutinize government actions and proposed legislation.
Opposition Parties: Challenge and offer alternatives to government policies.
Public Opinion: Influences political decisions and can drive legislative change through
democratic processes.

CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY
The United Kingdom (UK) operates as a constitutional monarchy, a system combining hereditary
monarchy with democratic governance. This report outlines the background, historical
development, current powers, constitutional principles, and debates surrounding the UK
monarchy.
 Constitutional Monarchy
A constitutional monarchy is a form of government where:
- The monarch acts as the ceremonial head of state within a framework defined by a constitution.
- Real political power is exercised by elected officials within a democratic system.
 Comparison to Other Systems
Unlike republics where the head of state is directly elected (e.g., France, the United States),
constitutional monarchies maintain a hereditary monarchy with defined constitutional limits.
Monarchs in these systems fulfill ceremonial roles and act within the bounds of democratic
principles.
 Historical Background
Early History: The UK’s constitutional monarchy has roots in the Anglo-Saxon period and the
formation of England. Early monarchs had extensive powers but faced limitations through
consultation with subjects and documents like the Magna Carta (1215).
Union of Crowns (1603): The death of Elizabeth I led to the union of the English and Scottish
crowns under James VI and I. Attempts at monarchical absolutism were met with resistance,
leading to the establishment of constitutional constraints.
Civil War and Restoration (1649-1660): The execution of Charles I and the subsequent
Interregnum saw the abolition of the monarchy, followed by its restoration under Charles II.
Glorious Revolution (1688): The revolution resulted in William and Mary ruling with
constitutional constraints, formalized by the Bill of Rights 1689. This period marked the shift of
political power from the monarch to Parliament.
Over time, the monarchy’s powers have been increasingly limited, with active political
leadership transferring to ministers accountable to Parliament. The expansion of the electorate
and democratic reforms further curtailed monarchical power.

 Powers of the Monarch

The UK monarch, currently King Charles III, holds various formal powers, including:
Appointing the Prime Minister and ministers: Technically, the monarch appoints the Prime
Minister and other key ministers, although this is done based on parliamentary outcomes and
political advice.
Dissolving Parliament: The monarch can dissolve Parliament to call general elections.
Proroguing Parliament: This involves suspending Parliament for a set period.
Granting Royal Assent: Essential laws require the monarch’s formal approval to become law.
Appointing House of Lords Members: The monarch appoints life peers to the House of Lords.
Diplomacy and Treaties: Conducting foreign relations and treaty agreements are formal powers
of the monarch.
Head of the Armed Forces: The monarch is the nominal head of the armed forces.
Head of the Church of England: The monarch is the Supreme Governor of the Church of
England.
Granting Honours: The monarch awards various honors and titles.

Constitutional Constraints
Despite these formal powers, the monarch’s role is largely ceremonial:
Delegated Powers: Real decisions are made by ministers based on parliamentary advice and
political conventions.
Royal Prerogative: This historic set of powers is exercised by ministers, with the monarch’s role
being largely symbolic.
 Constitutional Principles
Delegation and Democracy
Ministers and Accountability: The UK government operates through ministers who are
accountable to Parliament, ensuring that executive powers are exercised democratically.
Judicial Review: Courts can review the use of royal prerogatives to ensure they conform to legal
and constitutional standards (e.g., the 2019 Miller case).
Neutrality and Influence
Political Neutrality: The monarch must remain politically neutral and is insulated from party
politics.
Advisory Role: The monarch meets weekly with the Prime Minister to discuss government
affairs, though this role is largely advisory.
 Debates and Future Prospects
Support for the Monarchy
Continuity and Stability: The monarchy is valued for providing continuity and a neutral focal
point amid changing political leadership.
International Role: The monarch contributes to the UK’s “soft power” and international
relations.
Arguments for Abolition
Democratic Legitimacy: Critics argue that hereditary succession is undemocratic and propose a
directly elected or parliamentary-chosen head of state.
Anachronism: The monarchy is seen by some as outdated and disconnected from modern
societal values.
Accountability Issues: The Royal Prerogative, while largely controlled by ministers, can be
viewed as a mechanism that shields political decisions from full democratic scrutiny.

Future Prospects
While current public opinion strongly supports the monarchy, debates about its role and potential
replacement continue. The discussion reflects broader concerns about democracy, accountability,
and the relevance of historical institutions in contemporary society.
The UK monarchy, as a constitutional monarchy, plays a largely ceremonial role within a
democratic framework. Its powers are limited by modern constitutional principles, with real
political authority exercised by elected officials. The ongoing debate about the monarchy’s future
highlights tensions between tradition and democratic ideals, but the institution remains a
significant part of the UK’s national identity and political system.
THE BREXIT IN EUROPEAN UNION
What Is Brexit?
Brexit is a portmanteau of the words “British” and “exit” that was coined to refer to the United
Kingdom’s decision in a June 23, 2016, referendum to leave the European Union (EU). Brexit
took place at 11 p.m. Greenwich Mean Time on Jan. 31, 2020.
On Dec. 24, 2020, the U.K. and the EU struck a provisional free-trade agreement ensuring the
free trade of goods without tariffs or quotas. However, key details of the future relationship
remain uncertain, such as trade in services, which make up 80% of the U.K. economy. This
prevented a no-deal Brexit, which would have been significantly damaging to the U.K.
economy.
A provisional agreement was approved by the U.K. parliament on Jan. 1, 2021. It was approved
by the European Parliament on April 28, 2021. While the deal, known as the Trade and
Cooperation Agreement (TCA) , allowed tariff- and quota-free trade in goods, U.K.-EU trade
still faces customs checks. This means that commerce is not as smooth as when the U.K. was a
member of the EU.
The Referendum
The Leave side won the June 2016 referendum with 51.9% of the ballot, or 17.4 million votes,
while Remain received 48.1% or 16.1 million votes. Voter turnout was 72.2%. The results were
tallied on a U.K.-wide basis, but the overall figures conceal stark regional differences: 53.4% of
English voters supported Brexit, compared to just 38% of Scottish voters. Because England
accounts for the vast majority of the U.K.’s population, support there swayed the result in
Brexit’s favor. If the vote were conducted only in Wales (where Leave voters also won),
Scotland, and Northern Ireland, Brexit would have received less than 45% of the vote.
The result defied expectations and roiled global markets, causing the British pound to fall to its
lowest level against the dollar in 30 years. Former Prime Minister David Cameron, who called
the referendum and campaigned for the U.K. to remain in the EU, announced his resignation the
following day. He was replaced as leader of the Conservative Party and prime minister by
Theresa May in July 2016.
Citizens’ Rights
One of the most politically thorny issues faced by Brexit negotiators was the rights of EU
citizens living in the U.K. and U.K. citizens living in the EU.
The Withdrawal Agreement allowed for the free movement of EU and U.K. citizens until the
end of the transition or implementation period. Citizens were allowed to keep their residency
rights if they continued to work, had sufficient resources, or were related to someone who did.
To upgrade their residence status to permanent, they had to apply to the host nation. The rights
of these citizens were revocable if Britain left without ratifying a deal.
“EU net migration, while still adding to the population as a whole, has fallen to a level last seen
in 2009. We are also now seeing more EU8 citizens—those from Central and Eastern European
countries, for example, Poland—leaving the U.K. than arriving,” said Jay Lindop, director of
the Centre for International Migration, in a government quarterly report released in February
2019.
Britain’s government fought over the rights of EU citizens to remain in the U.K. after Brexit,
publicly airing domestic divisions over migration. Following the referendum and Cameron’s
resignation, May’s government concluded that it had the right under the “royal prerogative” to
trigger Article 50 and begin the formal withdrawal process on its own.
The U.K. Supreme Court intervened, ruling that Parliament had to authorize the measure, and
the House of Lords amended the resulting bill to guarantee the rights of EU-born residents. The
House of Commons, which had a Tory majority at the time, struck the amendment down, and
the unamended bill became law on March 16, 2017.
Britain’s government fought over the rights of EU citizens to remain in the U.K. after Brexit,
publicly airing domestic divisions over migration. Following the referendum and Cameron’s
resignation, May’s government concluded that it had the right under the “royal prerogative” to
trigger Article 50 and begin the formal withdrawal process on its own.
The U.K. Supreme Court intervened, ruling that Parliament had to authorize the measure, and
the House of Lords amended the resulting bill to guarantee the rights of EU-born residents. The
House of Commons, which had a Tory majority at the time, struck the amendment down, and
the unamended bill became law on March 16, 2017.
Arguments for and Against Brexit
Leave voters based their support for Brexit on a variety of factors, including the European debt
crisis, immigration, terrorism, and the perceived drag of Brussels’ bureaucracy on the U.K.
economy.
Britain was wary of the European Union’s projects, which Leave supporters felt threatened the
U.K.’s sovereignty; the country never opted into the European Union’s monetary union,
meaning that it used the pound instead of the euro. It also remained outside the Schengen Area,
meaning that it did not share open borders with a number of other European nations.
Opponents of Brexit also cited a number of rationales for their position:
 The risk involved in pulling out of the EU’s decision-making process, given that it was
the largest destination for U.K. exports
 The economic and societal benefits of the EU’s four freedoms: the free movement of
goods, services, capital, and people across borders
A common thread in both arguments was that leaving the EU would destabilize the U.K.
economy in the short term and make the country poorer in the long term.
Why U. K left European Union
The UK left the European Union at 23:00 GMT on 31 January, but that is not the end of the
Brexit story.
That's because the UK is now in an 11-month period, known as the transition, that keeps the UK
bound to the EU's rules.
So what is the transition and why is it necessary?

What is the transition period?

The transition (sometimes called the implementation period) will end on 31 December 2020. It
cannot be extended beyond that date.
While in transition, the UK remains in both the EU customs union and single market.
That means - until the transition ends - most things will stay the same. This includes:
 Travelling to and from the EU (including the rules around driving licences and pet passports)
 Freedom of movement (the right to live and work in the EU and vice versa)
 UK-EU trade, which will continue without any extra charges or checks being introduced
Despite many things staying the same the UK has already left the EU's political institutions,
including the European Parliament and European Commission.
 So while the UK will no longer have any voting rights, it will continue to follow EU rules during the
transition. For example, the European Court of Justice will have the final say over any legal disputes.
The transition also means the UK will continue to contribute to the EU's budget.

Why is a transition necessary?

The idea behind the transition period is to give some breathing space while new UK-EU negotiations
take place.
These talks will determine what the future relationship will eventually look like.
Negotiations started in March and both sides have agreed to intensify talks over the summer.

What needs to be done during the transition?

Top of the to-do list will be a UK-EU free trade deal. This will be essential if the UK wants to be
able to continue to trade with the EU with no tariffs, quotas or other barriers after the transition.
Tariffs are a type of tax, usually paid on imported goods. If goods are subject to quotas, it means
there are limits on how many can be traded over a given period.
Both sides will also need to decide how far the UK is allowed to move away from existing EU
regulations (known as level playing field rules).
However, a free trade deal will not eliminate all checks between the UK and EU - so businesses will
need to prepare.
In 2018, total UK trade (goods and services) was valued at £1.3 trillion, of which the EU made up
49%.
As well as negotiating a UK-EU trade deal, the transition will also allow the UK to hold formal trade
talks with other countries - such as the US and Australia. If completed and ready in time, these deals
could also take effect at the end of the transition.
The pro-Brexit camp has long argued that allowing the UK freedom to set its own trade policy will
benefit the economy - although critics say it's more important to remain close to the EU.
Aside from trade, many other aspects of the future UK-EU relationship will need to be decided. For
example:
 Law enforcement, data sharing and security
 Aviation standards and safety
 Access to fishing waters
 Supplies of electricity and gas
 Licensing and regulation of medicines
The UK will also need to design and implement many new systems, such as how it will handle
immigration once freedom of movement comes to an end.

Impact on the U.S.

Companies in the U.S. across a wide variety of sectors have made large investments in the U.K.
over many years. The U.S. hires a lot of Brits, making U.S. companies one of the U.K.’s largest
job markets. The output of U.S. affiliates in the United Kingdom was $129.3 billion in 2021. 75
The United Kingdom plays a vital role in corporate America’s global infrastructure, from assets
under management (AUM) to international sales and research and development (R&D)
advancements.
American companies have viewed Britain as a strategic gateway to other countries in the
European Union. Brexit is believed to jeopardize the affiliate earnings and stock prices of many
companies strategically aligned with the United Kingdom.
American companies and investors that have exposure to European banks and credit markets
may be affected by credit risk. European banks may have to replace $123 billion in securities
depending on how the exit unfolds. Furthermore, U.K. debt may not be included in European
banks’ emergency cash reserves, creating liquidity problems. European asset-backed
securities have been in decline since 2007.
GERMANY
-Germany is a federal parliamentary republic with a complex political system. Here’s a
breakdown of its key elements:

1. Government Structure
Federalism- Germany is a federal state consisting of 16 federal states (Bundesländer), each with
its own government and significant powers. The federal structure allows these states to manage
certain responsibilities independently, such as education and policing, while the federal
government handles national matters like foreign policy and defense.
Parliamentary System-The federal government is led by a Chancellor and supported by a
cabinet of ministers. The federal legislative branch is bicameral, consisting of the Bundestag
(Federal Diet) and the Bundesrat (Federal Council).

2. Role of the Chancellor

Head of Government- The Chancellor is the head of government and holds executive power.
They are responsible for running the federal administration, setting government policy, and
representing Germany domestically and internationally.
Appointment- The Chancellor is typically the leader of the largest party in the Bundestag or a
coalition of parties that can command a majority. The President formally appoints the Chancellor
based on the Bundestag’s recommendation.
3. Coalition Politics
Due to Germany's multi-party system and proportional representation, it’s common for no single
party to win an outright majority in the Bundestag. As a result, coalition governments are typical.
Parties negotiate and form coalitions to establish a majority, leading to compromises and shared
policy-making.

PARTY SYSTEM
Germany has a six-party system, and the country is said to be ruled by a multi-party system.
These six parties form alliance governments for their term in power. Let's see the description of
these parties: their functions, goals, and political orientation.
1. Christian Democratic Union
Center-right, Christian democratic, conservative. CDU is one of Germany's strongest parties,
traditionally representing middle-of-the-road politics with a basis in Christian democratic views,
economic liberalism and conservative moderation. It sees achieving an outreach voter majority
and draws parts that are business-oriented, conservative Catholic and Protestant .Their goals is
Focusing on the free-market principles. Formation of families with conservative values, law and
order and environmental policies in a moderate range. Promotion of a balanced welfare state
without having high taxes. Security policies, facilitating a robust defense and NATO alliances.
2. Social Democratic Party (SPD)
Center left, social democrat. This is Germany's oldest party and represents a traditional voice on
the issues of the working class and labor unions and social welfare. The party attempts balancing
capitalism with social justice through interference by government. They aim the Promotion of
social justice and income equality. Workers' rights. Expansion of the welfare state as well as
good health, retirement, education. Support a progressive tax system to distribute wealth.
Proactive ally to environmental sustainability and climate protection. Strengthening the social
policy and governance of the European Union
3. Alliance 90/The Greens (Die Grünen)
Left-center to far left, environmental-activist party. The Green Party came as the evolved
offspring of the environmental movement, emphasizing issues related to climate change,
environmental protection, and social justice. The party has an attraction for younger and urban-
based voters, and thus makes it a strong political force within Germany. Their goals is Leading
Germany in transition to renewable energy and decarbonization. Supporting sustainability in
environmental sectors, such as agriculture and transport. Defending civil liberties, human rights,
equality for women, and anti-discrimination policies. Emphasizing unity in Europe, green
economics, and SDGs.
4. Free Democratic Party (FDP)
Center to center-right, liberal classical. The FDP is the liberal party in Germany advocating free
market policies, personal freedom, and limited government intervention. Professionals, business
founders, and entrepreneurs often support this party. They aim the Promotion of liberal economic
policies, low taxes, and deregulation. Promotion of entrepreneurship, technological innovation,
and digital transformation. Protection of personal rights and privacy. Education reform and
modernization of public services. Pro-EU integration and economic cooperation market.
5. Alternative for Germany (AfD)
Right-wing and populistic orientation. At its inception, AfD was a Eurosceptic party. But by
evolution, it has become a populist, nationalist party. It strives to win over voters dissatisfied
with the old parties and especially on matters like immigration and the sizes of European
integration. Their goals is the Opposition to massive immigration from those countries whose
citizens are predominantly Muslim. Criticism of further economic and political integration
through the European Union. Matters of national sovereignty and negative campaign against
globalization. Conservative social policy and opposition to multiculturalism. Demand for
stronger law and order policies and anticlimatism on climate policies.
6. The Left (Die Linke)
Left-wing to far-left, democratic socialist. The Left was based on the old East German
communist party and Western German socialist movements. It denotes socialist and anti-
capitalist policy, especially at the level of working-class and economically weaker voters. They
aim to Strengthen the welfare state, with policies on redistribution of wealth and poverty
reduction. Minimum wage, rent control, increase in social benefits. Against privatization of
public service, and supporters of public ownership of strategic sectors. Pacifism, dismantlement
of NATO, more independent foreign policy. Strongly opposed to neoliberal economic policies
and cuts.

FRANCE
A. SEMI PRESIDENTIAL SYSTEM AND EXECUTIVE POWERS
- France’s political system is classified as semi-presidential, meaning it combines features of
presidential and parliamentary systems. This structure is designed to balance power between
the President and the Prime Minister while ensuring a stable government.
Presidential System
a. Executive Branch
President: The President of France is elected by direct popular vote for a five-year term. The
President has significant powers, including appointing the Prime Minister, presiding over the
Council of Ministers, and representing France in foreign affairs. The President also has the
authority to dissolve the National Assembly and call for new elections.
Prime Minister: Appointed by the President, the Prime Minister is responsible for running the
day-to-day operations of the government and implementing policies. The Prime Minister leads
the Cabinet and is accountable to the Parliament.
b. Legislative Branch
The French Parliament consists of two chambers:
National Assembly: The lower house, composed of deputies elected for five-year terms. The
National Assembly has the power to make laws and can bring down the government through a
vote of no confidence.
Senate: The upper house, composed of senators elected for six-year terms. The Senate primarily
reviews and debates legislation proposed by the National Assembly.
Relationship Between President and Prime Minister
-The President and Prime Minister share executive powers but operate in different spheres. The
President focuses on national and foreign policies, while the Prime Minister manages domestic
affairs and government operations.
- The President’s influence is particularly strong when the same political party controls both the
presidency and the National Assembly (a situation known as “cohabitation”). Conversely, when
opposing parties control the presidency and the National Assembly, the Prime Minister has more
autonomy in domestic policy-making, leading to a period of “cohabitation.”

Election and Term of the President

The President is elected directly by the people through a two-round system if no candidate
achieves a majority in the first round. The President serves a five-year term and can be re-
elected.

Powers and Functions

The President appoints the Prime Minister and, on the Prime Minister’s recommendation,
appoints other members of the government (ministers). The President also appoints key positions
such as ambassadors and military leaders.
 The President chairs meetings of the Council of Ministers, which is responsible for setting
broad government policies.
 The President can dissolve the National Assembly and call for new legislative elections,
usually to resolve political deadlock or to strengthen the government’s position.
 The President is the chief representative of France in foreign affairs and has significant
influence over defense and international policies. The President is also the commander-in-
chief of the armed forces.
 In times of national emergency, the President can assume special powers and make decrees
without parliamentary approval. This can include the ability to implement certain measures
that bypass usual legislative processes.
Appointment and Role of Prime Minister
The President appoints the Prime Minister, who must have the confidence of the National
Assembly. The Prime Minister must be a member of the National Assembly or someone who can
command its support.
Powers and Functions
 The Prime Minister is responsible for running the day-to-day operations of the government,
implementing laws, and overseeing the work of government departments and ministries.
 The Prime Minister formulates and executes domestic policies and programs. This includes
preparing the government budget and managing public services.
 The Prime Minister must maintain the confidence of the National Assembly to remain in
office. The Prime Minister and the government can be challenged by a vote of no
confidence, which can lead to resignation if they lose the Assembly’s support.
 The Prime Minister can propose laws and set legislative agendas. They also represent the
government in parliamentary debates and discussions.
Interaction Between the President and Prime Minister
Cooperation: When both the President and the Prime Minister are from the same political party
(a situation known as “cohabitation”), the executive branch operates with a high degree of
coherence, and the President typically has substantial influence over both domestic and foreign
policy.
Conflict: During periods of “cohabitation,” when the President and Prime Minister come from
different political parties, there can be significant tension and conflict. In such cases, the Prime
Minister may have more control over domestic affairs while the President focuses on foreign
policy.
Checks and Balances

Legislative Oversight: The Parliament can question and challenge the Prime Minister and the
government through debates and votes. It can also influence policy-making through its
legislative powers.
Judicial Review: France has a Constitutional Council that reviews the constitutionality of laws,
ensuring they comply with the French Constitution.

Historical Context
The semi-presidential system was established by the French Constitution of 1958, which created
the Fifth Republic. This system was designed to overcome the political instability experienced
under previous republics and to provide a more balanced and effective governance structure.

B. CENTRALIZATION AND DECENTRALIZATION

- Centralization and decentralization are two opposing forces that have shaped the political and
administrative landscape of France for centuries. While the country has historically been known
for its strong centralized government, recent decades have seen a push towards decentralization,
transferring power and decision-making authority to regional and local entities.
A. CENTRALIZATION
Centralization in France refers to the historical and ongoing process of concentrating power and
decision-making in the hands of the central government in Paris, at the expense of regional and
local authorities. This has been a defining characteristic of French politics and society for
centuries, shaping the country’s administrative structure, economic development, and cultural
identity.
Historical Roots of Centralization
The roots of centralization in France can be traced back to the absolute monarchy of the 17 th and
18th centuries. Kings like Louis XIV sought to consolidate their power by weakening the
influence of regional nobles and establishing a centralized bureaucracy to administer the
kingdom. This process intensified during the French Revolution (1789-1799), as revolutionaries
sought to create a unified and centralized republic. The establishment of departments as the
primary administrative units further reinforced this trend.

The Enduring Legacy of Centralization

Despite various attempts at reform, France remains one of the most centralized states in Europe.
The Parisian center continues to exert a strong influence on the country's economic, political, and
cultural life. This is evident in the concentration of wealth, power, and cultural institutions in the
capital, often at the expense of other regions.
C. DECENTRALIZATION
Decentralization in France refers to the process of transferring power and decision-making
authority from the central government in Paris to regional and local entities. It is a complex and
ongoing process that has been marked by both progress and challenges.
From Centralization to Decentralization
- France has historically been a highly centralized state, with a strong tradition of national unity
and a powerful central government. This centralized structure, rooted in the absolute monarchy
and reinforced during the French Revolution, has led to a concentration of power and resources
in Paris. However, starting in the 1960s, a movement for decentralization began to gain
momentum, driven by a desire for greater local autonomy and a recognition of the limitations of
centralized decision-making.
Milestones in Decentralization
- 1982-1983: The Defferre Laws were passed under the socialist government of Pierre Mauroy,
introducing significant decentralization measures. These laws created regions with elected
councils and transferred responsibilities in areas like education, healthcare, and economic
development to local authorities.
- 2003: The French constitution was amended to formally enshrine the principle of
decentralization.
- 2004-2005: Further decentralization measures were implemented, transferring additional
responsibilities to regions, including professional training and regional commuter rail transport.

Types of Decentralization in France

Institutional Decentralization- This involves the creation of new institutions at the regional and
local levels, such as regional councils and departmental councils. This type of decentralization
aims to transfer power to these newly created bodies.
Territorial Decentralization- This focuses on granting specific responsibilities and resources to
territorial collectivities, such as communes, departments, and regions. It also involves the
election of representatives by the inhabitants of these territories.
Functional Decentralization- This occurs when the central government or local authorities
decide to transfer a specific function or power to a public body or agency. Examples include
universities and public transport authorities.
AB POLITICAL SCIENCE 4-B
Reporters;
LOMUGDANG, MERY NENA N.
ARGUELLES, BENNY JR.
BALLARTA, ANGELICA
NEPOMUCENO, JOYLEN
FERNANDEZ, JONNA MAE
SEMILLA, SYLMAR