WOLKITE UNIVERSITY

College of Computing and Informatics

Department of Information Systems
Advanced Database Systems

6. PL/SQL
6.1. Database Object Synonyms
Synonyms allows for an alias to avoid schema notation. Private synonym: owned by the user.
Public synonym: available to all. Too many synonyms may be confusing. Coding standards may
require schema notation. Suppose HR is the owner of staff table and HR grant to retrieve Staff
table to Abebe and Abel. However, user Abebe and Abel must include HR schema notation to
retrieve staff table. E.g. Select * from HR.Staff;
To solve this problem, you should create synonym for Staff table. First the user must have a create
synonym system privilege to create a synonym.
Syntax: CREATE SYNONYM synonym_Name FOR Schema.tablename;
Example: CREATE SYNONYM Staff FOR HR.Staff;

6.2. Trigger Laboratory Manual in Oracle

6.2.1. Data Manipulation Language(DML) Triggers
First, Create a table:
Create table Student (FName Varchar2(50)); //Table STUDENT created.
Set Serveroutput On; --To display trigger output message to the user;
Create a trigger for Insert DML example1
SQL> Create or replace trigger BeI_Student
Before insert on Student
For each row
Enable
Declare
V_user varchar2(60);
Begin
Select user into V_user from dual;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('You Just Inserted a Record Mr. '||V_user);
end; --TRIGGER BEI_STUDENT compiled
SQL> Drop trigger bei_student; --To drop trigger bei_student;
Let’s check by inserting a value into Student table:
SQL>Insert into Student Values ('Tomas');
1 rows inserted.
You Just Inserted a Record Mr. HR
Create a trigger for Update DML example2
SQL> Create or replace trigger BeU_Student
Before Update on Student
 For each row
Enable
Declare
V_user varchar2(60);
Begin
Select user into V_user from dual;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('You Just Updated a Record Mr. '||V_user);
end; --TRIGGER BEU_STUDENT compiled
Let’s check by updating Fname from Student table:
SQL>Update Student Set Fname='Yoseph' where Fname='Tomas';
1 rows updated.
You Just Updated a Record Mr. HR
Create a trigger for Delete DML example2
SQL> Create or replace trigger BeD_Student
Before Delete on Student
For each row
Enable
Declare
V_user varchar2(60);
Begin
Select user into V_user from dual;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('You Just Deleted a Record Mr. '||V_user);
end; --TRIGGER BED_STUDENT compiled
SQL>Delete from Student where Fname='Yoseph';
1 rows deleted.
You Just Deleted a Recored Mr. HR
The above procedure is boring so we can create one trigger for three DML events. Create Trigger
for Insert, Upadte and Delete events:
SQL>Create or replace trigger BeIUD_Student --Trigger for Insert, Update and Delete
Before Insert or Update or Delete on Student
For each row
Enable
Declare
V_user varchar2(60);
Begin
select user into V_user from dual;
If Inserting Then
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('One Row Inserted By Mr. '||V_user);
ElsIf Updating Then
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('One Row Updated By Mr. '||V_user);
ElsIf Deleting Then
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('One Row Deleted By Mr. '||V_user);
End If;

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 end;
let's Insert a row into Student table:
SQL>Insert into Student Values('Abebe');
1 rows inserted.
One Row Inserted By Mr. HR
let's Update a row from Student table:
SQL>update Student Set Fname='Dereje' where Fname='Abebe';
1 rows updated.
One Row Updated By Mr. HR
let's Delete a row from Student table:
SQL>Delete from Student Where Fname='Dereje';
1 rows deleted.
One Row Deleted By Mr. HR
6.2.2. How to Audit a Table?
To perfume Auditing Should create another table called Student_Audit;
SQL>Create table Student_Audit(
New_Name varchar2(30),
Old_Name varchar2(50),
User_Name varchar2(20),
Entry_Date varchar2(80),
Operation varchar2(30)
); -- table STUDENT_AUDIT created.

The create a trigger: Where

New (Pseudo Record New): Allows you to access a row currently being processed. In other word,
a row being inserted or updated into student table. Like, :New.Fname
Old (Pseudo Record Old) : Allows you to access a row which is already being either updated or
delated from student table. Like, :Old.Fname.
SQL>Create or replace trigger BeIUD_Student --Student Audit Trigger
Before Insert or Update or Delete on Student
For each row
Enable
Declare
V_user varchar2(60);
V_date varchar2(70);
Begin
select user, to_CHAR (Sysdate, 'DD/MoN/YYY HH24:MI:SS')into V_user, V_date from
Dual;
If Inserting Then
Insert into Student_Audit(New_Name, Old_Name, User_Name, Entry_Date, Operation)

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 Values(:New.Fname, Null, V_user, V_date, 'Insert');
ElsIf Updating Then
Insert into Student_Audit(New_Name, Old_Name, User_Name, Entry_Date, Operation)
Values(:New.Fname, :Old.Fname, V_user, V_date, 'Update');
ElsIf Deleting Then
Insert into Student_Audit(New_Name, Old_Name, User_Name, Entry_Date, Operation)
Values(Null, :Old.Fname, V_user, V_date, 'Delete');
End If;
end;
When you are executing the above trigger code the following interface displayed the press apply.

Output: TRIGGER BEIUD_STUDENT compiled

SQL>Select * from Student_audit;

Let’s insert a row into Student table:

SQL>Insert into Student Values ('Solomon');
1 rows inserted.
One row Inserted By Mr. HR
Let’s check Student_Audit table to understand the effect of Insert trigger;
SQL>Select * from Student_audit;

Let’s Update a row into Student table:

SQL>Update Student Set Fname='Natan' where Fname='Solomon';
1 rows inserted.

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 One row Updated By Mr. HR
Let’s check Student_Audit table to understand the effect of Update trigger;
SQL>Select * from Student_audit;

Let’s Delete a row from Student table:

SQL>Delete from Student Where Fname='Natan';
1 rows inserted.
One row Deleted By Mr. HR
Let’s check Student_Audit table to understand the effect of Delete trigger;
SQL>Select * from Student_audit;

6.2.3. Synchronized backup copy

How to make a complete a synchronized backup copy of a table using DML Trigger? The backup
table gets automatically populated or updated with the main table simultaneously. In our case we
have two tables:
1. Student table (which is main table)
2. Backup table (Which is Student_Backup Table)
Let’s Students Table Column:
SQL>Describe Student; -- or desc Student;
Describe Student;
Name Null Type
----- ---- ------------
FNAME VARCHAR2(50)
let's Create Student_Backup Table:
SQL>Create Table Student_Backup As Select * From Student Where 1=2;
table STUDENT_BACKUP created.
Let’s check the main and backup table:
SQL>Select * From Student;

SQL>Select * From Student_Backup;

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Next compile Student_backup trigger;
SQL>Create or replace trigger Student_Backup --Student Backup Trigger
Before Insert or Update or Delete on Student
For each row
Enable
Begin
If Inserting Then
Insert into Student_Backup(Fname)Values(:New.Fname);
ElsIf Updating Then
Update Student_Backup Set Fname=:New.Fname where Fname= :Old.Fname;
ElsIf Deleting Then
Delete From Student_Backup WherE Fname=:Old.Fname;
End If;
end; -- Click on Apply

Let’s Insert rows into student table;

SQL>INSERT INTO Student VALUES ('Ephrem');
SQL>INSERT INTO Student VALUES ('yohannes');
SQL>INSERT INTO Student VALUES ('Lidya');
SQL>INSERT INTO Student VALUES ('Hana');
Let’s check the main table:
SQL>Select * From Student;

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Let’s check the backup table:
SQL>Select * From Student_Backup;

Let’s Update rows into student table;

SQL>Update Student Set Fname= 'Natan' Where Fname='Hana';
Let’s check the main table:
SQL>Select * From Student;

Let’s check the backup table:

SQL>Select * From Student_Backup;

Let’s Delete Rows from student table;

SQL>Delete From Student Where Fname='Hana';
SQL>Delete From Student Where Fname='Ephrem';
Let’s check the Student table:
SQL>Select * From Student;

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Let’s check the backup table:
SQL>Select * From Student_Backup;

6.2.4. Create DDL Triggers

How to create and use a DDL triggers?
DDL triggers are triggers which are created over DDL statement. Using DDL triggers you can
track changes to the database i.e. you can keep and identify indexes, tables or triggers … from
alter drop and by whom. Let’s Create Schema_Audit table:
SQL>Create Table Schema_Audit (
DDL_Date Date,
DDL_User Varchar(30),
Object_Created Varchar(40),
Object_Name Varchar(40),
DDL_Operation Varchar(60)
);
Create Hr-Schema_Audit trigger:
SQL>Create or replace trigger Hr_Schema_Audit --HR Schema Audit
After DDL On Schema
Begin
Insert into Schema_Audit Values(Sysdate,
Sys_context('USERENV', 'CURRENT_USER'),
Ora_Dict_Obj_Type,
Ora_Dict_Obj_Name,
Ora_Sysevent);
End;
Let’s check Schema_Audit table:

Now let’s create table Department and check the changes in Schema_Audit table;

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SQL>Create Table Department (DepName Varchar2(30), DepLocation Varchar2(40));
--table DEPARTEMNT created.
Let’s check Schema_Audit table
SQL>Select * from Schema_Audit;

SQL>Show User;
USER is HR
Let’s insert a record into Department Table and Truncate it:
SQL> Insert into Department values('IS', 'CCI-145');
SQL>Insert into Department values('SE', 'CCI-145');
Truncate is a DDL Statement so the trigger check the situation after Truncate executed:
SQL> Truncate Table Department; -- table DEPARTEMNT truncated.
Then let’s check Schema_Audit table:
SQL>Select * from Schema_Audit;

Next, let’s drop Department Table and Check Schema Audit Table:
SQL>Drop Table Department; -- table DEPARTEMNT dropped.
Drop is a DDL statement. Finally, Let’s View Schema_Aduit Table:
SQL> Select * from Schema_Audit;

6.2.5. Create Database Event 'LogOn' Trigger

How to Create Database Event 'LogOn' Trigger in Oracle?
Database event triggers come into action when some system events occur such as database logon,
logoff, startup and shutdown. Database event triggers can be created to monitor the system event
activities of either a specific user or a whole database. Any user of your database can create a

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database event trigger in its own schema if it has CREATE TRIGGERS system privilege. To create
a trigger on the database you must need ‘Administrative Database Trigger’ system privilege.
Syntax:
SQL>Create or Replace Trigger Trigger_name
Before | After Database_event on Database /Schema
Begin
PL/SQL code
End;
Let’s create a trigger for LOGON database event. Logon is a system level trigger. Now let’s create
a table that can store or hold all logon and logoff entries. Create table HR_Event_Audit:
SQL>Create Table HR_Event_Audit (
Event_type Varchar2(40),
Logon_date date,
Logon_time Varchar2(50),
Logoff_date date,
Logoff_time Varchar2(50)
); -- table HR_EVENT_AUDIT created.
Next, lets create a trigger that will fire when the user login next time and every time.
SQL>Create or Replace Trigger Hr_Logon_Audit
After Logon On Schema
Begin
Insert into HR_Event_Audit values(
Ora_sysevent,
Sysdate,
To_Char(Sysdate, 'HH24:MI:SS'),
Null,
Null);
Commit;
End; --TRIGGER HR_LOGON_AUDIT compiled
Let’s check HR_EVENT_AUDIT table:
SQL>Select * from HR_EVENT_AUDIT;

As we see the table is empty then let’s logoff HR schema and logon HR schema see the effect of
Trigger_logon_Audit event.
SQL>Show user
USER is HR
To disconnect HR use Disc Keyword.
SQL>DISC;
Here HR user disconnect from Oracle Database.
Then reconnect HR user into a database.
SQL>Connect HR/hr;

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Then let’s check HR_EVENT_AUDIT Table.
SQL>Select * from HR_EVENT_AUDIT;

6.2.6. Create Database Event 'Log Off' Trigger

How to create database event 'Log Off' trigger in Oracle? Logoff trigger is a trigger which is
executed before a user logoff. To show logoff trigger message we use Hr_Event_Audit table. To
display the table Hr_Event_Audit we use the following statement.
SQL>Desc Hr_Event_Audit;

SQL>Select * from Hr_Event_Audit;

Truncate table Hr_Event_Audit to delete all data.

SQL>Truncate Table Hr_Event_Audit; -- table HR_EVENT_AUDIT truncated.

Now, let’s create Logoff Trigger which is executed before the user is logoff. Let’s create
Hr_Logoff_Audit Trigger.
SQL>Create or Replace Trigger Hr_Logoff_Audit
Before Logoff On Schema
Begin
Insert into HR_Event_Audit values(
Ora_sysevent,
Null,
Null,
Sysdate,

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 To_Char(Sysdate, 'HH24:MI:SS')
);
Commit;
End; --- TRIGGER HR_LOGOFF_AUDIT compiled
Logoff trigger is similar with Logon except it is executed before the schema logoff.
Let’s check Hr_Event_Audit table.
SQL>Select * from Hr_Event_Audit;

Then let’s connect HR user and check Hr_Event_Audit table.

SQL>Disc;
Next to this Reconnect HR schema and then check Hr_Event_Audit table.

In order to control all schemas Logon and Logoff activities use high privilege user which is SYS
and create administrative level trigger. So connect SYS user into Oracle database.
SQL>Show user;
Let’s create a table that can hold all users of a database logon and logoff events. \
SQL>Create Table DB_Event_Audit (
User_name Varchar2(40),
Event_type Varchar2(40),
Logon_date date,
Logon_time Varchar2(50),
Logoff_date date,
Logoff_time Varchar2(50)
); -- table DB_EVENT_AUDIT created.
Let’s create a database level trigger that can audit all users of the database. To create Database
level trigger, you must Login as SYSDBA. The code is similar with the previous logoff except it
is ON a DATABASE level.
Create or Replace Trigger DB_Logoff_Audit
Before Logoff On Database
Begin
Insert into DB_Event_Audit values(
User,
Ora_sysevent,
Null,
Null,

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 Sysdate,
To_Char(Sysdate, 'HH24:MI:SS')
);
Commit;
End; -- TRIGGER DB_LOGOFF_AUDIT compiled
This trigger has database wide scope and use user attribute to display the user name.
Let’s Check DB_Event_Audit Table.
SQL>Select * from DB_Event_Audit;

May be your output is not the same as this one and you might also find some extra entry. Do not
worry.
6.2.7. Create Startup Trigger
How to Create Startup Trigger in Oracle Database?
System event startup trigger. Startup trigger is executed during the startup process of the database.
May be logon to the database as sys DBA or as a user who has Administer database trigger system
privilege.
SQL>Show user
USER is SYS
First create a Startup_Audit table
SQL>Create Table Startup_Audit (
Event_Type Varchar(30),
Event_Date Date,
Event_Time Varchar(30)
)
SQL>select * from Startup_Audit

Next create a trigger that is fired when the database startup.

Create Or Replace Trigger Db_Startup_Audit
After Startup On Database
Begin
Insert into Startup_Audit values(
Ora_sysevent,
Sysdate,
To_Char(Sysdate, 'HH24:MI:SS')

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 );
End; -- TRIGGER DB_STARTUP_AUDIT compiled
Activity: Create database shutdown event trigger?
6.2.8. Create Instead-Of Insert Trigger
How to Create Instead-Of Insert Trigger in Oracle Database?
Using Instead-Of trigger you can control the default behavior of insert, update, delete and merge
on a view tables but not on a base tables. Uses of Instead of trigger.
• You can use them to make a non-updatable view updatable.
• Override the default behavior of views that are updatable.
Syntax:
SQL>Create or Replace Trigger trigger_name
Instead of operation
On view_name
For Each Row
Begin
--Your SQL code
End;
Instead-of Insert example.
Let’s create two tables Trainer and Course. First connect HR schema.
SQL>Create Table Trainer ( Full_Name Varchar(100)); --Trainer Table
SQL>Create Table Course ( Course_title Varchar(100));
Insert values into course and trainer table.
SQL>Insert Into Trainer Values ('Abebe Dawit');
SQL>Insert Into Course Values ('Oracle');
Then Create a view table to get a combine result.
SQL>Create view VW_Trainer_course as select Full_name, Course_title From Trainer, Course;
Let’s modify VW_Trainer_course view table may be insert, update and delete. The following error
is displayed.
SQL>Insert into Vw_Trainer_Course values('Solomon Tomas', 'C#')
Error starting at line 70 in command:
Error at Command Line:70 Column:1
Error report:
SQL Error: ORA-01779: cannot modify a column which maps to a non key-preserved table
01779. 00000 - "cannot modify a column which maps to a non key-preserved table"
*Cause: An attempt was made to insert or update columns of a join view which
map to a non-key-preserved table.
*Action: Modify the underlying base tables directly.

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To solve this problem, write Instead-Of trigger for Vw_Trainer_Course view table.
--Instead of trigger
SQL>Create Or Replace Trigger Tri_Instead_View
Instead Of Insert On Vw_Trainer_Course
For Each Row
Begin
Insert Into Trainer (Full_Name) Values (:New.Full_Name);
Insert Into Course (Course_Title) Values (:New.Course_Title);
End; -- TRIGGER TRI_INSTEAD_VIEW compiled

Let’s insert a new row Vw_Trainer_Course view table without any modification problem.
SQL>Insert Into Vw_Trainer_Course Values('Solomon Tomas', 'C#');
1 rows inserted.
SQL>Insert Into Vw_Trainer_Course Values('Meklite Pawlose', 'Cisco');
1 rows inserted.
We can check both of the values are inserted in their respected table such as Trainer and Course.
Note: we have insert the above two rows into Vw_Trainer_Course view table but due to instead
of trigger the value is inserted into trainer and course tables.
SQL>Select * From Trainer;

SQL>Select * From Course;

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SQL>Select * From Vw_Trainer_Course

6.2.9. Create an Instead-of Update Trigger

How to Create an Instead-of Update Trigger?
Instead-Of Update Trigger example
Like insert statement there is a modification problem when we update a record into a view table.
SQL>Desc Vw_Trainer_Course;

Let’s try to update Vw_Trainer_Course view table.

SQL>update Vw_Trainer_Course set Full_name='Ethiopia Abissinia' where Course_title='Cisco';
Error starting at line 34 in command:
update Vw_Trainer_Course set Full_name='Ethiopia Abissinia' where Course_title='Cisco'
Error at Command Line:34 Column:30
Error report:
SQL Error: ORA-01779: cannot modify a column which maps to a non key-preserved table
01779. 00000 - "cannot modify a column which maps to a non key-preserved table"
*Cause: An attempt was made to insert or update columns of a join view which
map to a non-key-preserved table.
*Action: Modify the underlying base tables directly.
Create Instead-Of update trigger.
SQL>Create Or Replace Trigger TrUpdate_Instead_View

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 Instead Of Update On Vw_Trainer_Course
For Each Row
Begin
Update Trainer Set Full_Name=:New.Full_Name Where Full_Name=:Old.Full_Name;
Update Course Set Course_Title=:New.Course_Title Where Course_Title=:Old.Course_Title;
End;

TRIGGER TRUPDATE_INSTEAD_VIEW compiled,

Then let’s update the view table.
SQL>update Vw_Trainer_Course set Full_name='Ethiopia Abissinia' where Course_title='Cisco';
3 rows updated.
Check the change from three tables.
SQL>Select * From Trainer;
SQL>Select * From Course;
SQL>Select * From Vw_Trainer_Course
6.2.10. Create INSTEAD OF DELETE trigger
How to Create INSTEAD OF DELETE trigger in Oracle Database?
Like insert and update statement there is a modification problem when we delete a record from a
view table.
SQL>Desc Vw_Trainer_Course;

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Let’s try to delete record from Vw_Trainer_Course view table.
SQL>Delete From Vw_Trainer_Course Where Course_Title='Oracle';
Error starting at line 48 in command:
delete from Vw_Trainer_Course where course_title='Oracle'
Error at Command Line:48 Column:13
Error report:
SQL Error: ORA-01752: cannot delete from view without exactly one key-preserved table
01752. 00000 - "cannot delete from view without exactly one key-preserved table"
*Cause: The deleted table either had no key perserved tables,
had more than one key-preserved table, or the key-preserved
table was an unmerged view or a table from a read-only view.
*Action: Redefine the view or delete it from the underlying base tables.
To solve the above error, Create Instead-of Delete trigger.
SQL>Create Or Replace Trigger Trdelete_Instead_View
Instead Of Delete On Vw_Trainer_Course
For Each Row
Begin
Delete From Trainer Where Full_Name=:Old.Full_Name;
Delete from Course Where Course_Title=:Old.Course_Title;
End;

TRIGGER TRDELETE_INSTEAD_VIEW compiled

Let’s try to delete from Vw_Trainer_Course view table.
SQL>Delete From Vw_Trainer_Course Where Course_Title='Oracle';
3 rows deleted.

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