INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

Advances in SLA
LAALCM/CM
“IDs are a prominent feature of SLA
because a great deal of the variation in
language learning outcomes is attributable,
either directly or indirectly, to various
learner characteristics.”
Dörnyei (2006)
How can we explain these differences in
achievement?
Category Factors
1. Abilities a) Intelligence
b) Language aptitude
c) Memory
2. Propensities d) Learning style
e) Motivation
f) Anxiety
g) Personality
h) Willingness to communicate
3. Learner cognitions about L2 i) Learner beliefs
learning
4. Learner actions j) Learning strategies

Ellis, 2004
 Age

■ Age affects all of them and possibly the

actual psycholinguistic processes involved in
learning as well
How can we explain these differences in
achievement?
Category Factors
1. Abilities a) Intelligence
b) Language aptitude
c) Memory
2. Propensities d) Learning style
e) Motivation
f) Anxiety
g) Personality
h) Willingness to communicate
3. Learner cognitions about L2 i) Learner beliefs
learning
4. Learner actions j) Learning strategies

Ellis, 2004
The study of IDs
Earlier research In more recent research
saw learners as either learners are characterized in more
innately endowed with or relative terms, as possessing different
lacking in language learning kinds of abilities and predispositions
skills. that influence learning in complex ways.

focus was on predicting focus is on explaining why some

which learners would learners succeed more than others;
succeed, and the applied applied side: match learners on the
side was to choose learners basis of aptitude and different
for foreign language types of instruction, with the aim of
instruction. maximizing learning.
The study of IDs
in interaction
“individual differences in mental functions typically involve a blended
operation of cognitive, affective and motivational components” (Dörnyei,
2010b, p. 234)

“self-reinforcing loops between the cognitive, motivational, social, and

experiential aspects of L2 use” (Segalowitz & Trofimovich, 2012, p. 187).

And see Serafini (2017) for an exploration from a Dynamic System

Theory (DST) perspective.
Personality
■ Most individual characteristic

■ Little and inconclusive research

– Eysenck (1947): “The Big Two” dimensions of extraversion-introversion
and neuroticism*-emotional stability
*to be moody and to experience anxiety, anger, frustration, envy, guilt, loneliness

– The Big Five: extraversion, neuroticism, openness**, agreeableness

and conscientiousness*** (Goldberg, 1992)
**5 facets: active imagination, aesthetic sensitivity, attentiveness to inner feelings,
preference for variety, and intellectual curiosity

*** to be careful, diligent

What’s your personality type? See the MBTI test
Introversion vs Extraversion
Eysenck (1981): Personality has a biological basis. Introverts may possess
a higher level of arousal* in the autonomous nervous system and in
the cortex. So they are overaroused and extraverts are underaroused
and must look for external stimulation….
* Arousal is the physiological and psychological state of being awoken or of sense organs
stimulated to a point of perception; responsiveness to stimuli

Introverts better at written tests and extroverts at oral fluency (Dewaele &
Furnham, 1990)

Introverts may do better at memorizing, preparing for tests (Skehan, 1989)

Introverts monitor their production more carefully, and this may lead to
more successful responses to feedback (Kayaglou, 2013)
Extroverted learners are more willing to communicate (Fonseca Mora, 2005)
FL Anxiety
■ “Feeling of tension and apprehension specifically associated with L2
contexts, including speaking, listening and learning” (MacIntyre & Gardner, 1984: 284)

■ A “distinct complex of self-perceptions, beliefs, feelings and behaviors related

to classroom language learning” (Horwitz et al. 1986)

■ General FLA vs skill-specific anxieties; e.g. “When reading English, I get

nervous and confused when I don’t understand every word” (Saito el al. 1999)

■ “the most widely studied emotion in SLA” (MacIntyre, 2017:11)

■ Facilitative anxiety? Or is it always a negative emotion?

Anxiety:
FLCAS (Horwitz et al., 1986)
Directions: Indicate your opinion about each statement by circling the alternative below that best
indicates the extent to which you agree or disagree with that statement.
Strongly Agree / Agree/ Neither Agree nor Disagree / Disagree / Strongly Disagree
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
1. I never feel quite sure of myself when I am speaking in my foreign language
class.
2. I don’t worry about making mistakes in language class.
3. I tremble when I know that I’m going to be called on in language class.
4. It frightens me when I don’t understand what the teacher is saying in the
foreign language.
5. It wouldn’t bother me at all to take more foreign language classes.
6. During language class, I find myself thinking about things that have nothing to
do with the course.
7. I keep thinking that the other students are better at languages than I am.
8. I am usually at ease during tests in my language class.
9. I start to panic when I have to speak without preparation in language class.
10. I worry about the consequences of failing my foreign language class.
11. I don’t understand why some people get so upset over foreign language
classes.
12. In language class, I can get so nervous I forget things I know.

13. It embarrasses me to volunteer answers in my language class.

14. I would not be nervous speaking the foreign language with native speakers.

15. I get upset when I don’t understand what the teacher is correcting.

16. Even if I am well prepared for language class, I feel anxious about it.

17. I often feel like not going to my language class.

18. I feel confident when I speak in foreign language class.

19. I am afraid that my language teacher is ready to correct every mistake I make.
20. I can feel my heart pounding when I’m going to be called on in language
class.
21. The more I study for a language test, the more confused I get.
22. I don’t feel pressure to prepare very well for language class.
23. I always feel that the other students speak the foreign language better
than I do.
24. I feel very self-conscious about speaking the foreign language in front
of other students.
25. Language class moves so quickly I worry about getting left behind.
26. I feel more tense and nervous in language class than in my other
classes.
27. I get nervous and confused when I am speaking in my language class.
28. When I’m on my way to language class, I feel very sure and relaxed.
29. I get nervous when I don’t understand every word the language teacher
says.
30. I feel overwhelmed by the number of rules you have to learn to speak a
foreign language.
31. I am afraid that the other students will laugh at me when I speak the
foreign language.
32. I would probably feel comfortable around native speakers of the foreign
language.
33. I get nervous when the language teacher asks questions which I
haven’t prepared in advance.
 Recent research on anxiety
■ Learners who experience FLCA feel state* anxiety when
participating in language learning and/or use. (Horwitz, 2017)
*A transient reaction to an adverse situation vs. a more stable personality attribute in
experiencing events (trait anxiety)

■ Innovative ways of measuring anxiety; physical

manifestations: blood pressure, heart rate, cortisol, …
– cortisol measured through hair plucked from Ps in SA … but no
correlations with learning anxiety. (Denwey et al.)
– electrodermal activity: sweaty palm methods (Sevinç, 2018)
Recent research on anxiety
■ Anxiety decreases with time and proficiency
■ Relationship with FLE (foreign language enjoyment); not perfect inversion
(Dewaele et al. 2018)
■ In SA: stressors may be broad cross-cultural differences, international
tensions, geographical distance from home (time zones, light exposure,…)
■ Lack of longitudinal studies

■ Two recent meta-analysis on anxiety and gender (Botes et al., 2020; Piniel &
Zólyomi, 2022) found that despite the tendency for females to manifest
slightly higher anxiety, this result was not statistically significant.
■ Age, target language, regional context, or, in the case of university students,
their majors did not play a discernible role concerning the relationship
between FLCA and gender (Piniel & Zólyomi, 2022).
■ See also: Gkonov, Daubney & Dewaele, 2017; MacIntyre, 2017; Lin (2024).
 Motivation

■ “Motivation explains why people decide to do

something, how hard they are going to pursue it
and how long they are willing to sustain the
activity” Dörnyei, 2001
Motivation research
4 phases
■ 1st: focus on social context and attitudes toward
the L2 community. Pioneered by R. Gardner and
colleagues

■ 2nd, 3rd and 4th: an effort to integrate L2

motivation research with mainstream motivational
psychology. Led by Z. Dörnyei and colleagues
– 2nd: situate its study within specific learning settings
– 3rd: … with a focus on motivational change
– 4th: … within theories of self and identity
Social psychological perspective

■ 1st phase: 1959-1990

■ dichotomy of integrative and instrumental

motivation
Gardner & Lambert, 1959; Gardner & Lambert, 1972;
Gardner, 1985, 2000, 2001, 2006, 2010
 Integrative – instrumental
■ Integrative motivation consists of: integrative orientation, attitudes
towards the learning situation, motivation (subsuming effort, desire and
affect)

■ Integrative orientation (integrativeness): desire to learn an L2 of a

valued community so that one can communicate with members of the
community and sometimes even become like them / genuine interest

■ Instrumental orientation emphasizes the practical value and

advantages of learning a new language.

■ Note: Orientations refer to reasons for studying a L2, while motivation refers to the
directed, reinforcing effort to learn the language.
The integrative motive
Gardner’s Socio-Educational Model (2001)
 Cognitive-situated period
■ 2nd phase: 90’s. Influence of cognitive and educational
psychology (Crookes & Schmidt, 1991)

■ From questioning the relevance of integrative motivation for

different learning contexts (e.g., L2 vs FL vs immersion
settings); not so relevant outside Canada…

■ … a more situated analysis of motivation emerged,

emphasizing contextual aspects of motivation inherent in
L2 instructional environments (e.g., Dörnyei, 1994; Julkunen, 1989,
2001).
■ Cognitively oriented concepts of motivation from educational
research (Williams & Burden, 1997).

– Self-determination theory (people have innate psychological

needs—autonomy (control over their actions), competence (mastery of
tasks), and relatedness (connection with others)—that must be satisfied
to foster intrinsic motivation, personal growth, and well-being)

■ Intrinsic motivation comes from inherent enjoyment

or interest in the task
■ Extrinsic motivation comes from external sources.
Different degrees of regulation from externally regulated behaviour
(reward) to integrated regulation (feelings of competence, autonomy);
ex.: children internalize school’s extrinsic regulations when they feel
secure and cared by parents and teachers (e.g., Ryan & Deci, 2000)

– Self-efficacy beliefs: one's belief in one's ability to

accomplish a task. Influence on how one approaches goals,
tasks, and challenges.
Process-oriented period

■ 3rd phase: late 90’s-early 21st century

■ The temporal dynamics of motivation; aimed to capture the
“the ebb and flow” of L2 motivation and better distinguish
between the motivation to engage in L2 learning and the
motivation to sustain that engagement (or not).

(Dörnyei & Ottó, 1998; Dörnyei, 2000, 2001; Ushioda, 1996a, b, 2001).
Socio-dynamic period
■ 4th phase: current

■ rooted in self-discrepancy theory (Higgins, 1987, 1996) based on the

notion of possible selves or ‘future self-guides’ (Markus & Nurius, 1986).

■ In an academic context > the ideal and the ought-to selves

■ Ideal self: a representation of the attributes that one would ideally

like to possess. Ideal self-guides promote one’s hopes, aspirations,
and accomplishments

■ Ought-to self: the attributes that one believes one ought to possess.
Ought self-guides prevent and regulate negative outcomes
associated with failing to meet responsibilities and obligations.

Dörnyei, 2005, 2009; Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2009

 The L2 Motivational Self System
Dörnyei 2005

■ Ideal L2 Self
– the L2-specific facet of one’s “ideal self”: the person we would like to become
speaks an L2. Traditional integrative and internalised instrumental motives belong
to this component. Ex.: When I imagine my future job, I see myself using English
■ Ought-to L2 Self
– the attributes one believes one ought to possess to meet expectations and avoid
possible negative outcomes. Extrinsic motives. Ex.: I need English for my future
career
If proficiency in the TL is integral to one’s ideal or ought-to self, this aspiration
will serve as a powerful motivator to learn the language because of a
psychological desire to reduce the discrepancy between current and future self
states

■ L2 Learning Experience
– Situated motives related to immediate learning environment and experience
(teacher, peer group, experience of success). Ex.: I’m happy when I see that I am
making progress in English
Questionnaire items
Extrinsic motivation:
■ I learn English/French …
‘… because I’d like to get good grades.’
‘… so that I’ll be as good as the others in class.’
‘… so that I’ll be good in school.’
Intrinsic motivation:
■ I learn English/French…
‘… because I like to speak English/French.’
‘… because I like to listen to English/French.’
■ Ideal L2 self
I imagine myself as someone capable of speaking English.
I can imagine myself living abroad and using English effectively to communicate
with a local.
I can imagine myself speaking English as fluently as a native speaker.
■ Ought-to L2 self
Learning English is important to gain the approval of my peers, teachers, family, or
friends.
Learning English is important to me because, otherwise, other people will respect
me less.
Not knowing English will have a negative impact on my life.
■ Instrumentality (-promotion / -prevention)
Learning English is important to me because I think it will be useful someday for
getting a job or making a lot of money.
I have to learn English because I don’t want to fail the subject.
 Learner styles
■ Cognitive style: a predisposition to process information in a
characteristic manner

■ (Perceptual) learning style: a typical preference for

approaching learning in general. Ex.: auditory, visual,
kinesthetic and tactile preferences (Reid, 1995)
Questionnaires

■ A popular one: Inventory of Learning Styles (Felder &

Silverman, 1988)
– http://www.engr.ncsu.edu/learningstyles/ilsweb.html
■ In SLA: Learning Style Survey (Cohen, Oxford & Chi, 2001)
Cognitive styles
■ Field independent: an analytic predisposition to the processing
of information
– … are seen as more likely to analyze information into its component
parts, and to distinguish the essential from the inessential
– aloof, preferring to find solutions to problems for themselves
■ Field dependent: a preference for more holistic approach
– … are more likely to deal with information structures as wholes, or
“gestalts”
– sociable and work well in groups
■ Rather
– Cognitive orientation vs. memory orientation (Skehan, 1998)

* Field: refers to the broader context or background in which information is presented

Recent research on cognitive styles

Two different approaches to information processing that may be

differentially related to implicit and explicit cognitive abilities:

- Rational–analytical cognitive style: tendency to rely on logic and

analysis. More related to explicit cognitive processes and abilities

- Experiential–intuitive cognitive style: tendency to rely on intuition and

holistic thinking. More related to implicit cognitive processes and
abilities (Grañena, 2016)
Learning strategies
“specific actions, behaviours, steps or techniques that students use to
improve their own progress in developing skills in a second or foreign
language. These strategies can facilitate the internalisation, storage,
retrieval or use of the new language.” (Oxford, 1999)
i. Cognitive: involving the manipulation of the learning materials/input (e.g. repetition,
summarizing, using images)

ii. Metacognitive: involving higher-order strategies aimed at analyzing, monitoring, planning,

and organizing one’s own learning process

iii. Social: involving interpersonal behaviours aimed at increasing the amount of L2

communication and practice the learner undertakes (e.g. initiating interaction with NSs,
cooperating with peers)

iv. Affective: involving taking control of the emotional conditions and experiences that shape
one’s subjective involvement in learning (Dörnyei & Skehan, 2003; Oxford, 1990; O’Malley &
Chamot, 1990)
 Strategies for Language Learning
(SILL)

Direct Strategies Indirect Strategies

■ Memory ■ Metacognitive
– Creating mental linkages – Evaluating
– ... – ...
■ Cognitive ■ Affective
– Practicing – Lowering your anxiety
– ... – ...
■ Social
■ Compensation
– Asking questions
– Guessing
– ...
– ...
Self-regulation
■ Self-regulation refers to the degree to which
individuals are active participants in their own
learning.
■ A more dynamic concept than “learning strategy”
highlighting the learners’ own “strategic efforts to
manage their own achievement through specific
beliefs and processes” (Zimmerman & Risemberg, 1997)

■ Proactive strategic learners APPLY strategies….

■ Not so much what they do as the fact that they
choose to put creative effort into improving their
own learning and they have the capacity to do so
Self-regulated capacity

■ “the degree to which students are metacognitively,

motivationally, and behaviourally active participants
in their own learning processes” through using
“task-related strategies, imagery, or verbal self
instruction to organize and transform information”
(Zimmerman, 2013, p.137)
Beliefs
■ People develop certain beliefs about language learning
and what learning and teaching should be (folk beliefs)
■ These beliefs may become significant for language
learning (and teaching):
– Learners’ beliefs
– Teachers’ beliefs
- ex.: Ageism

“Perhaps the most important single cause of a person's success or

failure educationally has to do with the question of what he believes
about himself.” Arthur Combs
Learners’ beliefs

■ Learners bring a variety of beliefs to the classroom

■ Little research into the nature of these “theories” of L2 or

about how learners’ beliefs affect language learning

■ Little research on YLs’s beliefs

“The Beliefs about Language Learning Inventory” (BALLI). Horwitz
(1987); intermediate; adults. Ex.:
– 81% felt people are born with a special aptitude for
learning foreign languages
– Some languages are more difficult than others

■ Determinants of learners’ beliefs about language learning

– past experience, both of education in general and of
language learning in particular
– personality and cognitive style
 What are the
characteristics of a
“good language learner”?
The “Good Language Learner”
A: always, O: often, S: sometimes, R: rarely, N: never

1. I try to get something out of every learning situation even if I don’t

like it
2. I choose learning situations that are suited to my way of learning
3. Besides language class, I plan activities that give me a chance to
use and learn the language
4. I choose activities because I am already familiar with the ideas
5. I can figure out my special problems
6. I try to do something about my special problems
7. I do things I don’t usually do to gain more information about my
foreign language
8. I pay special attention to pronunciation
9. I pay special attention to grammar
10. I pay special attention to vocabulary
11. I try to develop good techniques to practise listening, speaking, reading
and writing
12. I try to develop good techniques to improve my pronunciation, grammar
and vocabulary
13. I am like a detective. I look for clues that will help me understand how
language works
14. When I don’t know, I guess
15. I ask people to correct me if I make a mistake
16. I compare what I say with what others say to see if I’m using correct
language
17. I think about what I’ve learned
18. I try to think in my target language
19. I overcome my feelings of frustration and lack of confidence
20. I can laugh at my mistakes
 Characteristics of the
Good Language Learner
■ … finds a style of learning that suits him/her (1,2)
■ … are actively involved in the language learning process (3-7)
■ … try to figure out how the language works (8-10)
■ … know that language is used to communicate (11-12)
■ … are like good detectives (13-17)
■ … learn to think in the TL (18)
■ … try to overcome their feelings of frustration and lack of confidence
(19-20)
Wenden, 1990
As adjectives

■ Self-aware
■ Inquisitive
■ Tolerant
■ Self-critical
■ Realistic
■ Willing to experiment
■ Actively involved
■ Organized
Ellis & Sinclair, 1989
Other: Socio-economic
background
■ The Sutton Trust report on educational inequalities in the
early years
– a series of vocabulary tests carried out by 12,500 British
children at the age of 5

■ Children from the poorest homes are almost a year behind

middle class pupils in language skills by the time they start
school (Waldfogel & Washbrook, 2010)
 References
■ Bley-Vroman, R. (1990) The logical problem of foreign language learning.
Linguistic analysis 20, 3-49.
■ Dörnyei, Z. (2006) Individual differences in second language acquisition. AILA
Review 19, 42-68.
■ Dörnyei, Z. (2009) The L2 Motivational Self System. In Z. Dörnyei & E. Ushioda
(eds.) Motivation, Language Identity and the L2 Self. Multilingual Matters.
■ Ellis, R. (2004) The study of second language acquisition. Oxford: OUP.
■ Horwitz, E. (1987). Surveying student beliefs about language learning. In A.
Wenden & J. Rubin (eds.) Learner Strategies in Language Learning. Englewood
Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
■ Lin, Y. (2024). Review of the Effects of Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety on
Learners' Development of a Second Language Acquisition. Journal of
Education, Humanities and Social Sciences, 26, 979-985
■ Serafini, E.J. (2017). Exploring the Dynamic Long-Term Interaction Between
Cognitive and Psychosocial Resources in Adult Second Language Development
at Varying Proficiency. The Modern Language Journal, 101, 2.
■ Snow, R. (1989). Aptitude-Treatment Interaction as a framework for research on
individual differences in learning. In P. Ackerman, R.J. Sternberg, & R. Glaser
(ed.), Learning and Individual Differences. New York: W.H. Freeman
■ Wenden, A. (1987). How to be a successful learner: insights and prescriptions
from L2 learners. In A. Wenden / J. Rubin