200 Chapter 3 Derivatives

c. Find an equation for the tangent line to f at the specified point x3

112. y = , −1 ≤ x ≤ 1, x 0 = 1 2
( x 0 , f ( x 0 ) ). x2 +1
d. Find an equation for the tangent line to g at the point 27
113. y = x 3 − 3 x 2 − 1, 2 ≤ x ≤ 5, x 0 =
( f ( x 0 ), x 0 ) located symmetrically across the 45 n line y  x 10
(which is the graph of the identity function). Use Theorem 3 3
114. y = 2 − x − x 3 , −2 ≤ x ≤ 2, x 0 =
to find the slope of this tangent line. 2
e. Plot the functions f and g, the identity, the two tangent lines, 115. y = e x , −3 ≤ x ≤ 5, x 0 = 1
and the line segment joining the points ( x 0 , f ( x 0 ) ) and Q Q
116. y = sin x , − ≤ x ≤ , x 0 = 1
( f ( x 0 ), x 0 ). Discuss the symmetries you see across the main 2 2
diagonal (the line y  x). In Exercises 117 and 118, repeat the steps above to solve for the func-
2 tions y  f ( x ) and x = f −1 ( y) defined implicitly by the given equa-
109. y = 3 x − 2, ≤ x ≤ 4, x 0 = 3
3 tions over the interval.
3x + 2
110. y = , −2 ≤ x ≤ 2, x 0 = 1 2 117. y 1 3 − 1 = ( x + 2 )3 , −5 ≤ x ≤ 5, x 0 = − 3 2
2 x − 11
4x 118. cos y = x 1 5 , 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, x 0 = 1 2
111. y = 2 , −1 ≤ x ≤ 1, x 0 = 1 2
x +1

3.9 Inverse Trigonometric Functions

We introduced the six basic inverse trigonometric functions in Section 1.5 but focused
there on the arcsine and arccosine functions. Here we complete the study of how all six
basic inverse trigonometric functions are defined, graphed, and evaluated, and how their
derivatives are computed.

Inverses of tan x, cot x, sec x , and csc x

The graphs of these four basic inverse trigonometric functions are shown in Figure 3.41.
We obtain these graphs by reflecting the graphs of the restricted trigonometric functions
(as discussed in Section 1.5) through the line y  x. Let’s take a closer look at the arctan-
gent, arccotangent, arcsecant, and arccosecant functions.
Domain: −∞ < x < ∞ Domain: −∞ < x < ∞ Domain: x ≤ −1 or x ≥ 1 Domain: x ≤ −1 or x ≥ 1
Range: − p < y < p Range: 0<y<p Range: 0 ≤ y ≤ p, y ≠ p Range: − p ≤ y ≤ p , y ≠ 0
2 2 2 2 2
y y y y
p p
p p y = arccsc x
2
2 y = arccot x p y = arcsec x
y = arctan x
p 2
x 2 x
−2 −1 1 2 −2 −1 1 2
p
− p
2 x x −
−2 −1 1 2 −2 −1 1 2 2
(a) (b) (c) (d)

FIGURE 3.41 Graphs of the arctangent, arccotangent, arcsecant, and arccosecant functions.

The arctangent of x is a radian angle whose tangent is x. The arccotangent of x is an angle

whose cotangent is x, and so forth. The angles belong to the restricted domains of the tan-
gent, cotangent, secant, and cosecant functions.

DEFINITIONS
y  arctan x is the number in (−Q 2 , Q 2 ) for which tan y  x.
y  arccot x is the number in ( 0, Q ) for which cot y  x.
y  arcsec x is the number in [ 0, Q 2 ) ∪ ( Q 2, Q ] for which sec y  x.
y  arccsc x is the number in [ −Q 2, 0 ) ∪ ( 0, Q 2 ] for which csc y  x.
 3.9 Inverse Trigonometric Functions 201

We use open or half-open intervals to avoid values for which the tangent, cotangent, secant,
and cosecant functions are undefined. (See Figure 3.41.)
As we discussed in Section 1.5, the arcsine and arccosine functions are often written
as sin 1 x and cos 1 x instead of arcsin x and arccos x . Likewise, we often denote the
other inverse trigonometric functions by tan 1 x , cot 1 x , sec 1 x , and csc 1 x.
Domain: 0 x 0 ≥ 1 The graph of y  arctan x is symmetric about the origin because it is a branch of the
Range: 0 ≤ y ≤ p, y ≠ p
2 graph x  tan y that is symmetric about the origin (Figure 3.41a). Algebraically this
y means that
3p arctan(−x ) = − arctan x;
2
B the arctangent is an odd function. The graph of y  arccot x has no such symmetry (Fig-
p ure 3.41b). Notice from Figure 3.41a that the graph of the arctangent function has two
A horizontal asymptotes: one at y  Q 2 and the other at y = −Q 2.
p
2 The inverses of the restricted forms of sec x and csc x are chosen to be the functions
y = arcsec x
graphed in Figures 3.41c and 3.41d.
x
−1 0 1
p Caution There is no general agreement about how to define arcsec x for negative val-
−
2
C ues of x. We chose angles in the second quadrant between Q 2 and Q. This choice makes
−p arcsec x = arccos(1 x ). It also makes arcsec x an increasing function on each interval
of its domain. Some tables choose arcsec x to lie in [ −Q , −Q 2 ) for x  0, and some
3p texts choose it to lie in [ Q , 3 Q 2 ) (Figure 3.42). These choices simplify the formula for the
−
2
derivative (our formula needs absolute value signs) but fail to satisfy the computational
FIGURE 3.42 There are several equation arcsec x = arccos(1 x ). From this, we can derive the identity
logical choices for the left-hand branch
of y  arcsec x. With choice A, arcsec x = arccos ( 1x ) = Q2 − arcsin( 1x ) (1)
arcsec x = arccos(1 x ), a useful identity
employed by many calculators. by applying Equation (5) in Section 1.5.

EXAMPLE 1 The accompanying figures show two values of arctan x.

y y
arctan 1 = arctan " 3 = p arctan a−" 3b = − p
"3 3 6 3
p
6 p
2 −
3
1 1
x x
0 "3 0
−" 3
2

tan p = 1 tan a− pb = −" 3

6 "3 3

x arctan x

3 Q3
1 Q4
33 Q6
0 0
 33 Q 6
1 Q 4
 3 Q 3

The angles come from the first and fourth quadrants because the range of arctan x is
(−Q 2 , Q 2 ).
202 Chapter 3 Derivatives

y The Derivative of y = arcsin u

We know that the function x = sin y is differentiable in the interval −π 2 < y < π 2
and that its derivative, the cosine, is positive there. Theorem 3 in Section 3.8 therefore
p assures us that the inverse function y = arcsin x is differentiable throughout the interval
2
−1 < x < 1. We cannot expect it to be differentiable at x = 1 or x = −1 because the
tangent lines to the graph are vertical at these points (see Figure 3.43).
x We find the derivative of y = arcsin x by applying Theorem 3 with f ( x ) = sin x and
−1 1
y = arcsin x
f −1 ( x ) = arcsin x:
p Domain: −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 1
− ( f −1 )′( x ) = Theorem 3
2 Range: −p2 ≤ y ≤ p2 f ′( f −1 ( x ))
1
= f ′( y) = cos y
cos( arcsin x )
FIGURE 3.43 The graph of 1
= cos y = 1 − sin 2 y
y = arcsin x has vertical tangent 1 − sin 2 ( arcsin x )
lines at x = −1 and x = 1.
1
= . sin ( arcsin x ) = x
1 − x2

For x < 1,
d 1
( arcsin x ) = .
dx 1 − x2

If u is a differentiable function of x with u < 1, we apply the Chain Rule to get the
general formula
d 1 du
( arcsin u ) = , u < 1.
dx 1 − u 2 dx
EXAMPLE 2 Using the Chain Rule, we calculate the derivative
d 1 d 2x
( arcsin x 2 ) = · (x 2 ) = .
dx 1 − ( x 2 ) 2 dx 1 − x4
The Derivative of y = arctan u
We find the derivative of y = arctan x by applying Theorem 3 with f ( x ) = tan x and
f −1 ( x ) = arctan x. Theorem 3 can be applied because the derivative of tan x is positive
for −π 2 < x < π 2:
1
( f −1 )′( x ) = Theorem 3
f ′( f −1 ( x ))
1
= f ′(u ) = sec 2 u
sec 2 ( arctan x )
1
= sec 2 u = 1 + tan 2 u
1 + tan 2 ( arctan x )
1
= . tan ( arctan x ) = x
1 + x2
The derivative is defined for all real numbers:

d 1
( arctan x ) = .
dx 1 + x2

The derivative is defined for all real numbers. If u is a differentiable function of x, we get
the Chain Rule form:
d 1 du
( arctan u ) = .
dx 1 + u 2 dx
The Chain Rule can also be combined with the arctangent function in other ways, as illus-
trated by the following example.
 3.9 Inverse Trigonometric Functions 203

EXAMPLE 3
d ⎛⎜ 1 ⎞⎟ d
⎜ ⎟= ( arctan x )−1 Derivative of the reciprocal
dx ⎜⎝ arctan x ⎟⎠ dx (not the inverse) of arctangent

d
= ( − 1)( arctan x )−2 ( arctan x ) Apply the Chain Rule.
dx
−1 1
= 2 ⋅
( arctan x ) 1 + x2

The Derivative of y = arcsec u

Theorem 3 does not apply to the function sec x directly, since its domain is not connected.
However, we can apply Theorem 3 to each of the two intervals in its domain to see that the
inverse of the one-to-one function sec x is indeed differentiable. The formula for the deriv-
ative of arcsec x on its domain x > 1 can then be found by using implicit differentiation
and the Chain Rule as follows:
y = arcsec x
sec y = x Inverse function relationship
d d
( sec y ) = x Differentiate both sides.
dx dx
dy
( sec y tan y ) =1 Chain Rule
dx
dy 1 Since x > 1, y lies in ( 0, π 2 ) ∪ ( π 2, π )
= .
dx sec y tan y and sec y tan y ≠ 0.

To express the result in terms of x, we use the relationships

sec y = x and tan y = ± sec 2 y − 1 = ± x 2 − 1
to get
dy 1
= ± .
dx x x2 − 1
y Can we do anything about the ± sign? A glance at Figure 3.44 shows that the slope of the
y = arcsec x
graph y = arcsec x is always positive. Thus,
p
⎧⎪+ 1
if x > 1
p ⎪⎪ 2 −1
2 d
arcsec x = ⎨ ⎪ x x
dx ⎪⎪ 1
x ⎪⎪− if x < −1.
−1 0 1 ⎩ x x2 − 1
With the absolute value symbol, we can write a single expression that eliminates the “±”
FIGURE 3.44 The slope of the curve ambiguity:
y = arcsec x is positive for both x < −1
and x > 1. d 1
( arcsec x ) = , x > 1.
dx x x2 − 1

If u is a differentiable function of x with u > 1, we have the formula

d 1 du
( arcsec u ) = , u > 1.
dx u u 2 − 1 dx
EXAMPLE 4 Using the Chain Rule and derivative of the arcsecant function, we find
d 1 d
arcsec(5 x 4 ) = (5 x 4 )
dx 5x 4 (5 x 4 ) 2 − 1 dx
1
= (20 x 3 ) 5x 4 > 1
5 x 4 25 x 8 − 1
4
= .
x 25 x 8 − 1
204 Chapter 3 Derivatives

Derivatives of the Other Three Inverse Trigonometric Functions

We could use the same techniques to find the derivatives of the other three inverse trigono-
metric functions—arccosine, arccotangent, and arccosecant—but there is an easier way,
thanks to the following identities.

Inverse Function–Inverse Cofunction Identities

arccos x = Q 2 − arcsin x
arccot x = Q 2 − arctan x
arccsc x = Q 2 − arcsec x

We saw the first of these identities in Equation (5) of Section 1.5. The others are
derived in a similar way. It follows easily that the derivatives of the inverse cofunctions
are the negatives of the derivatives of the corresponding inverse functions. For example,
the derivative of arccos x is calculated as follows:
d
dx
( arccos x ) =
d Q
dx 2
(
− arcsin x ) Identity

d
= − ( arcsin x )
dx
1
=− . Derivative of arcsine
1 − x2
The derivatives of the inverse trigonometric functions are summarized in Table 3.1.

TABLE 3.1 Derivatives of the inverse trigonometric functions

d 1 d 1
1. ( arcsin x ) = ( x < 1) 4. ( arccos x ) = − ( x < 1)
dx 1 − x2 dx 1 − x2
d 1 d 1
2. ( arctan x ) = 5. ( arccot x ) = −
dx 1 + x2 dx 1 + x2
d 1 d 1
3. ( arcsec x ) = ( x > 1) 6. ( arccsc x ) = − ( x > 1)
dx x x2 − 1 dx x x2 − 1

EXERCISES 3.9

Remember that arcsin and sin 1 represent the same function, and simi-
larly for the other trigonometric functions.
7. a. sec −1 (− 2 ) b. arcsec ( 23 ) c. arcsec (−2 )

Common Values 8. a. arccot (−1) b. arccot ( 3 ) c. cot −1 ( −31 )

Use reference triangles in an appropriate quadrant, as in Example 1, to
find the angles in Exercises 1–8. Evaluations
1. a. arctan 1 b. arctan (− 3 ) c. tan −1 ( )
1
3
Find the values in Exercises 9–12.
⎛ ⎛ 2 ⎞⎟⎞⎟
2. a. arctan (−1) b. tan 1 3 c. arctan
−
( )
1 9. sin ⎜⎜ cos −1 ⎜⎜
⎝ ⎝ 2 ⎟⎟⎠⎟⎟⎠ (
10. sec arccos
1
2
)
3
⎛ −1 ⎛ 3 ⎞⎞
( )
−1
( )1 ⎛ − 3 ⎞⎟
c. sin −1 ⎜⎜ (
11. tan arcsin − ( )) 1
12. cot ⎜⎜ sin ⎜⎜− ⎟⎟⎟⎟⎟⎟
⎝ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎠
⎝ 2 ⎟⎟⎠
3. a. arcsin b. arcsin 2
2 2
b. arcsin ( ) ⎛ 3 ⎞⎟
4. a. sin −1 ( 12 ) −1
2
c. arcsin ⎜⎜
⎝ 2 ⎟⎟⎠
Limits
Find the limits in Exercises 13–20. (If in doubt, look at the function’s

b. cos ( ) ⎛ 3 ⎞⎟
( )
1 −1 graph.)
−1 c. arccos ⎜⎜
⎝ 2 ⎟⎟⎠
5. a. arccos
2 2 13. lim− arcsin x 14. lim+ cos −1 x
x →1 x →−1
b. arccsc ( )
−2
6. a. csc 1 2 c. arccsc 2 15. lim tan −1 x 16. lim arctan x
3 x →∞ x →−∞